CURRENT ECOLOGICAL STATUS

AND IDENTIFICATION OF
POTENTIAL ECOLOGICALLY
SENSITIVE AREAS IN THE
NORTHERN WESTERN GHATS

OCTOBER 2010

INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

BHARTI VIDYAPEETH DEEMED UNIVERSITY
PUNE, MAHARASHTRA
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Team at BVIEER ............................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................. v
Disclaimer .........................................................................................................vi
Terms of reference ............................................................................................ vii
Framework ......................................................................................................viii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION..........................................................................1
HISTORY OF CONSERVATION IN THE WESTERN GHATS......................... 2
CURRENT THREATS TO THE
WESTERN GHATS...........................................................................................2
CONCEPT OF ECOLOGICALLY SENSITIVE AREAS (ESAS) ....................... 3
NEED FOR IDENTIFYING ESAs IN THE WESTERN GHATS...................... 3
DEFINING ESAs ..............................................................................................4
GENESIS OF ESAs IN INDIA ..........................................................................5
CHAPTER 2: ECOLOGICAL STATUS OF THE NORTHERN
WESTERN GHATS..............................................................................................7
LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS OF THE WESTERN GHATS ............................... 7
Geomorphology and Hydrology........................................................................................... 8
Climate ............................................................................................................................. 10
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY ............................................................................. 10
Forest Types ...................................................................................................................... 11
Grasslands......................................................................................................................... 17
Streams and Rivers ............................................................................................................ 17
Plateaus............................................................................................................................. 18
SPECIES DIVERSITY ..................................................................................... 18
Flora ................................................................................................................................. 24
Fauna................................................................................................................................ 26
PROTECTED AREAS ..................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER 3: IMPACTS ..................................................................................... 43
INDUSTRY ..................................................................................................... 43
MINING.......................................................................................................... 45
ROADS............................................................................................................ 45
AGRICULTURE ............................................................................................. 48
NEW TOWNSHIPS......................................................................................... 50
TOURISM ....................................................................................................... 50
INVASIVE EXOTIC SPECIES......................................................................... 51
i
 CLIMATE CHANGE ...................................................................................... 52
OTHERS.......................................................................................................... 54
CONCLUSION................................................................................................ 54
CHAPTER 4: PLANNING OF ESAS ................................................................. 57
CATEGORIZATION OF EXISTING ESAS .................................................... 57
Protected Areas ................................................................................................................. 58
ESAs around Protected Areas ............................................................................................ 60
Hill-station ESAs ............................................................................................................... 61
CATEGORIZATION OF PROPOSED ESAS .................................................. 62
Areas Planned but not Notified as PAs ............................................................................... 62
Reserve Forest and Closed Canopy Forest........................................................................... 63
Water Bodies ..................................................................................................................... 64
Sacred Groves.................................................................................................................... 66
Specialised Ecosystems ...................................................................................................... 70
Species Based ESAs ........................................................................................................... 76
CHAPTER 5: PRIORITIZATION....................................................................... 83
IDENTIFYING BIODIVERSITY ASSET VALUES......................................... 86
Protected Areas ................................................................................................................. 86
Protected Area Surrounds ................................................................................................ 88
Hill Stations ..................................................................................................................... 88
Reserve and Closed Canopy Forest..................................................................................... 89
Water Bodies ..................................................................................................................... 89
Specialized Habitats........................................................................................................... 91
Habitats of Threatened Species .......................................................................................... 93
Corridors........................................................................................................................... 94
IDENTIFYING THREAT VALUES ................................................................ 94
Mines ................................................................................................................................ 94
Industrial Areas ................................................................................................................ 97
Catchment Area Threats .................................................................................................... 97
Protected Areas Surrounds (ESA) Threats .......................................................................... 97
Grading the ESAs.............................................................................................................. 97
ANALYSIS OF TALUKAS FROM NORTH TO SOUTH
BASED ON ESA CATEGORY AND THREAT LEVEL ................................ 100
Sector 1 ............................................................................................................................100
Sector 2 ............................................................................................................................101

ii
 Sector 3 ............................................................................................................................102
Sector 4 ............................................................................................................................103
Sector 5 ............................................................................................................................104
Sector 6 ............................................................................................................................106
Sector 7 ............................................................................................................................107
PLANNING FOR CORRIDORS................................................................... 108
The Need for Corridors.....................................................................................................108
Landuse Within Existing Corridors ...................................................................................108
Types of Corridors............................................................................................................109
Establishing Corridors in the Northern Western Ghats.......................................................109
Potential Corridors within the Northern Western Ghats .....................................................110
conclusion ...................................................................................................... 113
CHAPTER 6: IMPLEMENTATION AND MANAGEMENT........................... 115
MANAGEMENT AND INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS .................. 117
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT................................................................ 119
ECORESTORATION .................................................................................... 121
ECOTOURISM ............................................................................................. 123
IMPLEMENTATION OF CORRIDORS ....................................................... 123
NEED FOR EDUCATION AND AWARENESS ........................................... 123
CHAPTER 7: JUDICIAL CONCERNS ............................................................ 125
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT, 1986 ........................................... 125
WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, AMENDED 1993 .................................... 126
WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, AMENDMENT 2002 ............................... 130
INDIAN FOREST ACT 1927 ........................................................................ 131
FOREST CONSERVATION ACT, 1980 WITH 1988 AMENDMENTS.......... 135
FOREST CONSERVATION ACT, 2003 ........................................................ 136
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ACT, 2002 ......................................................... 138
MAHABALESHWAR AND PANCHGANI ESA NOTIFICATION .............. 139
MAHARASHTRA REGIONAL AND TOWN PLANNING ACT 1966 ........ 144
NATIONAL WATER POLICY 2002 IN RELATION TO THE LAKES AND
CATCHMENTS............................................................................................. 145
GUIDELINES FOR NATIONAL LAKE CONSERVATION PLAN .............. 146
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION .......................................................................... 149
CHAPTER 9: REFERENCES ........................................................................... 151

iii
TEAM AT BVIEER
Erach Bharucha
Shamita Kumar
Parag Khatawkar
Anand Shinde
Kranti Yardi
Jyoti Prabha
Karishma Mehta
Ganesh Zende
Anwesha Borethakur
Rashi Khare
Vidya Pujari

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T
his discussion paper on the ‘Current Ecological Status and Identification of Potential Ecologi-
cally Sensitive Areas in the Northern Western Ghats’ is an output supported by a large number of
stakeholders. They are all concerned about the conservation of natural resources and biological
heritage in this globally recognized hotspot of biodiversity. They have readily contributed towards efforts
to give a broad based assessment for developing a framework for a doable conservation strategy for the
Sahyadris. Having said that, this is not a final statement, but a basis for further discussions and additional
inputs from an even wider range of people.
While there are too many people to acknowledge, individually there are some who have led to a
clearer understanding of what this initiative should lead to in the future. To Professor Madhav Gadgil
who thought it fit for me and my colleagues at BVIEER to attempt framing this report, we are indeed
profoundly grateful. My ever ready team of collaborators at BVIEER who have all worked ceaselessly
late into the night for the last five months, I am greatly indebted. They are the backbone of our institution
and have fulfilled a wide range of tasks that were essential for the completion of this output.
We at BVIEER acknowledge with gratitude the vast array of scientists who have added information
bit by bit to the complex web of life of the Sahyadris that is the core of this report. The report is based
mainly on the multitude of secondary resources that have been forwarded to us. We thank them all for
their support. We greatly appreciate the inputs of Parag Khatawkar in the initial phase of the project that
has helped us frame the methodology.
We would like to mention the contributions of IIRS and Dr. P S Roy on whose initial GIS based plat-
form we have been able to build this locale specific output. The many individual contributors that gave
us their time and ideas include Ashok Captain, Varad Giri, Aparna Watve, Archana Godbole, Neelesh
Dahanukar, Ankur Parwardhan and A Padhye among others all of whom are responsible for adding to
its authenticity through their long personal association with the Ghats.
There are institutions that also readily supported this output. They include the BNHS, SACON, GSDA
of CDAC, the French Institute Pondicherry, ZSI and BSI. We thank all of them for their unstinting sup-
port.
I personally am indebted to the people of the Sahyadris who have over the last several decades told
me of their close linkages to nature and the consequences of what we call development. Much of what
they experienced in previous decades has been prophetic. As I see the superb wilderness of the rugged
hills invaded by the hand of man, and its astonishing complex sensitive ecosystems vanish year by year, I
can recall as if it was yesterday, many of the statements of so many local inhabitants who readily spoke
to me, invited me into their homes and shared their life stories and livelihood issues with me. How can
I thank them adequately for having enriched my own life, while they eked out an existence based on the
meagre resources that they used sustainably from the forested hills, valleys and water sources.
E. K. Bharucha
BVIEER
Pune, October 2010

