IM514E - 03 - Polymer Processing-A

Polymers, Ceramics &
Composites
IM 514 E
Dr Yehia M. Youssef
Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 1

Polymer Processing
• As mentioned earlier, for many polymers Newtonian
behaviour is not a good approximation and the equation
below will give poor predictions of process performance.
 dv  •
 =   = 
 dy 
• For example: PVC, PE (LD &HD), and PP have viscosities
that decrease markedly with increasing strain (this behavior
we called pseudoplastic).
• Their viscosity as a function of strain rate can be expressed
as:
 = A
1− n
where A is the consistency index and

n is the power law index for the polymer melt
Polymer Processing
• The viscosity  of polymers (a measure of the resistance of
their molecules in sliding against each other) depends on
temperature and on the polymer’s structure, molecular
weight and pressure.
• The effect of temperature can be represented by:
E
 = 0 e kT
where 0 is a material constant,

E is the activation energy (the energy required to
initiate a reaction),
k is the Boltzmann’s constant (the thermal energy
constant = 13.8 x 1024 J/K), and
T is the absolute temperature (in K)
Polymer Melt Rheology
• Based on experimental observations that, at the glass
transition temperature, Tg, polymers have a viscosity  of
about 1012 Pa.s, an empirical relationship was derived for
linear thermoplastics.
17.5DT
log = 12 −
52 + DT
In this equation, DT = T-Tg (in K)
• Thus we can estimate the viscosity of a polymer at any
temperature.
• Example 10.2 from Kalpakjian

Polymer Processing – Extrusion Moulding
Extrusion Moulding:
• The main process used to form plastics. A heated
plastic compound is forced continuously through a
forming die made in the desired shape (like squeezing
toothpaste from a tube, it produces a long, usually
narrow, continuous product). The formed plastic cools
under blown air or in a water bath and hardens on a
moving belt.
• In many extrusion processes, the hot polymer can be

formed further after leaving the die by stretching,
post-forming, or spinning before it cools down. Rods,
tubes, pipes, and sheets and thin films (such as food
wraps) are extruded then coiled or cut to desired
lengths.
Polymer Processing
• Plastic fibers also are made by an extrusion process.
Liquid resin is squeezed through thousands of tiny
holes called spinnerets to produce the fine threads
from which plastic fabrics are woven.
• There are many factors that control the quality of the

extruded products. In the extruder, the most important
component is the extruder itself, which is divided into
the feeder section, the transition section where
melting takes place, and the metering section where
the product is pushed at a uniform rate and pressure
through the die. The die configuration and thus the
screw configuration can vary greatly.

Polymer Processing
• A special version of the extrusion process is blown-
film extrusion, which is used to produce low-cost films
and thin-film containers.
• In blown-film extrusion, extrudate is forced around a

mandrel and through a die. The thin, tubular film is
enlarged by blowing air through the mandrel orifice to
expand the molten film.
• When the blown film is expanded to the desired wall

thickness, it is cooled by air from a water-cooled ring
around the die.

Polymer Processing
• The extruder screw has several important functions to
perform such as (1) conveying the resin through the
extruder, (2) imparting mechanical energy as part of
the melting process, (3) mixing ingredients together,
and (4) building pressure in the extruder so that the
resin will be pushed through the die. Screw design is
the subject of much study to maximize the
performance of the screw in accomplishing these
functions.
• An important parameter associated with the screw is

the ratio of the length of the flighted portion of the
screw to the inside diameter of the barrel or the
outside diameter of the screw flights. This ratio is
called the L/D (length/diameter) of the screw.
Polymer Processing
• The L/D is a measure of the capability of the screw to
mix the materials and the ability of the screw to melt
certain hard to melt materials.
• The L/D is also a measure of the amount of energy

needed to run the extruder. High L/D ratios indicate
good mixing and good melting capabilities but also
high energy requirements. Typical L/D ratios are 16:1
to 32:1, with a tendency in newer machines toward
higher ratios. Elastomers, such as thermoset rubbers
would have smaller L/D ratios.

Polymer Processing
• The most common pitch angle is 17.5°, and is usually
constant over the entire length of the screw. The width
of each flight is 1/10 the distance between the flights.
• The die is the shaping tool that is mounted on the end

of the extruder, usually onto a ring called the adapter.
The purpose of the die is to give shape to the melt so
that after leaving the die the melt can be cooled and
frozen into the shape created in the die.

Polymer Processing
• The shapes of dies are varied as the shapes of the
parts that are made. In all dies, the flow pattern inside
the die is extremely important.
• The flow should be streamlined with no opportunities

for stagnation, which could cause the material to sit for
long periods and degrade. Streamlined flow is less
likely to cause shear stresses in the melt that may
cause unwanted deformations and defects in the part.
• The exit orifice of the die is usually preceded by a

short section where the walls are parallel. This section
is called the land. The purpose is to build a uniform
pressure in the melt so that the material is stabilized
and flows evenly before exiting the die.

Polymer Processing
• The die land is usually the zone of maximum pressure
in the entire extruder and can have a strong influence
on the back pressure on the screw.
• If the land is too long, excessive back pressure could

reduce the extruder output and cause internal wear
on the thrust bearing and other extruder parts.
• On the other hand, if the land is too short the resin

flow can be erratic and the part will be less uniform.

