INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE - 1

Lesson 3: Recognition of Hazards

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 Objectives of the Lecture

At the end of this lecture, you will:

• Know the definition of hazard
• Recognize the types of hazards
• Learn the effects of different type hazards

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 Definition

Industrial Hygiene – the science of protecting the health and

safety of workers through:
• Anticipation,
• Recognition,
• Evaluation and
• Control
…of workplace conditions that
may cause workers’ injury or illness.

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 What is hazard?

• Hazard is a condition, object or activity with the

potential of causing:
– injuries to personnel,
– damage to equipment or structures,
– loss of or reduction of ability to perform a
prescribed function.

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 Categories of Health Hazards

Hazards can be classified into five groups:

Physical hazards
Chemical hazards
Biological hazards
Ergonomic hazards
Psychosocial hazards

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Categories of Health Hazards
Chemical Physical

Biological Ergonomic

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PHYSICAL HAZARDS

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 Physical Hazards

A physical hazard is an agent, factor or circumstance

that can cause harm with or without contact. Physical
hazards include:
• Heat and cold stress
• Illumination
• Vibration
• Noise
• Pressure
• Ionizing radiation
• Radon daughter exposure
• Electromagnetic field
• Solar ultraviolet exposures
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 Physical Hazards

HEAT AND COLD STRESS THERMAL

COMFORT

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 Effects of Heat

• The effect of heat on human being should be

considered together with:
– relative humidity,
– air velocity, and
– barometric pressure.
• Any discomfort about the work:
– Decreases efficiency
– Cause carelessness
– Inattentiveness which leads to accidents, injury,
fatality, or occupational disease.

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 Effect of Temperature on Work and Rest

Slow but steady increase in the time taken to load mine cars as the effective temperature
increases from 66 °F to 82 °F (17 °C to 28 °C). Time taken for resting also increased, but
more markedly at temperatures higher than 75 °F (24 °C).

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 Effect of Temperature on Performance

°C

As temperature increases above 30 °C, the rate of performance decreases.

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 Metabolic Heat Balance
At equilibrium: Metabolic Heat Generation (MHG)= Heat Loss to Surrounding

If equilibrium is not achieved, either of the following will occur:

MHG < Heat Loss (Heating)
• Heart rate decreases
• Capillary blood vessels contract
• Involuntary muscular action
(shievering)
• Body cure temperature decreases
(with excessive heat loss)
• Possible collapse (hypotherma) (if
it continues).
MHG > Heat Loss (Cooling)
• Frequent rest required
• Body regulatory mechanism adjusts to give
higher skin temperature and evaporative
cooling by sweating increases
• Suffering progressively from heat strain
(psychological lethargy-lack of care, headache,
sickness, nausea, coma and death)
• Heart rate increases, mild increase in blood
flow to the skin, increase in rate of sweating
• Circulatory instability, considerably discomfort,
loss of working efficiency,
• Body gains heat, possible heat stroke and
collapse.

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 Thermal Comfort Temperatures
Type of Work Thermal Comfort (°C)
Work done while sitting 19 °C
Work done at standing 17 °C
Work requires active body motion 12 °C
Offices 20 °C
Laboratories 18 °C
Shopping malls 19 °C
Mental work done while sitting 21-23 °C
Light duty work while sitting 19 °C
Light duty work while standing 18 °C
Heavy duty work while standing 17 °C
Heavy duty work 15-16 °C

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 Physical Hazards

ILLUMINATION

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 Illumination

• Illumination: Lighting of the surfaces or objects in order to

make objects visible. At normal levels of illumination, the
ability to see increases as the log of the illumination.
• Visibility: Refers to how well the human eye can see
something.
• Luminance: The amount of light per unit area reflected from or
emitted by a surface. For most purposes, this is the important
measurement, because a portion of this light usually enters
the eye and is influenced by contrast, adaptation, and other
factors besides the physical energy in the stimulus.