v
 DISCLAIMER

T
his report is a document based on the letter to the Director of BVIEER from Professor Madhav
Gadgil, Chairperson of the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel and their personal discussion
on 15th June 2010. This has led to the formation of a small core group at the BVIEER to act as
a think-tank and data collection centre to formulate a fairly comprehensive and innovative document for
comments at a proposed meeting of local experts and interested people to be held at BVIEER once the
Draft has been put on the website.
This Report is a baseline draft of views expressed by a variety of people who are concerned about the
future and present sustainability of landuse in the northern Western Ghats. They are not necessarily
the views of the author alone but attempt to capture several other viewpoints. To start with this has been
based on existing published work, includes views mentioned in reports and committee meetings of the
MOEF, and even unpublished dissertations of students that have been verified by expert guides for their
masters and doctoral studies in environmental botanical and zoological studies. While most such litera-
ture has been referred to in this report, other unpublished readings have been used to bring in a wider
range of thought without actually referring to the aspects dealt with in grey written material and personal
communications.
This report is a compendium of a vast number of independent studies, reports and findings of a num-
ber of researchers, many of whom may have conducted credible research and have reported their findings
thereof. These findings may be valid with the basis and assumptions that have been taken into consider-
ation by those researchers who have conducted their studies and at the time they were conducted. The
authors of this report take no responsibility on the accuracy of the findings nor can they be held respon-
sible or accountable for the conclusions thereof, especially under current and/or new assumptions. Even
though best efforts have been made to collect, collate and present this independent report, the authors
by no means can opine that this report is complete and accurate in the representation due to the large
amount of data/findings and sometimes which may not be material, relevant and may be conflicting.
The report, thus, should be regarded at best an endeavor towards a compendium of work done by
many others in the field. The authors are thus not responsibe for the veracity and validity of the findings
and resultant conclusions presented in the report.
The report is meant to provide a framework around which certain initiatives could be taken to protect
the Western Ghats. There could be many other such frameworks and initiatives which could be taken
based on further primary and secondary research. The proposed framework and comments are neither
tested nor verified.
Readers of this report are encouraged to form their own conclusions and opinions and are requested
to post them on the website: www.westernghatsindia.org. A number of questions have arisen during the
course of developing this output for which a systematic, scientifically organized study needs to be con-
ducted to put forth conclusions based on verifiable credences.
Errors and omissions are bound to exist in such a report as it is a compendium and not an independent
research on scientific principles. Readers are earnestly requested to provide feedback to the author in this
regard.
We hope that this compendium acts as a consolidated pool of knowledge and data for all interested
people who have a deep interest to conserve and implement a substantial strategy for one of the world’s
rarest and most biologically diverse ecological systems. If this knowledge/database can help create a
multitude of options on the principle of collective wisdom and debate, the purpose will have been served.
This report is just meant to create such a dialogue and is not to be regarded as a complete and validated
output.
vi
 TERMS OF REFERENCE
AGHARKAR RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Agarkar Road, Pune 411 004, Maharashtra, India

E-mail: madhav.gadgil@gmail.com

Dr. Erach Bharucha

Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment Education and Research, Pune

Dear Dr. Bharucha,

Sub: Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel – request on behalf of
Thank you so much for your most kind offer of help in taking forward the work programme of Western
Ghats of Dangs and Maharashtra, when we personally met at BVIEER on 15th June. The mandate of
WGEEP is as follows:
To assess the current status of ecology of the Western Ghats region.
To demarcate areas within the Western Ghats Region which need to be notified as ecologically sensi-
tive and to recommend for notification of such areas as ecologically sensitive zones under the Environ-
ment (Protection) Act, 1986. In doing so, the Panel shall review the existing reports such as the Mohan
Ram Committee Report, Hon’ble Supreme Court’s decisions, Recommendations of the National Board
for Wildlife and consult all concerned State Governments.
To make recommendations for the conservation, protection and rejuvenation of the Western Ghats
Region following a comprehensive consultation process involving people and Governments of all the
concerned States.
To suggest measures for effective implementation of the notifications issued by the Government of
India in the Ministry of Environment and Forests declaring specific areas in the Western Ghats Region
as eco-sensitive zones under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
To recommend the modalities for the establishment of Western Ghats Ecology Authority under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 which will be a professional body to manage the ecology of the re-
gion and to ensure its sustainable development with the support of all concerned states.
To deal with any other relevant environment and ecological issues pertaining to Western Ghats Re-
gion, including those which may be referred to it by the Central Government in the Ministry of Environ-
ment and Forests.
We would therefore like to request you to draw on BVIEER’s own extensive work on the of Western
Ghats of Dangs and Maharashtra, as also review other available material and prepare a background pa-
per, if possible in both English and Marathi, addressing our mandate by early August 2010. This could
be uploaded on the WGEEP website as well as circulated through other media, followed by an open dis-
cussion meeting in BVIEER auditorium around the third week of August. I also greatly appreciate the
fact that you do not require any specific funding to render this important service to WGEEP.
With personal regards,
Yours sincerely
Madhav Gadgil
Chairman
Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel

vii
 FRAMEWORK
The introduction provides a brief account of the status and concerns leading up to the need for setting
up a mechanism to reduce threats to the biological diversity in the northern Western Ghats.
The body of the report has sections on:
1. Present ecological status of the Northern Western Ghats
2. Conceptual categorization and prioritization of ESAs in the Western Ghats
3. Implementation and executive actions required for supporting the integral ecological values of the
Ghats
4. A review of existing legislative and judicial instruments that can strengthen local execution
5. A bibliography of published and unpublished literature on the subject
Some questions that the report addresses include:
1. Can ecosensitive areas be identified in the Northern Western Ghats?
2. Are there significant differences in the level of fragility or robustness?
3. Are there hotspecks of high diversity or mini-ecosystems within the globally recognized hot spot
of the Northern Western Ghats?
4. Are there areas of great importance outside PAs and PA surrounds (ESAs) that require urgent
protection from rising threat levels?
5. Can a conceptual framework be created for a system of corridors as a major component of ESAs
be evolved in the northern sector of the Western Ghats?
6. How can ESAs be prioritized based on conservation values and threat levels?
7. What are the possible executive and judicial actions that can strengthen the management of ESAs
in the Western Ghats?

viii
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
T
he Western Ghats are a well-known hot-
spot of biodiversity. The Ghats are a range
of hills which were once covered with ex-
tensive forest all along the length from the Dangs in
Gujarat to the southern part of Kerala. The North-
ern Western Ghats extend across the three states
of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Goa which is also a
region that includes several unique ecosystems and
harbours a large number of threatened and endem-
ic species. It also includes areas with rich cultural
heritage sites.
A paper on the zoogeography of the Western
Ghats (Ramakrishna, Radhakrishnan, and Gopi
2001) characterises the Western Ghats on the basis
of geology, biology and elevation. The northern
sector is lower in altitude than most of the south-
ern section. At an altitude of less than 1500 m,
the northern sector has more impacts on the fragile
landscape elements than in the South. The West
East division shows bio-geographical variations
ranging from coastal plains to hill ranges that
merge into the Deccan Plateau. The range itself
is covered by fragmented patches of forests as well
as intensively used landuse patterns. The Western
part primarily has unique steep rocky escarpments
that are covered with waterfalls in the monsoon.
The crest line is a narrow strip broken into flat lat-
eritic plateaus. The eastern slopes decent gradually
to the Deccan Plateau and have irregular off shoots
and spurs interspaced with water bodies created by
dams that deride the ranges and plateau and flood
plains of rivers into minor and major watersheds.
The high level of fragility of the Western Ghats
ecosystems is thus due to its inherent geomorpho-
logical, climatic and biological characteristics. The
area’s biodiversity status which consists of ever-
green and semi evergreen forest has seen rapid deg-
radation in the recent past. A report on a descrip-
tion of the Western Ghats as a biodiversity hotspot
(Gunawardene et al. 2007) states that the Western
Ghat has 6% of India’s landmass with 30% of
plants and animals. However, only one third of
the region is under natural vegetation in the to-
tal extent of the hill range which covers 180,000
square kilometres. This makes it imperative that
conservation measures are urgently implemented
1
to preserve what is left of this important natural values of the sensitive ecological attributes of the
and cultural heritage area. Ghats.
HISTORY OF CONSERVATION IN While a chain of Protected Areas has been creat-
THE WESTERN GHATS ed from north to south in the Ghats such as Purna
Wild Life Sanctuary (WLS) and Vansda National
The current ecologically valuable assets in the
Park in Gujarat; Kalsubai WLS, Bhimashankar
Western Ghats are an outcome of the local histori-
WLS, Tansa WLS, Sanjay Gandhi National Park,
cal background, such as the tradition to preserve
Koyna WLS, Chandoli WLS, Phansad WLS and
sacred groves which is embedded in ancient tribal
Radhanagri WLS in Maharashtra and Molem
culture and folklore; the good governance prin-
WLS, Cotagi WLS and Bondla WLS in Goa, their
ciples of Shivaji Maharaj which included an edict
potential for connectivity through corridoring, or
issued to protect tree cover of the Ghats. His fore-
lack thereof, has not been adequately assessed.
sight and vision was promulgated throughout his
kingdom well before this was foreseen elsewhere. One of the earliest moves to bring attention to
The British had a strong self-interest to preserve the ecological sensitivity of the Western Ghat was
forests through a system of Reserved Forests. the ‘Save Western Ghat March’ organized through
However, they exploited the forests for their own a consortium of NGOs in the concerned states in
enormous timber requirements especially during November 1987. The prime mover was the late
the two World Wars. They used large quantities of Shri Jagdish Godhole. The other interested in-
teak to build their ships. Deforestation continued dividuals were Dr. K. C. Malhotra (Anthropolo-
in post Independent India for several decades. gist), Vijay Paranjape and Dr. E. K. Bharucha then
WWF Pune Committee Members and several
other NGOs and NGIs. The March was flagged
off by the Maharaja of Bansda who was seriously
concerned by the depletion of wildlife in Gujarat
and Admiral Awati then Chairman of WWF-Ma-
harashtra and Goa. The March that went through
all the states eventually ended in Kerala at Kan-
yakumari. It was well published in the press and
strongly supported by NGOs, academicians, the
public at large and to some extent by concerned
forest officials.
In more recent times there were moves made CURRENT THREATS TO THE
mainly by non-government organizations which WESTERN GHATS
lobbied strongly for containing the on-going de-
struction of forests in the Western Ghats. Finally The Western Ghats today are being rapidly de-
the Forest Department developed new Working graded due to various landuse changes that have
Plans which excluded the practice of timber extrac- occurred in the recent past. Apart from the tradi-
tion from the Ghats after the mid-1980s in Maha- tional impacts from farming, grazing and fire there
rashtra. Gujarat had a moratorium on the extrac- are newer changes in landuse that are leading to
tion of timber from the teak forests in the Dangs biodiversity losses. This includes deforestation due
for several years. to mining, roads, dams, townships and industrial-
ization. Changing existing wilderness areas into
In the 1970s and 1980s all the states created a intensive agriculture, urbanization and industry
series of Protected Areas (PAs) in the Ghats. This in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Goa has altered the
was a response to a strong directive from the then natural ecological attributes over the last several
Prime Minister Mrs Indira Gandhi. Following decades. This has not spared the Western Ghats
this a series of administrative actions for different where dams, roads and other economic develop-
objectives have attempted to protect the inherent ment programs have led to new forms of landuse.
2
The industrial expansion due to globalization of CONCEPT OF ECOLOGICALLY
the late 90s led to rural industrialization which SENSITIVE AREAS (ESAS)
has been strongly supported by the Industrial De-
Over the last several years it has been appreci-
velopment Corporations. The river valley projects
ated that protected areas alone (National Parks
that have been developed for over a century now
and Wildlife Sanctuaries) cannot conserve or pro-
include nearly every possible major valley leaving
tect all species and ecosystems as islands in a ma-
very few as intact forest tracts. Mining has cre-
trix of other forms of landuse. Thus the concept
ated large gaps. Added to these gaps are a string
of biosphere reserves, ecologically sensitive areas
of roads winding across expanses of several kilo-
and community conserved areas has led to newer
metres (Ramakrishna, Radhakrishnan, and Gopi
and wider frameworks for conservation at the land-
2001). The special requirements of sustainable
scape level. This has also been expressed and given
development in areas that are ecologically fragile
legal sanctity through the Environment Protection
such as the Western Ghats finds little place in cur-
Act 1986 and several such areas have already been
rent planning processes.
notified in India (see box).
While the Western Ghats in the southern states
Section 3(2)(v) of the Act empowers the central
have been better studied, the ranges of the northern
government to take all such measures that it deems
sector have been neglected. The two ecosystems
necessary to protect and improve the quality of
vary widely and suffer from different human im-
the environment and prevent environmental pollu-
pacts.
tion. It allows for the restriction of areas in which
Degraded areas across the Ghats now form a certain developmental activities can be prohibited.
mosaic of patches with different levels of degrada- Further, section 5(1) of the Environment (Protec-
tion. Climate change will further add to alterations tion) Rules (EPR), 1986, specifies certain criteria
in biodiversity values in future. Any adaptation like topographic and climatic features of an area,
strategy to preserve the integrity of the natural for- biological diversity of the area, environmentally
ests, in the context of future climate change, will compatible land use, extensive cultivation, proxim-
have to take into account the varied landscape ele- ity to the protected areas, etc. that can be consid-
ments that are inherent environmental assets in the ered while prohibiting or restricting certain opera-
Western Ghats. The strategy should preserve bio- tions in different areas.
logical diversity, hydrological balance and ecologi-
NEED FOR IDENTIFYING
cal services. (Ramakrishna et al. 2001)
ESAS IN THE WESTERN GHATS
The forests of the Western Ghats have been con-
sidered critically important habitats for biodiversity
conservation over several decades. Conservation

