INTRODUCTION

The family Combretaceae consist of 20 genera and 600 species (Willis,

1966; Airy Shaw, 1973; Rao & Ramayya, 1984; Gangopadhyay & Chakrabarty,
1997 & Daniel, 2009). All the species of Combretaceae are woody, varying from
tall timber trees to lianas to short shrubs and sub-shrubs in Savannah. The largest
genera are Combretum Loefl. and Terminalia L. with 250 and 150 tropical species
respectively (Gamble, 1972; Mabberley, 1997; Tilney, 2004; Shu, 2007 &
Wheeler & al., 2007). In India the family is represented mostly by Terminalia,
Combretum, Quisqualis and Anogeissus etc. (Kubitzki, 2007).

The generic name Terminalia L. is conserved against Adamaram Adanson

(Gangopadhyay & Chakrabarty, 1997 & Mcneill, 2005) and its synonyms were
Badamia Gaertner, Buceras P. Browne and Bucida Linnaeus. Some names
conserved according to Nomina Conservanda are Myrobalanus Gaertner;
Pentaptera Roxburgh (Shu, 2007).

Terminalia L. is one of the most important and large genus of the family
Combretaceae comprising about 200 species, enjoys an extensive geographical
distribution, essentially throughout the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the
world (Lamb & Ntima, 1971; Whitemore, 1972; Lawrence, 1973; Wickens, 1973;
Kumar, 1988; Shrivastav & al., 1996; Tan & al., 2002 Stace, 2002; Sambamurty,
2005 & Deshmukh & al., 2009). Ramanujam in 1972 and Gupta in 2005 stated
that, 250 species of Terminalia are distributed in the World. The number of
Terminalia species may be about 150, but because of their synonyms their number
increases up to 250. C.B. Clarke (1878) recorded 12 species of the genus from
British India. After Clarke, the first detailed account of the genus was given by
Blatter (1929), who reported 20 species of Terminalia L. from the Indian region,
but Gangopadhyay and Chakrabarty (1997) reported only 13 species of Terminalia

1
L. from India in their revision of family Combretaceae of Indian sub-continent, of
which three are endemic to different regions, T. pallida which is globally
endangered found only in Tirumala hills of Seshachalam range, Tirupati, Andhra
Pradesh, falling under Eastern Ghats (Chadha, 1976; Chetty & Rao, 1989;
Ahmedullah & Nayar, 1986; Reddy & Reddy, 2008; Shaikh, 2008; Palani & al.,
2009; Reddy & al., 2009; Neelima & al., 2011; Rao & al., 2011 & Raviprasad,
2011), T. paniculata to Peninsular India (Sankar, 2003), whereas T. vermae to
Nicobar Islands only (Gangopadhyay & Chakrabarty, 1992 & Gupta & Singh,
2005).

The generic name is derived from Greek and Latin word “terminus”
referring to the leaves crowded at the end of the branches intermixed with spikes
of flowers (Bose & Chowdhury, 1991). Species of Terminalia vary greatly in
morphology, anatomy and karyotype evidences (Excell, 1954; Stace, 1965; Ohri,
1996). Terminalia species with horizontal branching pattern ‘Terminalia
branching’ pattern are called ‘Pagoda Trees’. The largest trees up to 50 m tall are
found in genera Terminalia. Buttresses are present in several species. Many
species bear foliar domatia, small pockets or ball shaped pits in the axil of the
main lateral leaf-vein on the lower lateral leaf surface (Kubitzki & al., 2007). A
pair of sessile secretary gland is present in many species of Terminalia
(Ramkrishna, 1981). Barks of certain Terminalia species have been found to be
rich in tannin and also have natural deposits of calcium oxalate (Stone &
Boonkird, 1963 & Bhatia & Ayyar, 1980). The flowers of Terminalia are
remarkably uniform throughout the genus and scarcely ever provide any
taxonomically useful characters and great reliance, therefore, be placed on leaf,
bark and fruit characters for identification of taxa (Wickens, 1973 & Fyhrquist,
2007).

Some Terminalia species are Mangrove-associates, ie. T. bellirica, T.

bialata and T. catappa (Janssonius, 1950). T. cuneata is not one of this but

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sometimes produces erect pneumatophore-like aerial roots when root system is
submerged (Adamson, 1910). Only two fruit types- drupe and samara are
characteristic for genus Terminalia (Biswas & Kukreti, 1992).