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 Illumination
• Contrast is a measure of luminance difference, usually between
that of the luminance of the object of interest and the
luminance of the background against which the object is seen.
It is computed by following formula:

• Contrast can vary:

• from 100% (positive) to 0 for objects darker than their
backgrounds, and
• from zero to infinity (negative) for targets brighter than their
backgrounds.

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 Illumination

• As the shading of the block on the right

becomes lighter and the contrast between
the blocks becomes greater, the visibility of
the vertical border between them increases.
• The human eyes sensitivity to contrast is
affected by the level of illumination.
• If the illustration is viewed in a dimly lit room,
the point where it is possible to distinguish
the border would be farther down the figure.
• Stated another way, the less light there is, the
higher the contrast necessary between
objects to distinguish them.

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 Good illumination is required for

• Early recognition of conditions that might give pre-warning of

potential safety hazards in the peripheral field and performance
of tasks that require knowledge of the relative spatial
relationships among objects separated by significant distance.
• Eliminating the tunnel vision effect of the narrow cap lamp
beam
• Overcomes shadowing by machine or roof support structures.
• Providing safe working conditions in and on all surface
structures, walkways, stairways, switch panel, loading and
dumping sites and working areas.

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 Illumination
Required Standards

• A uniform illumination of work surfaces,

• Absence of fluctuations and abrupt changes of illumination,
• Minimizing or eliminating of any usual discomfort,
• Elimination of any undesirable glare from illuminated surfaces in
the direction of the eye,
• Illumination that satisfies requirements of both health and
economics is called rational,

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Physical Hazards

NOISE

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 Sound vs. Noise
• Sound is a form of energy carried by waves through
an elastic medium. The intensity of sound depends on
the amplitude of its constituent waves. The greater
the amplitude the greater will be sound pressure
transmitted.
• Noise is an unwanted sound.

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 Sound vs Noise

Sound is a change in pressure in a medium, typically air, that can be

detected by the ear.

The word noise is often used to mean unpleasant sound that the
listener does not want to hear.
Sound creates vibration and the vibrations lead to sound. It is a coupled
phenomena. The disturbance of the eardrum is translated into a neural
sensation in the inner ear and is carried to the brain, where it is interpreted
as sound. The physical quality of the eardrum and its vibratory response
affect the level of hearing.

‘www.utpb.edu docs’ and ‘Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, Plog & Quinlan, 5th Edition’

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 Transmission of sound in ear

In the human ear, a sound wave is

transmitted through four separate
mediums along the auditory
system before a sound is
perceived:

- in the outer ear—air,

- in the middle ear— mechanical,
- in the inner ear liquid and
- to the brain—neural. Middle Inner
Outer ear ear ear

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 Definitions

• Amplitude: is a measure of the energy content of the

wave motion.
• Frequency: the number of wave passing a point per
second.
• Hertz: the unit of cycles per second is called the hertz
(Hz).
• Speed: frequency x wavelength
– 344 m/s in air
– 1410 m/s in water
– 5000 m/s in rock
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 Noise
• Human can hear between:
0-20,000 Hz frequencies

• Human ears are the most sensitive to:

1,000-4,000 Hz frequencies

Most
sensitive
1 - 4 kHz

Infrasound 20 Hz 20 kHz Ultrasound

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 Health Effects of Noise
• Psychological Impacts
– Frustation, anger, change in behaviour pattern
• Physical Impacts
– Permanent or temporary hearing loss called
presbycusis
• Physiological Impacts
– Blood pressure change, circulation change, breathing
increase, pulse increase
• Impacts on Performance
– Concentration loss, performance decrease, startle
reaction
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 Health Effects of Noise

Extent of the damage depends on:

• the susceptibility of the
individual,
• the amount by which the noise
exceeds the damage risk level,
• the length of exposure and
whether the noise is steady or
intermittent (pneumatic
hammer).