Section 3 of the Environment (Protection) Act 1986 (EPA) gives power to the Central Government i.e. the
Union Ministry of Environment and Forests to take all measures that it feels are necessary for protecting and
improving the quality of the environment and to prevent and control environmental pollution. To meet this
objective, the Central Government can restrict areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of
industries, operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain safeguards
[Section 3(2)(v)]

Section 5(1) of the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 (EPR), states that the central government can
prohibit or restrict the location of industries and carrying on certain operations or processes on the basis of
considerations like the biological diversity of an area (clause v) maximum allowable limits of concentration of
pollutants for an area (clause ii) environmentally compatible land use (clause vi) proximity to protected areas
(clause viii).

3
planning has included the main range and its as- Ghats is a thin north- south aligned strip of nar-
sociated hills as a region of great biological value row forested hills with specific geographical, cli-
by notifying a series of PAs (Rodgers and Panwar matological, geological, hydrological and biologi-
1988). However, the importance of protecting in- cal aspects. If this is disrupted anywhere along its
tervening areas has not been given sufficient at- length, there will be a rapid deterioration of any
tention. The need to preserve these unprotected possibility of long-term preservation of biodiver-
gaps as forest corridors in a well-managed network sity, unless the fragile region is notified as a set
requires urgent attention. Currently there are no of Ecologically Sensitive Areas. This will require
clearly defined strategies for implementing this a new policy which can be implemented through
concept. Buffer areas for National Parks, notifying specific management strategies and rules created
Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESAs) around each to implement conservation of these varied fragile
Protected Area, and the creation of Biosphere Re- areas.
serves have similar and even overlapping objectives
DEFINING ESAS
which can form a basis for developing an overarch-
ing conservation policy for the Western Ghats. The landscape elements that must be protected
These currently used strategies have however not as Ecologically Sensitive Areas in the Western
been able to protect corridors for preserving the Ghats are of several types. The protected patches
long-term values of biodiversity in the northern currently include the existing National Parks and
sector of the Western Ghats. There have been no Wildlife Sanctuaries, the Reserved Forest patches,
integrated plans for developing an interstate PA and to some extent, the forested hill stations.
system for the Ghats. It is thus important to define Fragments of the more remote forests have a
various categories of ESAs and manage them ef- relatively intact ecological status as compared
fectively through a well regulated network under a with areas that have been subjected to recent lan-
single authority. duse changes. Apart from the forests there are
A historical review shows that the forests formed also more cryptic and specialized landscape ele-
a continuous tract which was minimally impacted ments that must be preserved for their great eco-
by human activity till only a few decades ago. The logical value. These include lateritic plateau tops,
forested Ghats act as the life support system for lo- rocky escarpments with seasonal waterfalls, sacred
cal residents as well as for people of the adjacent groves, remote sites covered by old growth forests,
coastal belt and Deccan Plateau. The implications river sources and the catchments of dams and riv-
of deforestation and land degradation are already ers. These ecologically sensitive areas must be
evident. Thus if these ecologically sensitive systems identified and managed in order to form a corri-
are disrupted further, the residual relict natural for-dor through a network for maintaining the genetic
est ecosystems will be converted into serious envi- diversity of flora and fauna. The important un-
ronmental problems. In ecosystem management, protected corridors between the Protected Areas of
prevention of degradation is better and cheaper the Ghats and the adjacent coastal belt must also
than the cure. Thus apart from long term economic be identified as ESAs in spite of being degraded.
losses due to unsustainable development, restora- This would require the use of new and innovative
tion will become financially unviable. The tipping ecorestorative strategies.
point at which landscape level changes will sub- No importance has been given to prevent the
stantially hinder sustainable development cannot continual loss of forest cover in the catchments of
be easily ascertained. dams in the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats
In many areas across India economic develop- are the sources of all the rivers of the Deccan and
ment will not unduly disrupt the more robust nat- the coast. These catchments are essential for pre-
ural ecological processes. In the Western Ghats serving life support systems for water to cities, ir-
however environmental changes will rapidly dam- rigating croplands that ensure food security and
age the highly sensitive ecosystem as the Western the supply of water to industries. The catchment
zones of all these dams constitute a set of special
4
 Year Events
1986 Environment Protection Act (EPA) and Environment Protection Rules ( EPR)
0XUXG-DQMLUD1RWL¿FDWLRQ
1989
'RRQ9DOOH\1RWL¿FDWLRQ
1990 MoEF Report on Parameters for Determining Ecological Fragility
1991 'DKDQX(6$1RWL¿FDWLRQ
$UDYDOOL1RWL¿FDWLRQ
1992
2. Numaligarh ‘No Development Zone’
1996 Planning Commission Report on Conserving Ecologically Fragile Ecosystems
1. Taj Trapezium Zone Pollution Authority
1998
'UDIW3DFKPDUKL(6$1RWL¿FDWLRQ
1. Pronab Sen Committee Report
'UDIW3DFKPDUKL(6$1RWL¿FDWLRQ
2000
0DKDEDOHVKZDU(6$1RWL¿FDWLRQ
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2001 Mohan Ram Committee to examine the ESA proposals & review the existing ESAs
2002 Hill Stations Committee
2003 0DWKHUDQ(6$1RWL¿FDWLRQ
2008 0RXQW$EX'UDIW(6$1RWL¿FDWLRQ
2009 6XOWDQSXU(6=1RWL¿FDWLRQPHDVXUHV
Source (Kapoor, Kohli and Menon 2009)