Generic Description:

Trees often very tall and buttressed, variously pubescent or glabrous but
never lepidote, branchlets slender or stout, often with prominent leaf-scars. Leaves
alternate to opposite, sometimes crowded towards the apices of branchlets and
pseudoverticillate; petioles of various shapes; leaves mostly elliptic to oblong or
ovate or obovate, entire or sometimes crenulate or serrate at margins, unicostate,
mostly coriaceous, lateral nerves straight to arcuate, usually branching near
margins and forming loops with the superadjascents or sometimes vanishing near
margins, tertiary nerves obscure to prominent, scalariform or reticulate. Petioles
often sulcate above, sometimes elongate. Glands sometimes present, usually in
pairs at or near the junction of petiole and lamina, occasionally on midrib beneath
towards base, mostly circular and sessile, sometimes clavate and stipitate.
Inflorescence- axillary, sometimes terminal, simple or paniculate, the upper
flowers sometimes unisexual with abortive ovary and the calyx tube then
simulating pedicels, bracteoles linear to subulate, small, deciduous. Flowers-
bisexual, 5-merous, sessile or occasionally the pedicels developing at fruiting
stage, epigynous. Calyx divided into lower tube and an expanded portion bearing
deltoid or triangular or ovate teeth. Petals absent, stamens 10 or sometimes more,
exserted, anthers versatile, disc villous, style simple, free, exserted, ovary inferior,
unilocular, ovules 2 – 4 , pendulous. Fruits samaras or drupes, pseudocarpic,
variable, fleshy or dry and frequently 2 – 5 winged or ridged, seed solitary.

Diagnostic characteristics:

Trees, leaves alternate or sub-opposite, presence of glands and domatia,

inflorescence spikes or racemes, petals absent, fruits drupes or samara.

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Species delimitation:

Terminalia alata Roth., Terminalia crenulata Roth. and Terminalia

coriacea (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. are merged in a single species Terminalia elliptica
Willd. (Gamble, 1916) and Terminalia manii King. as a Terminalia citrina Roxb.
ex Flem. (Gangopadhyay, 1997). Gangopadhyay and Chakrabarty (1992) had
described Terminalia sharmae M. Gangop. and Chakrab. on the basis of fruiting
specimens collected by N. G. Nair (collection no. 801) from Mount Harriet
National Park in South Andaman Islands, India, as one more endemic species of
Terminalia to Andaman and Nicobar Islands. While working on Flora of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, L. Rasingam and P. G. Diwakar have reduced Terminalia
sharmae to a synonym of Elaeocarpus aristatus Roxb. (Rasingam & Diwakar, in
press).
Imperfectly known/doubtful/excluded species:
1) Terminalia bengalensis Roxb.
2) Terminalia foetidissima Griff.
3) Terminalia gella Dalz.

Out of thirteen Indian species, unfortunately the Terminalia vermae Gang.

& T. Chakrab. could not be collected from Nicobar Islands, during present study.
Therefore, twelve species were selected for present research work, which are as
follows:

1. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.

2. Terminalia bialata (Roxb.) Steud.
3. Terminalia catappa L.
4. Terminalia chebula Retz.
5. Terminalia citrina Roxb. ex Flem.
6. Terminalia cuneata Roth.

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7. Terminalia elliptica Willd.
8. Terminalia myriocarpa Van Heurck & Mull.-Arg.
9. Terminalia pallida Brandis
10. Terminalia paniculata Roth.
11. Terminalia procera Roxb.
12. Terminalia travancorensis Wight & Arn.

Medicinal Properties and Economic Importance:

Almost all the species of Terminalia are excellent medicinal plants. The
bark and fruits of some species of the genus are used medicinally since time
immemorable, particularly due to their cardio tonic and diuretic properties
(Gangopadhyay & Chakrabarty, 1997). At least seven species of the genus
Terminalia are used for the treatment of cancer in traditional medicine (Hartwell,
1982). Studies on the cytotoxic and antimutagenic as well as anti-tumor effects,
have mainly concentrated on Asian species of Terminalia (Pettit & al., 1996;
Kandil & Nassar, 1997; Cheng & al., 2002 & Kaur & al., 2002). Species of
Terminalia L. are of great commercial value because of their high timber. Fruits of
several species of Terminalia are edible and are usually rich in tannin
(Gangopadhyay & Chakrabarty., 1997), hence this genus was selected
purposefully for present work.
Likewise, bark of Terminalia bellirica is used in anemia and leucoderma.
The fruits are used in dropsy, diarrhea (Handa & al., 2006), headache, leprosy,
dyspepsia and billiousness bronchitis, sore throat, diseases of eye, nose, heart and
bladder, hoarseness and piles. Fruits are also used against asthma, constipation and
colic’s, it is good for eyesight and hair. It is mainly used as a cleansing tonic in
western medicine (Dash, 1983). Fruits used as laxative and antipyretic (Singh,
1979), Kernel is narcotic, useful in thirst, vomiting, bronchitis and corneal ulcers
(Singh, 2002). It forms an important constituent of the Ayurvedic drug ‘Triphala’
with fruits of Terminalia chebula (Joy & al., 1998; Joshi, 2000; Khare, 2007 &