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 Sound Pressure vs. Sound Pressure Level

SOUND PRESSURE (Pa) SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL (dB)

• Is the local pressure • Or acoustic pressure level is a

deviation from the average logarithmic measure of the
ambient atmospheric effective sound pressure of a
pressure, caused by a sound sound relative to a reference
value.
wave.
• Sound pressure level
• Can be measured using a instruments measure the wave
microphone (in air), and a pressure in units of decibels
hydrophone (in water). (dB).

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 Decibel

• DECIBEL is defined as ten times the log to the base 10 of

the ratio between two quantities of power.

Sound Pressure #
Sound Pressure Level = 10 log!" #
Reference Pressure

Reference pressure is the lowest sound

pressure that human can hear and it
equals to 2x10-5 N/m2.

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 Example

• What is the Sound Pressure Level if the sound

pressure at 3 m distance from noise source is
0.2 N/m2?

Sound Pressure 6
Sound Pressure Level = 10 log12 6
Reference Pressure

2×1051 6
Sound Pressure Level = 10 log12 = 10 log 108 = 80 dB
2×1057 6

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Physical Hazards
‘Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene,
Plog & Quinlan, 5th Edition’

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Sound Pressure Level of Some Sources

Sound Pressure Sound Pressure

Source of Sound Description
(Pa) Level (dB)

2x10-5 0 Normal hearing level Reference

2x10-4 20 Broadcast studio Very little sound

6.3x10-3 50 Low sound -

6.3x10-2 70 Talking radio sound Noisy

2x10-1 80 Intensive traffic Noisy

2.0 100 Drilling, Lathe Very Noisy

6.3 110 Rock drilling Very Noisy

63.0 130 Jet engine Unbearable

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 Treshold Limit Values

According to the Regulation on Protecting Workers

from Noise-related Risks, enacted on 28.07.2013:
• Limiting exposure level is 87 dB.
• Maximum allowable effective exposure level is 85 dB.
• Minimum allowable effective exposure level is 80 dB.

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Permissible Noise Levels

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Physical Hazards

VIBRATION

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 Vibration
• Vibration is mechanical oscillation of elastic bodies or a
system capable of vibration.
• An oscillation is one complete cycle of vibration.
• The time of one oscillation is called the period, and its inverse
is frequency (c/s).
• Vibration is characterized by three parameters:
i. amplitude of displacement,
ii. oscillary velocity,
iii. acceleration.
To characterize vibration for a given time interval "The root-
mean-square value" of parameters i and ii is considered.

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 Vibration Types
According to the resistance:
• Natural oscillation: no resistance to the motion, free oscillation,
• Damp oscillation: there is a resistance to the motion,
• Forced oscillation: resonance, there is external force to the
motion.
According to the frequency:
• Low Frequency Vibration: 1-6 c/s
– Can be seen in ships and vehicles and may have an amplitude about 10-
90 cm and cause motion sickness.
• Medium Frequency Vibration: 6- 60 c/s,
• High Frequency Vibration: > 60 c/s.

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 Health Effects of Vibration
• The effect of vibration on human body varies depending on
whether the whole body (general vibration) or part (local
vibration) of it is involved.
• General vibration from the jolting of the floor or operating
platform or the operator's seat affects the whole body.
• Local vibration from the operation of hand tools, drills etc. affects
mostly the hands of the operator.
• It may:
– Interrupt blood supply to the blood vessels in the hands and arms
– Cause loss of sensitivity of the skin and lead to deformation and articular
immobilization.
– Osteoarticular changes
– Spasms
– Low back pain
– Spinal damage
– Vibration white finger.
– Loss of concentration which can cause secondary accidents
– Vibration sickness
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 Vibration Sickness
• Occupational disease caused by prolonged effect on the body of a
local or general vibration or both.
• Develops gradually and for a long time does not effect the ability to
work.
• Main indications are pain, weakness, increased sensitivity to chilling,
cramps and whitening of the fingers, decrease in skin sensitivity.
• Functional disorders of the nervous system as rapid fatigue,
headaches and dizziness is seen.
• If it progresses, disruption of the cardiovascular activity and of
internal secretion, disturbance of metabolic processes and so on are
unavoidable.
• Vibration may have the effect of producing a displacement of the
internal organs of the body and under extreme conditions damage
may occur.