Ecologically Sensitive Areas of great economic im- mission, was entrusted with the task of studying
portance to the wellbeing of people of Peninsular the issue to make appropriate recommendations
India. to the Government. The Committee provided its
The varied categories of ESAs consisting of sev- comprehensive and well researched report on the
eral landscape elements will have to be preserved selection of parameters for designating Ecologi-
as a network. A chain of diverse interlinked land- cally Sensitive Areas (Sen 2000). However in spite
scape elements must be selected to preserve the of this visionary and scientifically framed docu-
ecological, biological and ecosystem functions of ment, which was circulated to a large number of
the Western Ghats. This must stem from a conser- experts and NGOs, strategies for implementation
vation policy for the states of Gujarat, Maharash- have been woefully inadequate across the country.
tra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. A major cause for inaction has been that the docu-
ment had not spelled out the time frame and agen-
GENESIS OF ESAS IN INDIA cies responsible for implementation of ESAs at the
The need for declaring certain special ecological- national and state level. This relative weakness has
ly important sites as ESAs has been discussed in In- left the fragile landscape elements of the Sahayad-
dia for over three decades. The initial moves in the ris to the vagaries of the voracious appetite of short
MOEF were made in 1989. The concept has grown term economic development processes.
simultaneously with moving from planning a PA While all the conditions of the Pronab Sen Re-
network for India in 1988 by Rodgers and Panwar port are not necessarily relevant to the Western
to the need for a broader avenue for protecting bio- Ghats, identification of the relevant parameters,
diversity on a wider scale in non-PA areas such as designing modifications specifically for the West-
reserve forests (Kapoor, Kohli, and Manju Menon ern Ghats and including all its different sensitive
2009). landscape elements to the list of suggested ESAs
At the national level the need to rationalize these must become a key objective of the current pro-
early initiatives of the MOEF by creating ESAs was posed strategy for conserving the biodiversity of
felt way back in 1999 and a committee of experts the Ghats. Other reports such as that of the Mohan
under the chairmanship of Dr. Pronab Sen, Ad- Ram Committee (Ram 2001) have further added to
viser (Perspective Planning) of the Planning Com- a deeper understanding of the need for identifying
5
ESAs. get precedence over all else. There is also the third
dimension of people who hope to get rich through
In the recent past however, at the national lev-
land use changes and speculating on land deals.
el several ecosystems such as the Himalayas, the
North Eastern states, the Western Ghats, coastal The Protected Areas in the Western Ghats are
areas, wetlands etc. were recognized as being foci isolated patches and there has been no concrete ef-
of recent destruction and even devastation. The fort to develop an integrated PA network for the re-
first areas to have been notified by the Ministry of gion. Notified Ecologically Sensitive Areas, which
Environment and Forests (MoEF) as ESAs were constitute 10 km belts around the PAs, are already
the twin hill stations of Mahabaleshwar and Pan- severely impacted by all manner of intensive use
chgani and the hills of Matheran in Maharashtra. (Bharucha 2006). If one takes into account the ex-
These sites have been great tourist attractions for isting rules for ESAs, the 10 kilometre belt around
generations. However, due to their ecological fra- each Protected Area would include parts of the
gility and lack of careful environmental planning, coastal belt and the industrialized Deccan Plateau.
their hill forest ecosystems were being rapidly de- Beyond the confines of the Protected Areas
graded. Although they are situated in a globally rec- there are substantial areas of high ecological sensi-
ognized hotspot of biological diversity in the West- tivity suffering from the growing level of impacts.
ern Ghats they have been engulfed in the process These forests consist of Reserved Forest, Protected
of being converted from evergreen forests into con- Forest and ‘Malki’ tree covered lands with tradi-
crete jungles! Their notification as ESAs was thus a tional agriculture. The hill ranges however include
strategy to create a more sustainable development landscape elements such as urbanization, industry,
paradigm for these forested hill stations. This was mining, railways, roads and dams which have now
expected to prevent further degradation of their spread into these once forested tracts. Appreciat-
forests and biodiversity values and ensure that they ing the existing level of impacts and their present
are maintained as crucial corridors for preserving and future spatial spread is of great relevance for
the biological integrity of the two important Pro- creating effective ESAs.
tected Areas in the northern sector of the Ghats,
namely between Bhimashankar and Koyna. This
was supported by NGOs and given legal sanctity
by the Honourable High Court of Bombay.
The next important group of Ecologically Sensi-
tive Areas was created by the MOEFs instructions
to states to notify belts of land measuring five to ten
kilometres around all Protected Areas as Ecologi-
cally Sensitive Areas under the Environment Pro-
tection Act. This significant notification resulted
from the initiative of the Goa Foundation versus
Union of India judgment in 2004 of the Hon Su-
preme Court and its order in 2006 to declare areas
of 10 km buffer zones around PAs as ESAs. This
has generated both positive and negative reactions
from a variety of stakeholders. The polarization of
viewpoints has led to acrimonious debates between
those who strongly uphold the need to preserve, at
all costs, the treasure house of invaluable biological
diversity within the Protected Areas of the Western
Ghats, and those who believe economic develop-
ment for these poverty ridden backward areas must