Polymer Processing
• Dies are made of stainless steel, and possibly tool
steels such as P20 and H13. The dies and the die
faces can be chrome plated to give additional wear
resistance when the resin may decompose to form
corrosive by-products, such as PVC decomposing to
give HCl.
• The dies can be also coated with tungsten nitride to

give a harder surface that will withstand the
abrasiveness of resins containing fiber glass or some
other brittle reinforcements or fillers.

Polymer Processing
Injection Moulding:
• It is the second most widely used process to form
plastics. The plastic compound, heated to a semi-fluid
state, is squirted into a mould under great pressure
and hardens quickly.
• The mould then opens and the part is released. This

process can be repeated as many times as necessary
and is particularly suited to mass production methods.
• Injection moulding is used for a wide variety of plastic

products, from small cups and toys to large objects
weighing 30 pounds or more.
• The process is similar to metal die casting in many

respects and is used to produce a variety of items
from toothbrush handles to automobile bumpers.
Polymer Processing
• Mould design requires feeding gates and runners that
are removed, reground, and recycled, so the process is
extremely efficient.
• All thermoplastic polymers (except those with high
viscosity such as fluoroplastics, polyimides, and some
aromatic polyesters) can be injection moulded in
addition to many thermosetting polymers too.
• Advantages of injection moulding are high production
rates, ability to inject around inserts, little or no finishing
requirements, and recycling capability.

Polymer Processing – Blow Moulding
Blow Moulding:
• Pressure is used to form hollow objects, such as the
soda pop bottle or two-gallon milk bottle, in a direct or
indirect method.
• In the direct blow-moulding method, a partially

shaped, heated plastic form is inserted into a mold.
Air is blown into the form, forcing it to expand to the
shape of the mold.
• In the indirect method, a plastic sheet or special

shape is heated then clamped between a die and a
cover. Air is forced between the plastic and the cover
and presses the material into the shape of the die.

Polymer Processing
• Blow moulding is used to shape thermoplastic
materials that have high hot strength combined with
good stretch characteristics.
• Blow-moulded products such as barrels, jars, milk
bottles, and many others are commonly made from
LDPE, PP, PVC, PC and PS.

Polymer and Polymer Composites
Processing

Polymer Processing – Extrusion
A typical extrusion line showing the major equipment.

Polymer Processing – Injection Moulding
Injection Moulding Machine

• Injection Molding: uses
reciprocating screw
mechanism.
• More uniform delivery
of melt for injection.
• High quality
• Low labor cost,
but high initial cost.

Polymer Processing
• Extrusion: Melted plastic forced by a rotating
screw through a opening and used to produce
pipes, rods etc.
• Blow molding: Compressed air is blown into

heated cylinder or pipe of plastic to press it
against the wall of mold.
• Thermoforming: Heated plastic sheet is forced
into contours of a mold by pressure.
Polymer Processing – Compression Moulding
• Compression molding: Pressure is applied
on heated plastic by upper mold and the
molten plastic fills the cavities.
➢ Low initial cost, simple.
➢ Less wear and abrasion
of moulds.
➢ Difficult to mould complex
parts
➢ Creates flash (spills).

Injection Molding Machine showing three major functional

units; (injection molding and clamp along with major
components of each unit).
Polymer Processing
Head Zone and Typical Die

Blow Moulding
(a) the blow-molding process for making plastic beverage bottles and
(b) a three-station injection-blow-molding machine.
Blow Moulding Station

Rotational Moulding
The rotational molding (rotomolding or rotocasting) process. Trash

cans, buckets, carousel horses and plastic footballs can be made by
this process.
Thermoforming
Various thermoforming processes for thermoplastic sheet. These

processes are commonly used in making advertising signs, cookie
and candy trays, panels for shower stalls, and packaging.

Compression Moulding

Types of compression molding, a process similar to forging:
(a) positive, (b) semi-positive, and (c) flash.
The flash in part (c) is trimmed off. (d) Die design for making a
compression-molded part with undercuts.
Such designs also are used in other moulding and shaping
operations.

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Polymers, Ceramics &

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 1

where A is the consistency index and

where 0 is a material constant,

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 4

• In many extrusion processes, the hot polymer can be

• There are many factors that control the quality of the

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 6

• In blown-film extrusion, extrudate is forced around a

• When the blown film is expanded to the desired wall

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 7

• An important parameter associated with the screw is

• The L/D is also a measure of the amount of energy

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 9

• The die is the shaping tool that is mounted on the end

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 10

• The flow should be streamlined with no opportunities

• The exit orifice of the die is usually preceded by a

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 11

• If the land is too long, excessive back pressure could

• On the other hand, if the land is too short the resin

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 12

• The dies can be also coated with tungsten nitride to

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 13

• The mould then opens and the part is released. This

• Injection moulding is used for a wide variety of plastic

• The process is similar to metal die casting in many

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 15

• In the direct blow-moulding method, a partially

• In the indirect method, a plastic sheet or special

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 16

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 17

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 18

A typical extrusion line showing the major equipment.

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 19

Injection Moulding Machine

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 20

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 21

• Blow molding: Compressed air is blown into

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 23

Injection Molding Machine showing three major functional

Head Zone and Typical Die

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 25

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 27

The rotational molding (rotomolding or rotocasting) process. Trash

Various thermoforming processes for thermoplastic sheet. These

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 29

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 30

Copyright © YM Youssef, 20-Mar-22 Polymers, Ceramics & Composites 31

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