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Trivedi, 2008). Bark and roots used in skin diseases (Revathi & Parimelazhagan,
2010). The powder of dried fruits is taken for indigestion, edema and fever. Seed
powder is soaked overnight in water and filtered. The filtrate is used as an eye
lotion, dyspepsia, brain tonic, and to treat hemorrhoids, throat infection and
coughs. The fruits of Terminalia bellirica, Terminalia chebula and Phyllanthus
emblica are mixed with roots of Abrus precatorius and administered with cow
milk, as an antidote to poison or for gall bladder pains (Rahmatullah & al., 2009);
used in loss of appetite, acidity, hair loss, intestinal worms (Nawaz & al., 2009).
Terminalia bellirica grown as avenue tree and used for tanning and dyeing and
largely exported, kernels largely eaten raw (Arora & Pandey, 1996), native ink
also prepared from it. In Northern India, wood usually steeped for sometime in
water in order to make it more durable when used for house building
(Sambamurty, 2005). Heart wood used for making bleachable pulp, nuts of T.
bellirica, T. catappa, T. citrina, T. cuneata yields 30-40% tannin thus used for
tanning (Randhava, 1961 and Seth, 2003). Kernels yield unedible oil used for
soap-manufacture. These plants are also used as fodder, for dyeing, resin and in
silk industry (Kumar & Bhatt, 2006).

Bark of Terminalia bialata is used as a cardiac stimulant. It contains

tannins and is used as an adulterant to cough (Khare, 2007). The wood of T.
bialata used for making cabinets, furniture and for interior fittings.

Terminalia catappa is ‘Indian Almond’ or ‘Deshi Badam’ is most popular

dry fruit, highly nutritive and best remedy for several ailments. The bark is
astringent, mild diuretic, cardio tonic and antidysenteric. Leaf is sudorific,
antirheumatic, antileprotic and anticephalagic. Fruits are used in prescriptions for
treating flatulence, constipation, diarrhea, dysentery, cyst, digestive disorders,
vomiting, enlarged liver and spleen, cough and bronchial asthma and for metabolic
harmony, also used in leprosy (Gupta & al., 2010). It is a popular medicinal plant
in Asia, and the leaves, trunk bark and fruits are used for treatment of dermatitis,

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hepatitis and fever as well as for its haemostatic effects in India, Philippines,
Malaysia and Indonesia (Lin & al., 1997). Herbal tea of the leaves is used for
treatment of liver cancer and hepatitis in Taiwan (Lin, 1992; Chen, 2000 &
Fyhrquist, 2007). The various extracts of leaves and bark of the plant have been
reported to be anti-carcinogenic, antioxidant (Masuda & al., 1999), anti-HIV
reverse transcriptase (Tan et al., 1991) and hepato-protective (Lin & al., 1997),
anti-inflammatory (Lin et al., 1999), hepatitis (Chen et al., 2000) and aphrodisiac
(Ratnasooriya and Dharmasiri, 2000).

Terminalia catappa is rich in tannins that are reported to be antidiabetic

(Teotia and Singh, 1997). The barks and fruits are used for tanning, fruits also
yield black dye (Chakrabarty, 2009; Lawrence, 1973 & Sambamurty, 2005). It is
also used as ornamental foliage tree (Randhava 1961, Seth 2003). Kernels eaten
raw (Bhargava 1981, 1983 & Daniel, 2009).