6
 CHAPTER 2: ECOLOGICAL
STATUS OF THE NORTHERN
WESTERN GHATS

T
he overall environmental status of the West- from forest types (Pascal 1963). More recently, the
ern Ghats is now seeing a rapid change in boundaries have been described based on biogeog-
landscape elements from the once continu- raphy (Rodgers and Panwar 1988) which suggests
ous and impenetrable tracts of forest interspersed a sharp distinction between the hill ranges and the
by small hamlets of its agropastoral people to coastal plains. The Western Ghats boundary as de-
highly intensive landuse elements. Thus process fined by the Western Ghats Expert Ecology panel
has changed river tributaries into lakes, forests into (WGEEP) has been adopted for this study of delin-
blanks due to mining, and most recently wilderness eating ESAs in the Northern Western Ghats.
into townships. Developing a set of Protected Ar-
LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS OF THE
eas mainly through the notification of new Protect-
WESTERN GHATS
ed Areas during the World Bank Forestry Project
(1984) has not been able to stem the onslaught of The Ghats are characterised by a large diversi-
unsustainable development in the Ghats. ty in ecosystems that constitute a major aspect of
their threatened biological diversity. These ecosys-
The boundaries of what constitutes the Western
tems which include not only the forested hill rang-
Ghats have been seen from different perspectives
es but their streams, escarpments, plateaus, rugged
by several experts. This has been perceived from a
crests etc. are specialised ecological systems with
geomorphological perspective (Diddee 2002), from
their own distinctive abiotic (geomorphological,
the viewpoint of forest types (Champion & Seth
geographical, hydrological and climatic) variabil-
1968), from ecological aspects (Puri 1983) and
7
ity. This has a strong bearing on the biological di-
versity and uniqueness of these ecosystems, com-
munities, species and genetic variability. Thus both
the abiotic and biotic components of these ecosys-
tems contribute towards giving the Western Ghats
its globally recognized ‘hot spot’ status.
Geomorphology and Hydrology
The crest line of the Ghats, which is generally
1000 meters above sea level, contains isolated
patches of evergreen and semi evergreen forest and
experiences a rainfall of around 5000mm. In most
areas the main hill range is around 30 to 50 km
wide. The escarpment meets the coastal plains
abruptly in the west. The varied landscape ele-
ments, the sea shore, the coastal plains and estua-
rine ecosystems contrast sharply with the hill for-
ests of the Ghats. Where they lie adjacent to each
other they are separated by a narrow distinctive
ecotone. To the east, the Ghats have low ranges
which extend down to 500 - 600 meters where they
merge into the scrub covered hill slopes and the
Deccan plateau grasslands. The steep western es-
carpments that overlook the coastal plains, the river
valleys and coastal estuaries are ecologically sensi-
tive landscape elements. The land use pattern in
the region as a whole thus requires a special focus
on preserving their natural resource conservation
as well as spectacular aesthetic values. The latter is
hardly ever taken into consideration in our country
where resource use is considered of paramount im-
portance today.
Biogeographically, the hill chain of the Western
Ghats constitutes the Malabar province of the ori-
ental realm, running parallel to the West coast of
India from 8°N to 21°N latitude and stretched over
a length of around 1600 km. They rise as a relative-
ly narrow strip of hills adjacent to the coast as the
western border and reach up to a height of 2800m
before they merge in the east with the Deccan Pla-
teau at an altitude of 500-600m. The average width
of the mountain range is about 100 km (Nagendra
1999).
Geologically the Western Ghats may be divided
into two segments. The hills north of the Krishna
basin (largely Maharashtra and Gujarat) with frag-
ile basaltic rocks, are results of the same processes
that gave rise to the Deccan trap (Widdowson and
Cox 1996).
The Western Ghats escarpment in the western
coastal region of peninsular India is locally capped
by plateau remnants on which a regional high-level
laterite carapace is preserved. Geochemical ‘fin-
gerprinting’ studies show that the laterite has been
developed from a protolith of Panhala Formation
basalts. This is the most recent formation of the
Deccan sequence. It is the original upper layer of
the lava pile. The high-level laterite is structurally
concordant with the underlying basalts. The low-
level, younger laterite carapace has developed in
the Konkan plains below the escarpment where it
is discordant and lies on basalts of the Ambenali
and Poladpur formations, from which it developed
in situ. The low-level laterite rises topographically
in the north. This is a response to differential up-
lift, maximally seen in the Nasik region. The major
structures of the Ghats which excludes the coastal
monocline are in the Nasik dome and the Maha-
baleshwar anticline (Widdowson and Cox 1996)
The Western Ghats escarpment is one of the
classic examples of passive margins of great escarp-
ments in the world. It is an area of rugged terrain,
deep valleys, waterfalls, and dense forest with other
associated landforms such as plateau outliers, deep
gorges, beheaded plateau valleys and laterite pla-
teaux or tablelands. The Ghats is the fountainhead
of many large, east-flowing rivers and numerous
short, swift, coastward-flowing rivers (Kale 2010).
The Dangs district which starts from the rug-
ged mountain chains of the Sahyadri hills in the
east and descends in the west to the plains of Gu-
jarat, forms the northernmost limit of the Western
Ghats. The entire region is extremely hilly, but ex-
cept for a few high hills in the east and the south,
8
it is essentially made up of a series of flat topped
low hills. The elevation of these hills varies from
105m in the west to 1317m on the eastern border.
On the whole, barring a few high hills and few low
depressions, most of the area in the Dangs lies be-
tween elevations of 300 to 700 meters above mean
sea level. The area is distinctly divided into the
four main valleys of the Gira, Purna, Khapri and
Ambika rivers. All four rivers rise in the hills of the
Western Ghats and flow towards the west.
The Western Ghats between latitudes 18°20’N
and 19°15’ N, have been geomorphologically
mapped into three subgroups and ten formations:
the Kalsubai subgroup with the Jawhar, Igatpuri,
Neral, Thakurvadi, and Bhimashankar formations,
the Lonavala subgroup with the Khandala and the
Bushe formations and the Wai subgroup with the
Poladpur, the Ambenali, and the Mahabaleshwar
formations (Beane et al. 1986).
The geomorphology of Maharashtra is mainly
dominated by the presence of Deccan Volcanic
Basalt flows covering an area of about 500,000 sq.
kms. These horizontally disposed lava flows have
been outpoured during the most stupendous epi-
sode of the earth’s volcanism ranging from Creta-
ceous to Eocene time. These flows cover most of
the west-central India. Along with other volcanic
rocks such as rhyolites, trachytes and andesites,
there are horizons of patchy laterites.
The flows extend in an east–west direction from
the neighbourhood of Porbundar on the Kathi-
awar peninsula to a little beyond Amarkantak in
the highlands of central India. Isolated exposures
occur further east upon Ambikapur. The province
stretches for some 850 kms, in a north-south direc-
tion, from Nemach in the north to Belgaum in the
south. The individual flows have thickness ranging
from few metres to 100 mts and even more.
The geomorphology of this terrain straddles
two main sub-divisions, namely Upland plateau of
Maharashtra and low-lying Konkan coastal belt.
Both are separated by stupendous Western Ghat
escarpments, overlooking the Konkan coastal belt
towards west. The Western Ghats in Maharashtra
are popularly termed as Sahyadries, which form a
major water divide between the two geomorphic
zones.
9
The research undertaken during post-Koyna
earthquake has brought about a number of geo-
physical characteristics of the region. Accordingly,
it is now accepted that the geomorphology of the
region is shaped due to the tectonic activity of the
peninsular India under the litho-structural and cli-
matic controls.
It is mainly the amalgamation of these con-
trols that the erosional features such as flat topped
mountains, steep, as well as, broad valleys have
been carved out on the earth’s surface. Kalsubai
forms the highest peak while the typical trappean
flat topped hills are predominantly seen at various
forts like Rajgarh, Raigarh, Purandar, Harischan-
dragarh, etc. The longitudinal profile of the West-
ern Ghats also shows erosional characteristics of
the basalt flows with elevations increasing towards
southern peninsular region.
The Western Ghats region also shows stepped
appearance, as well as, steep escarpment zones.
The former characterizes the flat surfaces to west
of the Sahyadries of the Nashik district (at 300-
360 m) while latter features are valley heads of the
major streams (river Krishna at Mahabaleshwar,
Indrayani and Ulhas at Lonavala, Bhima at Bhi-
mashankar, etc. These varied geomorphic features
are characterized by their typical altitude, climate,
rainfall and rock types. These regions, therefore,
are known for their characteristic forest zones such
as Southern Tropical Semi-evergreen forests of
Bhimashankar, Radhanagari and Amboli; South-
ern Tropical Moist Deciduous forests of Peint
and Surgana Talukas of Nashik district, Wada
and Jawahar in Thane district and Melghat region;
Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous forests of Chan-
drapur, Gadchiroli, Nagpur, Bhandara Wardha
and Yevatmal districts; Thorny forests stretched
right from Khandesh in the north to the Solapur
and Sangli districts in the north.
The characteristic fauna and flora are met with
at all these hilly and valley tracts of the basalt flows
and exhibit an astonishing biodiversity at different
elevations, latitudes and longitudes. The lithology,
climate and structural configuration of the basalt
flows together have shaped the characteristic bio-
diversity of these regions. These zones being very
eco-sensitive, have been undergoing tremendous
destruction due to man’s interference. The growth Climate
and nurturing of such a wide spectrum of fauna
Climatic conditions in the Western Ghats vary
and flora may not be possible unless the zones are
with the altitude and physical proximity to the Ara-
strictly protected under the state laws. If this trea-
bian Sea and the equator. Although the Western
sure is to be maintained for the future generations
Ghats experience a tropical climate - being warm
then there is no substitute for the preservation of
and humid during most of the year with mean the
this biodiversity (Dikshit 2001).
temperature ranging from 20°C in the south to
Presence of numerous barren, rocky, lateritic 24°C in the north, the higher elevations experience
plateaus, locally known as ‘sadas’, is a unique fea- subtropical climates and on occasions frost. Fur-
ture of the Northern Western Ghats. It supports ther, it has been observed that the coldest periods in
characteristic ephemeral flush vegetation that in- the Western Ghats coincide with the wettest (Dan-
cludes monotypic genera, many of which have a iels 2001).
highly restricted distribution (Kanade et al. 2008).
Whereas rainfall peaks of 9000 mm and above
Since all the rivers in the Western Ghats are mon- per year, are known locally, annual rainfall as low
soon dominated, the annual flow pattern changes as 1000 mm are frequent in the east bringing the
in accordance with the monsoon rainfall. Most riv- average to around 2500 mm. The northern West-
ers in the Western Ghats are characterised by a tri- ern Ghats receive the highest rainfall (locally over
partite sequence of flows (Diddee 2002): 9000 mm) and yet experience dry weather over
1. Dry or very low non-monsoon flows more than half the year. On the contrary, areas re-
ceiving much less rainfall in Kerala and closer to
2. Normal monsoon flows the equator experience rain almost all through the
3. Infrequent high magniture floods year. Much of the rainfall is received during the
southwest monsoon season. Peak period of rainfall
Some unique characteristics of the river systems
is July-August (Daniels 2001).
are (Diddee 2002)
Throughout the year, most rivers follow a simple
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
fluvial regime, showing only one significant maxi- At the biogeographic regional level the Ghats can
mum be divided as described by (Rodgers and Panwar
1988). At a smaller scale however, the Ghats have
The rivers’ flow rises at the beginning of the
a variety of smaller distinctive landscape elements,
monsoons much more quickly than it falls at the
microhabitats and niches. This mosaic adds to the
end of the monsoon.
ecosystem diversity: the communities of floral and
During the monsoon, river flows show many faunal elements that inhabit them and the range of
sharp peaks, sometimes increasing daily discharge species from common to the most fascinating en-
by an order of magnitude demics. The ecosystem that is most familiar is the
Most rivers vary significantly both intraannually forest which has been given a range of descriptive
and interannually in terms of their stream flows terms.
and their flood magnitudes Of special concern are grassy and herb covered
Rivers in the Western Ghats show low flood plateaus, some of which are natural while others
variability are a result of biotic pressures due to traditional
forms of agriculture, fires lit by local people and
It has been shown that due to changes in the
cattle grazers. It is the natural monsoonal vegeta-
catchment land use and vegetation cover as well as
tion of plateaus that appears to have a large pro-
due to construction of a large number of dams and
portion of endemics and endangered or threatened
weirs on most of the rivers in the Western Ghats,
plants (Watve and Thakur 2006)
the natural cycles of flooding and sediment trans-
portation have been affected (Diddee 2002). The specialised waterfalls, cascades and streams
constitute highly specialized aquatic lentic systems
10
with specialised aquatic plants, insect, amphibia Forest Types
and fish. This has another component of congru-
There are 16 major forest types in India, accord-
ent endemics from a variety of taxa that show high
ing to studies by Champion and Seth (1968) and
concentrations in and around these water courses.
they are classified on the basis of their dominant
The stream banks are a profusion of terrestrial flo-
tree species. This gives importance to the three or
ral and faunal elements that can be observed as
four most common tree species within them.
vertical belts of vegetation in a series of horizon-
tal forest tracts created by rocky escarpments and
forests on the shallow soil due to repeated ancient
volcanic activity.
Within such perennial and ephemeral areas there
are microhabitats such as pools with algae, aquatic
insects such as whirly gig beetles, water skaters etc.
Such waterfalls and pools form the favoured habi-
tats of birds such as the spectacular songster, the
Malabar Whistling Thrush.
The small but ancient sacred groves are equally
enthralling. Their ancient buttressed giant trees There are 16 major forest types in India, accord-
tower over the rest of the shrubland, created ing to studies by Champion and Seth (1968) classi-
through hundreds of years of agricultural pasture fied on the basis of their dominant tree species. Of
use. these three types are prominently seen in the North-
ern Western Ghat. This gives importance to the
three or four most common tree species within
them.
A forest classification for India that is based on
ecological considerations and the dominant com-
mon or distinctive species has been developed by
GS Puri (Puri et al, 1983). This holistic classifica-
tion describes about 29 distinctive types that range
from the most arid thorn forests, to the high rainfall
evergreen forms. While these different forest types
are based on important tree species, several char-
At the most micro level, tree bark covered in acteristic types such as open grass covered areas or
moss and lichen is the home of insect life, shrill degraded vegetation forms depending on the level
intermittent shrieking cicadas, the silent flap of of human pressure are described. Such open areas
moth wings at dusk and the persistent call of the are frequently of biological value as they form a
night jar, punctuated by a disturbed lapwing calling different habitat type for several plant and animal
‘did you do it?’ as it flies agitatedly over this pleth- species.
ora of microhabitats in the forest, epitomises the
According to Puri 1983 the forests in the north-
magnificence of the evergreen forest ecosystem.
ern part of the Western Ghats include Moist Tropi-
Even a small snag or hole in a large old tree is home
cal Forest which includes:
to a myriad of faunal species, changing with each
season. Group 1A - Southern Tropical Wet Evergreen
Forest
Group 2A - Southern Tropical Semi Evergreen
Forest and West Coast Semi Evergreen Forest