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Potential Health Effects of Vibration

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CHEMICAL HAZARDS

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 Chemical Hazards
A chemical hazard is caused by exposure to chemicals in
the workplace. Exposure to chemicals in the workplace
can cause acute or long-term detrimental health effects.
• Toxic gases
• Crystalline silica
• Diesel particulate matters
• Acids
• Solvents
• Pesticides
• Insecticides
• Sensitizers
• Flammable materials
• Asthmagens
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 Forms of Chemical Hazards

• Solids
• Liquids
• Gases and vapors
• Aerosols - dust, mist, fumes

Multiple chemical Welding fumes Dust particulates Spraying mist

hazards

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 Effect of Chemical Exposures
Health Risks
Heart Ailments Lung Damage Sterility
Central nervous system
Kidney Damage Burns
Damage
Cancer Liver Damage Rashes

Safety Risks
Fire Explosion Corrosion

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 Exposure Entry Routes

Breathed in
Inhalation
(most common route)

Swallowing via eating or

Ingestion
drinking

Drawn through skin or eye

Absorption
surface

Injection Penetration through the skin

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 Warning Signs of Potential
Chemical Exposure

• Dust, mist, smoke in the air

• Accumulation of particulates (dust) on surfaces

• Unusual tastes and/or smells

• Eye, nose, throat, upper respiratory, and/or skin

irritation

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Examples of Chemical Exposure Symptoms

• Eye, nose, throat, upper respiratory, skin irritation

• Flu-like symptoms
• Difficulty breathing
• Fatigue
• Loss of coordination
• Memory difficulties
• Sleeplessness
• Mental confusion

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 Types of Health Effects

Exposure Condition Exposure Example

Short-term, high H2S exposure within a
ACUTE Immediate
concentration confined space
Delayed; generally for Continuous; for long
CHRONIC Asbestosis
years periods of time

Acute Chronic

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 Toxicology

What is toxicology?
• The science that studies the poisonous or toxic
properties of substances.

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 Toxic Effects
Dose
1. Concentration – amount
2. Duration of Exposure – time

Effective Doses (EDs) are used to indicate the effectiveness of a substance. Normally,
effective dose refers to a beneficial effect such as relief of pain. It may also stand for a
harmful effect such as paralysis. Thus, the specific endpoint must be indicated.
Toxic Doses (TDs) are used to indicate doses that cause adverse toxic effects.
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 Toxic Effects

• Toxic chemicals disrupt the normal functions of the body. Effects

can be:
– Local - at the site of exposure
– Systemic
• Affects the entire body
• Target organs - organs or systems where symptoms of
exposure appear

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 Local Effects

Local (direct) effects:

• Irritation (dryness, redness, cracking) - fiberglass
• Corrosion (chemical burn) - acid
• Upper Respiratory Track Infection – inhaling particles

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 Systemic Effects

Group Affected organ Chemicals

Hepatotoxins Liver Carbon tetrachloride, nitrosamines
Nephrotoxins Kidney Uranium, halogenated hydrocarbons
Neurotoxins Nervous system Mercury, lead, carbon disulfide
Hematotoxins Blood system Carbon monoxide, cyanides
Anesthetics Nervous system Hydrocarbons, propane, isopropyl ethers

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 Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL)

– Local and international regulations that establish the

acceptable amount or concentration of a substance in the
workplace
– Intended to protect workers from adverse health effects
related to hazardous chemical exposure

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 Types of Exposure Limits
TWA = Time - Weighted Average 14

12
PEL
10

Exposure in PPM
Levels vary over the shift duration 8

Protect from chronic diseases 2

0
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
ÖÖ ÖÖ ÖÖ ÖÖ ÖS ÖS ÖS ÖS ÖS
Time