Terminalia chebula (black myrobalan), Haritaki is one of the most coveted

laxative used by traditional practitioners (Aiyer, 1963; Kurup & al., 1979;
Sivarajan & Balachandran, 2006). It is an important plant in both Indian as well as
Korean and Chinese traditional medicine (Lee & al., 1995). Bark powder gargled
in water as a dentifrice to treat toothache and bleeding gums, as well as chronic
ulcers (Singh & al., 2002). Fruits are common constituent of “Triphala” capable of
imparting youthful vitality and receptivity of mind and sense (Reddy & al., 1990;
Sharma, 1995 & Kochhar, 1998). It is a major constituent in the ayurvedic
preparations like Abhayarishta, Abhaya modak, Haritaki khand, Triphaladi
churnam and Agastya rasayanam. In allopathy it is used in astringent ointments.
In Unani system, it is used as a blood purifier. The pulp of the fruit is given in
piles, chronic diarrhea, dysentery, constiveness, flatulence, asthma, urinary
disorders, vomiting, hiccup, intestinal worms, enlarged spleen and liver (Cheng,
2002, Masoko & Eloff, 2007). Powder of the fruit is used in chronic ulcers and
wounds, carious teeth and bleeding ulceration of the gums. Fruits used for

7
diabetes, fever and anemia (Daniel, 2005). Bark and fruits are good cardiac tonic
and laxative (Singh & al., 1979). ‘Triphala’ used in biliousness, hemorrhoids,
enlarged liver and other disorders (Janick, 2008). The kernel oil is applied to hairs,
and applied to rheumatic swellings, mixed with honey, fruit pulp employed in
opthalmia (Bose & al., 1998), fruits are astringent (Masoko & Eloff, 2007). Finely
powdered fruits also used as denitrifies and considered useful in various teeth
bleeding and ulceration of gums (Jain, 1994 & Sharma, 1995). The fruits of T.
chebula valuable for its tannins and dyes. The wood is used for building purposes,
agricultural implements, ply-wood and match box industries. It is also grown as a
shade tree (Mehata, 1980, Joy & al., 1998; Joshi, 2000; Khare, 2007 & Trivedi,
2008), also for cabinet work, furniture and interior fitting (Sambamurty, 2005).
This plant is also used as fodder (Anonymous, 1909 & Kumar & Bhatt, 2006).
Bark of Terminalia citrina is diuretic, cardio tonic and fruits used as
those of T. chebula. Fruits are used in asthma, diarrhea, boils, burns, constipation,
migraine, dental disease, haemoptysis, dizziness, bleeding, hemorrhoids, eye
disease, gastric hyperacidity, anemia, elephantiasis, arthritis, hoarse voice,
dysentery, pyrexia, infections, traumatic cuts, cardiac diseases, cough,
hepatomegaly, urolithiasis, for life longevity (Tun & Than, 2006). Fruits of T.
citrina for used for tanning. Wood used for making fishing rods and ripe fruits are
edible (Chakrabarty & al., 2009).

Juice of fresh leaves of Terminalia cuneata is used for earache (Khory,

1867). Fruit is tonic, de-obstruent (Kirtikar & Basu, 1995; Sinha, 1996 & Jain &
al., 2009). Leaves are used externally as a cover for sores and ulcers and also used
for earache. Ash of bark prescribed in scorpion sting (Joshi, 2000), and snake bite
(Udupa, 1986). Bark is well known cardio tonic and used as a cardio protective, it
is also useful in fractures, ulcers, urethrorrhoea, leucorrhoea, diabetes, vitiated
conditions of pitta, anaemia, cardiopathy, fatigue, asthma, bronchitis, tumors,
internal and external haemorrhages, cirrhosis of the liver and hypertension. It is

8
used in fractures and the powdered bark is taken with milk. The bark powder is
diuretic and has a general tonic, effective in cases of cirrhosis of liver. The bark
has been considered by the ayurvedic physicians as well as by modern
practitioners as a cardiac tonic. It is given as a decoction with milk (NRF, 1998).
This plant is popular for its wound healing property (Kumar, 2007 & Dash, 2011).
In Ayurveda, “Arjunaghrita” and “Arjunarishta” are two important cardiotonic
preparations of this drug (Mehata, 1980; Joy, 1998; Joshi, 2000; Khare, 2007 &
Trivedi, 2008). Bark is styptic, febrifugal, antidysentric and diuretic (Sharma &
Sharma, 2010). Terminalia cuneata has been found to possess both antimutagenic
(Kaur & al., 2000; Kaur & al., 2002a, Kaur & al., 2002b) as well as cancer cell
growth inhibitory effects (Pettit & al., 1996; Kandil & Nassar, 1997). It is a best
remedy for bone fractures, obesity, tuberculosis and kapha disorders (Dhabe,
2008). Bark decoction used to treat polyuria, giddiness and excessive thirst
(Ravikumar & al., 2000). Bark of T. cuneata is rich source of Tannin & oxalic
acid (Pandey, 2009). Trees grown as avenue. Bark and ash used in dying and
tanning (Sambamurty, 2005). The two main food plants of tropical Tassar
silkworms are: T. cuneata and T. elliptica (Randhava 1961, Seth 2003). Fruits of
T. chebula and T. bellirica are used in tanning industries (Kochhar & Verma,
2009). The bark, containing large amount of lime (calcium carbonate), is often
burnt to produce lime for chewing with betel, it is also used to assist precipitation
of mud from turbid water (Orwa, 2009).