11
 The forest structure consists of a profusion of in the exposed windy areas. It is usually located
plant species in the groundcover, the shrub layer, 700 metres above sea level. Between 600 to 700 me-
epiphytes and climbers at trunk level, and is char- tres, the common series on western slopes and
acterised by a closed canopy cover. The forests of above 800 metres on eastern slopes of the Western
the crestline of the Western Ghats of Maharashtra Ghats is the Bridelia—Ficus racemosa—Syzygium se-
are areas in which most of the trees are evergreen. ries. This is a transitional form between the moist
In other areas there are hill slopes covered by de- teak and the evergreen Memecylon—Actinodaphne—
ciduous forests. Syzygium series.
The Moist-Deciduous Teak Forest In general the forests of the Sahyadharis in the
Western Ghats of Maharashtra are known as Trop-
This type has a series with Tectona—Dillenia—La-
ical Evergreen Forests which cover sections of the
gerstroemia lanceolata—terminalia paniculata. In the
steep hill slopes (Champion and Seth 1968). The
Northern Western Ghats this occurs predomi-
plant community varies significantly in the differ-
nantly on the western slopes of the Western Ghats
ent topographic features. There are open plateaus
north of Goa. The forest occurs at a height of 600
with a large diversity of herbs, many of which are
to 1000 metres (Puri 1983).
rare and steep precipices with specially adapted
The Semi-Evergreen Forest plants. The vegetation along nala courses differs
This type has a Toona—Garuga series. The cano- from the rest of the forest. This feature leads to the
py itself is semi-deciduous in nature, which makes formation of several microhabitats with their own
the forest an intermediate type between more Wet plant communities.
Evergreen communities and the Moist-Deciduous High Altitude Forest
Types (Puri 1983).
Above 900 metres, the red lateritic soils support
Evergreen Forest small relict patches of a special form of forest con-
The evergreen types of the Southern part of the sisting of Syzygium cumini (Jamun), Actinodaph-
Western Ghats contrast sharply with those north nae sp. (Pisa), Mangifera indica (Mango) with an
of Goa. under-story of Memecylon sp. (Anjan) trees and
an undergrowth of Carvia callosa (Karvi). This is
typical of patches in the northern part of the West-
ern Ghats, where the rainfall is over 5000 mm.
These forests are rich in forest birds, amphibia and
insect life.
Low Level Forest
Typically the forests that occur in depressions
and along nala courses create a mozaic with the
dome-shaped hilltops covered by open grasslands.
The water courses include forest patches with river-
ine vegetation. The giant trees of the valley forests
The Memecylon—Actinodaphne—Syzygium series contrast sharply with the grassy slopes and crags
of the Western Ghats north of Goa is a typical for- that form vertical rock faces nearly devoid of plant
est type that has been extensively fragmented. This cover.
typical form has as many as six ficus species. These
These valley forests are extremely dense. In
forests are typically seen in Mulshi, Mawal, Maha-
most situations the trees grow to a height of about
baleshwar and Bhimashankar in Maharashtra.
45 metres. About 75 per cent of the trees are of
This is a three-tiered, low, but extremely dense veg-
species that may individually contribute only 1
etation type, consisting of mostly evergreen spe-
per cent of the tree community. The height of the
cies. It rarely grows taller than 15 metres, especially
trees below the canopy is occasionally structured
12
into well-defined layers with a specific canopy tree
and a community of different under-storey trees.
At times the vegetation forms a tangle of thick
foliage. The numerous climbers range from small
vines to giant lianas, the latter standing on their
own even after the supporting tree dies. In areas
where the canopy is exceptionally dense, the floor
of the forest has very little vegetation. The ground
is covered with decaying leaves, fungi and rocky ex-
posures. Nala courses and sloping soil from which
subsoil water finds its way out in minute trickles
have banks of ferns and bryophytes. These forests
are extremely rich in orchids. The undergrowth has
cane and bamboo in patches. Strobilanthus callosa
(Karvi shrubs frequently occur as ground cover es-
pecially along the edges of a forest patch or in for-
est openings. This plant occurs gregariously, cover-
ing large open areas with their dense impenetrable
stalks and flowers cyclically after seven years of
dormancy.
Description of Forest in the Western Ghats of
Gujarat
According to Champion and Seths (1968) re-
Percentage Loss of Forest Cover in the Dangs (BVIEER, 2004)
13
vised classification of forest types (1968), the for-
ests of the Dangs belong to the subgroup; South
Indian Moist Deciduous forests’. Within this type
they are classified a ‘moist teak forests’. Based on
the holistic classification of vegetation followed by
Puri et al. (1983) these forests are classified as de-
ciduous teak forest types intermediate between dry
and moist categories. They are named as the Tec-
tona-Terminalia-Adina-Anogeissus series which is
also encountered in the Valsad district of Gujarat,
Nasik and Thane districts of Maharashtra and in
Nagar Haveli. Teak is the most dominant species
and its occurrence is almost universal throughout
the area. The composition of tree growth varies
slightly according to the edaphic and biotic factors
but by and large it is the same throughout the area
(Worah 1991). According to Gadgil and Meher-
Homji (1986) it is vital that the vegetation of this
region should be preserved and not ‘sacrificed on
the altar of teak plantations’. The only other areas
in the country where the forest series represented
in the Dangs, the Tectona-Terminalia-Adina_Ano-
geissus series is found area are all heavily degraded.
In view of these facts the conservation importacne
of these forests cannot be overemphasised. The undergrowth consists of Carvia callosa, Canthi-
um dicocium, Scutia myrtina. The shrubs include
Description of Forests in the Western Ghats in
Capparis pedunculosa, Zizyphus rugosa, Pavetta indica.
Maharashtra
Puri and Mahajan (1960) describe three other com-
Champion and Seth describe the Montane sub- munities which predominantly include Terminalia
tropical forests of this region. It includes Group chebula, Kandia dumetorum and Artocarpus hirsuta.
8-Subtropical Broad leaved hill forests, of which
Along the Western coast of Maharashtra Cham-
Subgroup 8A-Southern Subtropical Broad leaved
pion and Seth describe, Group 2 - Tropical Semi
Hill Forests occurs in Maharashtra. In contrast to
evergreen Forest, type 2A /C2 , and West coast
the Southern Western Ghat these northern forests
Semi-evergreen forest. The last is an intermediate
grow where rainfall is relatively lower and unequal-
type that occurs between evergreen and moist de-
ly distributed, having a marked dry season. These
ciduous with Xylia and Bambusa arundiracea (cane)
forests occur between 1000 m and 1700 m; and
and several climbers. The lower storey is mostly
typically occur in Mahabaleshwar at 1300m. The
evergreen. The forest typically forms a thin strip.
neighbouring forests are of the dry deciduous type.
The rainfall is between 2000 and 2500mm. This
forest runs along hill slopes from 450m to 1050 m.
It has mainly Terminalia paniculata, Largestoremia
lanceolata, Holigarna arnottiana, Elaeocarpus serratus,
Mallotus philippensis.
The type 5 A / C3 Southern Dry Mixed Decidu-
ous forest of the Northern Western Ghat differs
from Dry Teak forest in having different domi-
nants such as Boswellia. It also includes some
thorny plants. It is poor in climbers. The rainfall
is between 875mm to 1125 mm. The character-
istic trees include Anogeissus latifolia, Terminalia to-
Champion and Seth (1968) describes the crest-
mentosa, Hardwickia binata, Boswellia serrata, Hetero
line forests in Maharashtra as type C2-Western
phragma quadriculare, Dichanthium annulatum. The
Subtropical Broad leaved Hill Forests as having
common shrubs include a profusion of Xizyphus
unique features. In well developed form it is a
mauratiana. However, the undergrowth is generally
dense evergreen forest of mixed species, where the
poor and there are patches with dense grass which
height does not exceed 15 m. The trees have a typ-
grows during the monsoon.
ical spreading habit. The old trunks become hal-
low. Occasionally large emergents are Terminalias
or Stereospermum trees of great girth. These for-
ests mainly grow above 100 m in Maharashtra.
Good examples are found in Mahabaleshwar and
Bhimashankar where rainfall is relatively high.
The soil is formed from basaltic trap which is cov-
ered by a thick lateritic cap especially over the flat
plateau tops that are devoid of tree cover but have
a profusion of ground flora with endemic and rare
plants. Champion calls this type C2 - Western Sub-
tropical Hill forest which has Syzygium cumini, Acti-
nodaphne hookeri, Memecylon umbellatum as its dom- Pascal describes the Memecylon umbellatum –
inant trees. Randia dumetorum, Flacourtia latifolia, Syzyguim cumini - Actinodaphn angustifolia type in
Terminalia Chebula, Olea dioica, Glochidion hohenack- great detail as it is different in structure and com-
eri, Pouteria tomentosa are also found in the canopy. position. The upper story has over 60% of Meme-
14
15
 Forest Cover Change in Maharashtra over 20 Years (Source: Panigrahy et. al 2010)
cylon trees with a complement of deciduous trees
giving the overall appearance of a semi – ever-
green forest type. The trees are stunted, gnarled,
and covered in moss and lichens. It is said to be a
secondary edaphic form on the lateritic cap, but is
very ancient.
The loss of forest cover in the Western Ghats
region of Maharashtra over a period of 20 years
has been studied by (Panigrahy et al. 2010). The
decrease in the area of dense forest and increase in
open forest and scrublands are indicators of pres-
sures on the core forested areas. The significant in-
crease in water bodies has been a response to the
growing needs of agriculture, industry and urban-
ization. The impact is related to a further fragmen-
tation of forest continuity. While some species can
get across water bodies others are completely cut
off from neighbouring populations.
According to the State of Forest Report (For-
est Survey of India 2001), in Maharashtra, Thane
district shows the most serious (29.29%) decrease
in dense forest, followed by Nashik (22.5%) and
Ratnagiri (16.45%). Only Raigad district shows
a marginal increase (2.79%) in dense forest. All
16
other districts follow a decreasing trend. The ma-
jor chunk of dense forest is transformed to open
forest and scrublands. Thane district shows a large
increase (30.67%) in open forest which is mostly
contributed by the degradation of dense forest. An
increasing trend is also followed by Nashik district
(>27.25%). Except Mumbai and Kolhapur, all oth-
er districts follow an increasing trend. Mangrove
forests were interpreted only in the four coastal dis-
tricts of Maharashtra, i.e. Thane, Mumbai, Raigad
and Ratnagiri. Raigad district shows highest posi-
tive change in mangroves followed by Thane and
Mumbai, whereas Ratnagiri district shows slight
decrease. Highly dense tree farm land is mapped
only in the four districts, i.e. Raigad, Ratnagiri, Sa-
tara and Sindhudurg. The area statistics follows an
increasing trend in Raigad, whereas a decreasing
trend in Sindhudurg and more or less no change
in Satara and Ratnagiri districts. Less dense tree
farm land is also mapped in only four districts, i.e.
Raigad, Ratnagiri, Satara and Sindhudurg. Only
Sindhudurg district follows an increasing trend
in statistics, whereas Raigad and Ratnagiri show
a decreasing trend. Scrubland area is decreased in
Satara district whereas it is increased in all other
districts. Sindhudurg district (26.28%), Thane lands. As pressures on land increased, these village
(21.72%) and Kolhapur (19.01%) exhibit the high- commons were the first to be degraded (Bharucha
est change in scrublands. The water body area 2008).
has increased more or less in all the districts, out
Streams and Rivers
of which Kolhapur (by 10 times) and Sangli (by 6
times) show the highest change.
Grasslands
Landscapes in which vegetation is mainly formed
by grasses and small annual plants form a variety
of grassland ecosystems with their specific plants
and animals adapted to India’s varied climatic con-
ditions. Grasslands are usually formed in areas of
low rainfall where there is poor soil depth or qual-
ity. These conditions inhibit the growth of trees
and shrubs but are sufficient to support the growth
of grasses and herbs, that spring from the ground These ecosystems include freshwater ecosystems
during the monsoon. These grasses and herbs dry like lakes, rivers, ponds and wetlands. These eco-
off during the summer months, only to grow back systems are rich in their diversity and provide hu-
in the next monsoon. This changes the appearance mans with a wealth of natural resources and ser-
of the grasslands according to the season, with vices. Water, an essential ingredient for life, is
a growth phase followed by a dormant phase. A provided by these ecosystems. These ecosystems
variety of grasses, herbs, insects, birds and mam- include specialized plant and animal species that
mals have evolved to live in these grassland areas. are adapted to live in water. These aquatic ecosys-
Grasslands have been used by man as pastures for tems are characterized by their abiotic features or
their livestock ever since he became a pastoralist in physical aspects such as quality of water, including
ancient times. salinity, rate of flow, clarity and oxygen content.
Grasslands form a variety of ecosystems ac- They are classified as being either still-water eco-
cording to the different climatic conditions. The systems such as ponds and lakes, or running-water
grasslands of the Northern Western Ghats most of ecosystems like streams and rivers. The bed of the
which have been over-grazed or turned into agri- aquatic ecosystem, i.e. the mud, gravel or rocks at
cultural lands through irrigation. Grasslands also the bottom, alters its characteristics and influences
occur when clearings are made in a forest, or when its species composition.
repeated fires are lit that do not allow the forest to Streams and rivers are flowing-water ecosystems
regrow. Each grassland type has its own commu- in which all the living forms are specially adapted
nity of grasses and herbs. They also form habitats to different rates of flow. Some plants and animals
for specialized animals. such as the snails and other burrowing animals can
Human beings began to use these as pastures to withstand the rapid fl ow of the hill streams.
feed their livestock when they changed from being Other species of plants and animals like the wa-
hunter-gatherers to pastoralists. In the past, such ter beetles and skaters can live only in slower mov-
grassy areas were considered to be the common ing water. Some species of fish, such as the mah-
pastures of a village community, and were appro- seer, go upstream from rivers to hill streams for
priately managed. Changes in land-management breeding. They need crystal-clear water to be able
have led to grasslands becoming degraded and to breed. They lay eggs only in clear water so that
unproductive. Our growing livestock population, their young can grow successfully.
however still depends mainly on these degraded
As deforestation occurs in the hills the water in
grassland ecosystems. A major threat is the con-
the streams that once flowed throughout the year
version of lowland grasslands into irrigated farm-
17
becomes seasonal. This leads to flash floods in the conditions that exist here in combination with the
rains and a shortage of water once the streams dry geology and altitude. This in turn results in ex-
up after the monsoon. tremely high local endemism among the flora as
well as the fauna.
The community of flora and fauna of streams
and rivers depends on the clarity, the rate of flow The Kas plateau which is a 25 km. long north-
and oxygen content as well as the nature of their south piece of land has 35 endemic plants of which
beds. The stream or river can have a sandy, rocky five are rare and critically endangered. More than
or muddy bed, each type having its own species of 99 percen tof the species are herbaceous annuals
plants and animals. River ecosystems have been that complete their life cycle during the monsoon.
been cradles of human civilization, and in India, The profusion of flowering plants on Kas has aptly
as elsewhere in the world, ancient settlements were given its name as ‘Maharashtra’s Valley of flow-
established on river banks. As these settlements ers’. The flora on these plateaus is dominated by
grew, people attempted to retain water, the most Urticularia sp., Eriocaulons sp., Drosera, orchids
precious of resources, for longer periods by con- and lilies. These plateaus are equally rich in fauna
structing dams. However, changing the flow pat- with several new species fo caecilians being report-
terns of rivers beyond a certain limit has in fact led ed.
to serious problems and a loss of productivity in
SPECIES DIVERSITY
the aquatic ecosystem and in the surrounding land
(Bharucha 2008). The floral and faunal species of the northern
Western Ghats have elements that are fairly dis-
Plateaus tinctive to the region and have extremely patchy
distributions. While the southern Western Ghats
has been better studied due to its highly endemic
and charismatic species such as the Lion Tailed
Macaque, the Nilgiri Langur and the Nilgiri Thar,
habitat specific species in the northern Western
Ghats have received less attention. This is because
they are often regarded as less charismatic. For ex-
ample, reptiles, amphibia and a wide spectrum of
herbs and other less ‘flamboyant’ floral elements
than those seen in the orchids of the south. Nev-
ertheless, the level of threat which is higher in the
A very important but neglected and little studied north than in the south makes it even more impor-
ecosystem is the ‘sadas’ or the rocky out-crops in tant to rapidly assess biodiversity values and put
the Western Ghats. There have been very little into place both in situ and ex situ species survival
studies done on this unique ecosystem. One of the programmes.
only studies on this ecosystem is by Watve and The Western Ghats is one of the biologically
Thakur 2006. These rocky outcrops are masses of richest areas in India harbouring no less than 3500
exposed rock with very shallow soil cover varying species of flowering plants consisting of about 27%
from a few millimetres to 30 centimeters. The soil flowering plants in the country. The Western Ghats
scarcity makes it very difficult for perennial vegeta- are the most important distribution range for many
tion to thrive. The study by Watve et al. has listed plants at family and generic levels which have ex-
20 major plateaus in the western-most parts of Sa- tremely restricted distributions. They are a poten-
tara, Sangli, Kolhapur and the eastern Sindhudurg tial gene pool of many plant species (Ramakrish-
district as being unique Indian rock outcrops due to na, C. Radhakrishnan, and K. C. Gopi 2001). The
being isolated island like formations on the tops of Ghats harbour a healthy population of most of the
tall hill ranges. The unique biodiveisty on these animal species of India with a fairly high degree of
rocky outcrops is a result of the extreme climatic endemism.
18
 Partial List of Threatened Flora and Fauna in Various Locations in the Northern Western Ghats
A= Amphibians B= Birds R = Reptiles M = Mammals P=Plants
Threatened = Critically Endangered + Endangered + Vulnerable + Near Threatened
Critically Near
Name Endangered Vulnerable Least Concern Endemic Total Threatened
Endangered Threatened
A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P
Aguada Fort 1 2 3 1
Ahmednagar 2 1 3 3
Ajgaon 1 1 1
Akkalkuva 1 1
Alibag 1 1 1 3 2
AmbaVillage 2 6 1 9 2
Amravati 2 2 2
Ambavane 3 2 1 6 6
Ambaghat 2 2 1 5 5
Amboli 7 11 1 1 5 2 2 3 1 1 1 3 38 32
Anjanari 2 1 1 4 4
Anjuna 3 7 1 3
Archirne 1 1 1
Aurangabad 2 1 3 3
Baga 1 1 7 9 2
Bapdev Ghat 11 11
Bandra 2 2 2
Bardez 3 3
Bedse 1 1 1
Bhandardara 1 1 1
Bhandup 1 1 2 2
Bhatgar dam 2 2
Bhimashankar 1 3 2 1 2 1 4 69 4 3 9 14
Bhor Ghat 1 3 4 1
Bondla Sanctu-
ary 1 1 3 1 1 2 15 14 38 9
Borivili 1 2 4 2 1 4 1 15 1
Canacona 2 1 2 1 3 6 5 2 15
Candolim 1 1 1
Carambolim 2 2 13 17 4
Castle Rock 1 1 1
Chakur 3 3 3
Chandoli 1 1 5 2 2 18 2 2 33 11
Chapora estu-
ary 1 1 2 4 2
Chandgad 1 2 7 2 12 3
Coastal belt of
Goa 3 1 1 1 1 8 15 7
Colva 2 2
Corlim 2 13 15 2
Chakan Alandi
Road 1 1 1
Chorao sanctu-
ary 1 1
Cortalim 1 1 1