“C” = ceiling limit:

Level never to be exceeded during 60

Ceiling

the work shift 50

40
Exposure

Protect from acute disease or

30

health effects
20

PEL
10

0
Time

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BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS

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 Biological Hazards
• Also known as biohazards refer to biological
substances that pose a threat to the health of
living organisms, primarily humans.
• Biological hazards include:
– Bacteria
– Viruses
– Fungi
– Moulds
– Pollen
– Protozoa
– Vertebrates
– Parazites
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 Biological Hazards
Contaminated
Insects Animals Soil

Bloodborne
Poisonous Plants Water/Sewage Pathogens

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 Ways of Exposure to Biological Hazards

• Ingestion (contaminated fingers)

• Injection (use of sharps)

• Inhalation (gases, powders, aerosols)

• Skin contact (organisms, neurotoxins)

• Absorption through the skin (various chemicals)

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 Biological Agents

Biological agents (bacteria, viruses, fungi, prions) are

classified into four Hazard Groups. Classification is based
on whether:
• the agent is pathogenic to humans
• the agent is a hazard to employees
• the agent is transmissible to the community
• there is effective prophylaxis or treatment available

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 Group 1
Unlikely to cause human disease. e.g. Tissues and cell
lines of non primate/non human origin.
Human/primate cell lines that are long established and
have long history of safe use [e.g. HeLa cells]
Disabled/attenuated/non-pathogenic strains of some
bacteria and virus.
Does not usually require health assessment or health
surveillance unless there is a specific risk or it is required
by the Government Institution enforcing the Control of
Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations
2002.
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 Group 2
A biological agent that can cause human disease and
may be a hazard to employees;

It is unlikely to spread to the community and there is

usually effective prophylaxis or effective treatment
available;

Does not usually require health assessment or health

surveillance unless there is a specific risk (e.g. pregnant
workers).

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 Group 3
Can cause severe human disease and may be a serious
hazard to employees;
It may spread to the community, but there is usually
effective prophylaxis or treatment available.

HIV, Hepatitis B, E. coli 0157, Salmonella typhi. All work

with hazard group 3 biological agents or class 3
genetically modified organisms requires health
surveillance.

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 Group 4

Causes severe human disease and may be a serious

hazard to employees; it is likely to spread to the
community, and there is no effective prophylaxis or
treatment available. e.g. Rabies, Ebola Virus.

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ERGONOMIC HAZARDS

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 Ergonomic Hazards
• An ergonomic hazard is a physical factor within
the environment that harms the
musculoskeletal system.
• Ergonomic hazards include themes such as:
– repetitive movement
– manual handling
– workplace/job/task design
– uncomfortable workstation height
– poor body positioning

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Examples

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 Effects of Exposure to Ergonomic Hazards

• Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs)

– Exposure to ergonomic risk factors for MSDs increases a worker's
risk of injury
• Repetition
• High force
• Awkward postures
– Work-related MSDs are among the
most frequently reported causes
of lost or restricted work time.

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PSYCHOSOCIAL HAZARDS

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 Psychosocial Hazards

• Drug and alcohol use

• Fly-in-fly-out operations
• Expatriate placements
• Post-traumatic stress
disorders
• Feeling guilty and
personally responsible
due to fatal accidents

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 Try to Identify the Type of Hazards

Source: https://www.combinedworkplacesafetyconsulting.ca/hazard-identification-and-control.html

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 Try to Identify the Type of Hazards

Physical hazard:
work at height

Physical hazard:
noise, UV
exposure, chip Physical hazard:
splashing pressure, vibration,
noise

Physical hazard:
splashing of metal Bad housekeeping
chips, noise

Ergonomic hazard:
manual handling Chemical hazard: chemical
exposure and
Physical hazard:
slipping

Source: https://www.combinedworkplacesafetyconsulting.ca/hazard-identification-and-control.html

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