Bark of Terminalia elliptica is diuretic, antihaemorrhagic, styptic,

cardiotonic and semen coagulant widely used in ulcers, fractures, bronchitis and
diarrhoea (Joy & al., 1998, Khare, 2007). It is astringent, antiseptic, bactericidal,
demulcent and detergent. It is efficacious in skin diseases, erysipelas, leucoderma
and in polyuria. It cures shleshma, haemorrhageic diseases and beneficial for skin
and hair. It is considered to be a rejuvenator. Decoction of bark is given for
diarrhea, applied locally to ulcers. It is ‘Sangraahak’ (astringent) and its action

9
similar to ‘Arjun’ (Joshi, 2000, Mehata, 1980). Bark powder given in hysteria
(Neelima, 2011). The wood of T. elliptica is used for beams, joints, rafters, doors,
window frames and boarding, also used in the construction of carts, toys, etc.
Leaves used for feeding “Tassar” silkworm (Bose & al., 1998). This plant is also
used for dying, in silk, paper and pulp industry (Kumar & Bhatt, 2006).
Bark of Terminalia myriocarpa is cardiac stimulant, mild diuretic and
extract is given in chest pain (Sinha, 1996; Deb & al., 2008). Bark also used as
antioxidant (Bose & al., 1998; Singh, 2006 & Deb & al., 2009). Bark yields tannin
(Shrivastava & Kapahi, 1992), wood used as timber (Singh, 2010) and for making
tea boxes and ply-wood (Bose & al., 1998) and also for making wooden posts in
construction of houses and furniture (Singh & al., 2002 & Bhardwaj & Gakhar,
2008).
Bark of Terminalia pallida is a mild diuretic and fruits used as those of T.
chebula (Joy & al., 1998). Fruit powder used in dysentery (Reddy & al., 2009).
Roots of Terminalia pallida in combination with its fruit kernel is used to treat
venereal diseases and peptic ulcer, cough, cold, swellings, piles, fever, ulcers,
hepatic disorders (Gupta & al., 2005) and as antipyretic, purgative, while the bark
is used as anti inflammatory agent (Shaikh & al., 2008). Fruits are used in diabetes
(Grover & al., 2002; Kar & al., 2003; Pulok & al., 2006; Mohamed & al., 2006;
Edwin, 2008 & Jarald & al., 2008). Fruits are antibacterial & antifungal in nature
and used to cure diarrhea, venereal diseases and diabetes (Singh, 1998 & Gupta &
al., 2005) and in skin diseases (Nagaraju & Rao, 1987).
Juice of fresh flowers of Terminalia paniculata rubbed with the root of
Cocculus villosus used as a remedy in cholera and opium poisoning (Joshi, 2000).
Bark is diuretic, cardio-tonic (Bose & al., 1998), juice of the bark, mixed with
purified butter and rock-salt, is applied in parotitis (Joy & al., 1998 & Khare,
2007). It is also used for the treatment of inflammation of parotid glands and in
menstrual disorders (Talwar & al., 2011). Terminalia paniculata is extensively
utilized in pharmaceutical, timber, tannin, leather and ‘Tassar’ industries

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(Rao and Purkayastha, 1972; Srivastava, 1993 & Thangaraja & Ganesan, 2007).
Other than the wood products, T. paniculata yields indigenous drug preparations,
gums, oils, fodder and certain organic compounds from its leaves, trunk,
bark and fruits (Thangaraja & Ganesan, 2008 & Babu & al., 2010).
The wood of T. procera used for making furniture (Sambamurty, 2005) and
its timber is valuable (Chakrabarty, 2009). Fruits used for dying (Bose & al.,
1998).
Ecology and Distribution:
1. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.
Occasional in mixed forests, deciduous forests, primary forests or ‘Shal’
forests also in ‘Sholas’, ascending up to 1400 m in South India, 1375 m on East
Himalaya, 1500 m in North East India and 1200m in Myanmar; also widely
cultivated in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Indo-China,
Thailand and Malay Peninsula (Brandis, 1971; Gangopadhyay & Chakrabarty,
1997 & Agrawal & Mandaokar, 2007).
2. Terminalia bialata (Roxb.) Steud.