19
 Critically Near
Name Endangered Vulnerable Least Concern Endemic Total Threatened
Endangered Threatened
A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P
Cotigoa WLS 1 1 2 2 4 16 3 29 1
Curlorim
Dabolim 1 1
Dajipur 1 3 2 6 4
Daulatabad 1 1 1
Dangs 1 1 3 3 1 8 7 6 3 1 34 24
Dapoli 2 2 2
Devgad 4 4 4
Devrukh 1 1 2 1
Dhadgaon 3 3
Dhanori 1 1 1
Dhobi Waterfall 1 1
Dhule 1 1 1
Divar 1 2 3 1
Dona Paula 1 1 2 4 1
Dongarwadi 1 1 1
Dudhsagar 2 1 1 1 1 6 5
Duke’s Nose 1 1
Elephanta
Caves 1 1 1
Gaganbawda 1 2 3 6 6
Ganpati Pule 1 1 1
Gautala WLS 2 2
Goregaon 1 1 1
Ghod River 1 1 1
Ghoti 2 2
Goa-Karnataka
border 2 2 2
Goa Meat
Complex 2 1 1 4 3
Harishchan-
dragad 2 5 5 2 14 14
Hewra 1 1 1
Hills of Satara 1 1
Igatpuri 1 1 1 3 6 3
Jarandeshwar 2 2 4 4
Javali 1 1
Junnar 5 7 9 1 22 22
Kalapani 1 1 1
Oyster Rock 1 1
Kagal 1 1
Kalamba 3 3
Kamshet 1 1 2 1
Kanheri Caves 1 1 1
Kankavli 1 1 1
Karanja 1 1 1
Karjat 1 2 3 1
Karli 1 1 1