Occasional in inland primary forests at low altitude; Andamans and

Philippines (Hajra & al., 1999).

3. Terminalia catappa L.

Common in deciduous or mixed forests or beach forests (Andamans &

Nicobars) or inland semi-evergreen forests (Andamans) up to 900 m in South
India and 1000 m in Eastern Himalaya; Sri Lanka and India to Myanmar (Rao &
Kumari, 2003), Tropical Asia, North Australia, Polynesia; widely planted in
Hawaii Islands..

4. Terminalia chebula Retz.

Occurring typically in dry deciduous forests and favoring clay soil, up to

1450 m in South India, 450 m in Central India, 200 m in West India, 500 m in
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North East India, 1500 m on Himalayas and 1050 m in Myanmar; India, Sri
Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar. Cultivated elsewhere.

5. Terminalia citrina Roxb. ex Flem.

Scare in subtropical forest of Himalayas, between 300-1200 m altitudes.

Scattered in mixed forests or primary forests up to 600 m altitude in North East
India. Common in beach forests or mixed forests on sandy or clay loam at sea
leavel in Andamans and Nicobar; Himalayas, North East India to Myanmar,
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Indo-China, Thailand, Malaya.

6. Terminalia cuneata Roth.

Common in deciduous forests, frequently along river banks and streams,

often in border of shola forests, ascending to 1400 m in South India; Sri Lanka,
India to Myanmar, also widely cultivated.

7. Terminalia elliptica Willd.

Common in deciduous forests or mixed forests or foothills (South India) up to

1450 m in South India, 1000 m on Himalayas and central India, 500 m in North
East India; India, Sri Lanka, Himalayas, Myanmar, Thailand, Indo-China.

8. Terminalia myriocarpa Van Heurck & Mull.-Arg.

Common in sub-tropical forests of Eastern Himalaya up to 1500 m altitude

and in evergreen forests of North East India, Sikkim, West Bengal, up to 700 m
altitude; India (North East India, Sikkim, West Bengal and also cultivated
elsewhere), Indonesia, up to 800 m (Steenis, 1948), Nepal (Elbert, 1989), Bhutan,
Myanmar, Thailand, Indo-China, West China, Sumatra, Hawaii Islands (Wagner
& al., 1999; Elbert, 2003).

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9. Terminalia pallida Brandis

Rare, globally endangered, noted to be in dry deciduous forests, chiefly on

rocky hills up to 650 m altitude. Endemic to Tirumala hills of Seshachalam range,
Tirupati, Andhra pradesh (Chadha, 1976; Ahmedullah & Nayar, 1986; Chetty &
Rao, 1989; Reddy & Reddy, 2008; Shaikh, 2008; Palani & al., 2009; Reddy & al.,
2009; Neelima & al., 2011; Rao & al., 2011 & Raviprasad, 2011).

10. Terminalia paniculata Roth.

Common in deciduous forests or foothills or moist hill slopes up to 1000 m

altitude, Endemic to South India (Gangopadhyay & Chakrabarty, 1997 & Sankar,
2003).

11. Terminalia procera Roxb.

One of the common species in Andamans (Bose & al., 1998), rare in
Nicobar Islands, in deciduous and mixed forests at low altitudes (up to 100m ).
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sumatra, Borneo, Phillipines, lesser Sunda Islands,
Celebes Moluccas and New Guinea (Hajra & al., 1999).

12. Terminalia travancorensis Wight & Arn.

Rare in evergreen forests up to 700 m altitude in Kerala and Sri Lanka.
(Mohanan & Henry, 1994; Gangopadhyay & Chakrabarty, 1997)

Objectives of the present work:

As most of the Terminalia L. species are economically, medicinally and
ecologically important, hence it was decided to study this genus from India. The
objectives of the present research work are as follows:
i) To study the detailed morphological features of individual species.
ii) To generate additional criteria / characters from anatomical, maceration and
dermatological studies.

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iii) To standardize and to detect adulteration in particular species by using
criteria / characters generated from morphological, anatomical, maceration and
dermatological studies.

Parameters studied:
i) Morphology
ii) Anatomy and maceration of bark
iii) Anatomy and maceration of wood
iv) Anatomy of petiole
v) Anatomy of leaf
vi) Dermatology

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