20
 Critically Near
Name Endangered Vulnerable Least Concern Endemic Total Threatened
Endangered Threatened
A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P
KarnalaBird-
sanctuary 15 15
Katrajghat 1 2 1 2 6 4
Kas Plateau 2 7 1 3 13 10
Kelshi 1 1 1
Keri 2 4 4 1 2
Khadakwasla 5 5
Khardi 1 1
Khandala 7 6 1 16 1 6 82 1 3 123 37
Khed 2 1 3 3
Kolad 1 2 3 1
Koyna Dam 1 1 1 5 1 3 29 2 2 45 12
Kumbharli
Ghat 1 1 2 4 4
Lingmala Wa-
terfall 2 2
Lohagad 1 1 1
Lonavala (INS
Shivaji) 2 3 1 8 3 1 1 17 19
Madei
Mahabaleshwar 8 19 2 1 12 1 2 1 4 25 1 3 79 5
Mahim 1 1 1
Maheshma 3 3
Malad 1 1 1
Malangarh 1 1
Marathawada 1 1 1
Marleshwar 1 1 1
Margaon 1 3 4
Marmagoa 4 3 7
Mahad Ghat 1 1 1
Malshej ghat 15 15
Malwan 3 4 2 3 12 12
Maneri 1 1 1
Matheran 1 4 1 9 1 1 1 27 1 1 47 18
Mayem 3 3 3
Mira Bhayandar
Road 1 2 3 3
Mirya 1 1 1
Moti Bagh 1 1
Mulshi 1 1 1 1 15 1 20 4
Mumbai 1 1 2 1
Mumbra 1 2 3 3
Mollem 2 3 2 1 3 4 4 4 18 25 66 23
Nagapur 1 1 1
Nagoa Velley 3 5 8 3
Nagothane 2 2 2
Naneghat 1 1 1
Narayangaon 1 1

21
 Critically Near
Name Endangered Vulnerable Least Concern Endemic Total Threatened
Endangered Threatened
A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P
Nashik-Pune
Road 1 1 2 1
Navapur 1 1
N.D.A. Pune 1 1
Nizampur 3 3
Osmanabad 1 1 1
Pandavleni Hill 1 1 1
Panaji 2 1 2 2 7 3
Panchgani 1 12 5 1 4 21 44 23
Panhala 1 1 3 5 2
Patan 1 1 1
Paud 1 1 1
Panvel 2 2
Pasarni Ghat
Panshet 37 1 38
Pen 1 1
Peth 1 1 1
Phaltan 1 1 1
Phansad 2 2 26 2 1 33 4
Phonda 2 1 1 1 4 7 16 9
Pimplaner 12 12
Poinguinim 1 6 7
Pratapgad 1 1 1 3 2
Pune 1 1 2 1
Purandar 3 7 5 1 3 19 16
Radhanagari 1 2 2 1 5 3 29 1 4 48 14
Raigad 4 7 1 12 11
Raireshwar 3 1 2 6 4
Rajgad 1 1 2 1
Ramghat 2 4 1 7 7
Ratangad 5 1 6
Ratnagiri 3 1 7 11 11
Roha 1 1 1
Sajjangad 1 1 1
Sakri 3 3
Salsette Island 1 1 2 2
Sanegaon 1 1 1
Saputara 1 1 1
Sanguem 1 1
Sanquelim 1 1 1
Santa Cruz 1 1
Satara Fort 1 1 2 4 2
SawantwadiRF 1 1 1 24 1 28 3
Selaulimn 1 1
Shahada 4 4
Shindewadi 1 1
Shirgaon 1 1 1
Shirpur 2 2

22
 Critically Near
Name Endangered Vulnerable Least Concern Endemic Total Threatened
Endangered Threatened
A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P A B R M P
Shirwal 1 1
Shirwata 1 1 1
Sindhudugh 3 1 3 7 7
Sinhagad 1 5 8 4 1 1 53 1 74 2
Talegaon 2 2 2
TambdiSurla-
temple 1 1 1
Tamhini Ghat 3 3
Tansa WLS 1 2 18 21 3
Tapti 8 8
Takmak Hill 1 1 2 2
Torna 1 1 1
Tilari Ghat 2 2 2
Tiswadi 1 1
Trombay 1 2 3 3
Tungar 3 1 1 5 4
Tungaresh-
warWS 1 11 12 1
Vaibhavwadi 1 1 1
Valpoi 1 3 4 4
Vasco da Gama 1 1 2 1
Valsad 1 2 3 3
Valvan Dam 1 1
Velim 1 1 1
Vasota Fort 1 2 1 1 14 1 2 5
Vengurla 1 2 1 4 4
Verla-Canca 1 1
Wada 2 2
ZuariandMa-
ndovirivers 1 1 1
Yavteshwar 1 1 2 2
Yelur 1 1 1
Sources: Zoological Survey of India, Botanical Survey of India, Important Bird Areas, Red Data Book, ENVIS, AERF, Aparna
Watve, Prachi Mehta, Jayant Kulkarni, Sameer Punde, Varad Giri, Ashok Captain, Ankur Patwardhan

Aravind et al. (2007) have compared the rate of
discovery of new species for eight taxa in the West-
ern Ghats. They conclude that while the rate of
discovery of birds and butterflies has slowed down,
the possibility of discovery of new species among
frogs, tiger beetles, grasses, asters, ferns and or-
chids is still high considering that not much work
has been done on these taxa.
As taxonomic research into plants and animals
in the Western Ghats continues, new species are
constantly being identified. This is a result of more
intensive work, for example, among Aerocolons in
floral surveys and amphibians such as caecilians
23
and frogs in faunal studies. Surprisingly, they are
found almost anywhere in the Western Ghats, not
necessarily in very remote, undisturbed or inacces-
sible regions. This makes the precautionary princi-
ple in identifying ESAs one of the most important
aspects in developing possible protection strate-
gies to prevent extinctions in the northern Western
Ghats.
While a few species have shown extended ranges
in the recent past, several others have been reduced
to restricted ranges. A typical example is the north-
ward extension in Maharashtra of elephants from
the south and tigers into Chandoli WLS. Altera-
tions in the range of major mammals have become of flowering plants are considered endemic to the
an overt phenomenon and are often reported in Western Ghats. Recent studies have suggested that
newspaper articles. However, changes in the ranges there could be 1500 endemic species of flowering
of less known taxa such as Hemidactylus prashadi, plants. Although the exact number keeps varying
a rare gecko that has spread northwards in Maha- with the author and time, what is of interest is that
rashtra, does not make newspaper headlines (Giri nearly 38% of all species of flowering plants in the
and Bauer 2006). Western Ghats are endemic. Sixty three per cent
of India’s evergreen woody plants are said to be
Flora
endemic to the Western Ghats (Daniels 2001).
During a vegetation survey of Chandoli WLS in
the northern Western Ghats, some forest patches
were found to be supporting climatic climax forest
harbouring high levels of tree endemism. A total
of 102 woody plant species were recorded belong-
ing to 85 genera and 44 families, of which 13 tree
species are endemic to Western Ghats and 4 are
threatened (Kanade et al. 2008).
The Botanical Survey of India (BSI) floras that
have been published over the last decade or two pro-
vide a background for further studies that can help
categories ESAs. During the recent past, several
‘loras of Maharashtra’ that include the Western
Ghats have been produced between 1996 and 2001.
The ‘Flora for Mahabaleshwar’ has been produced
in 1993 and 1995 in 2 volumes. The ‘Flora for of
Khandala’ is relatively old flora and was produced
in 1967. A redo of this Flora would be an appropri-
ate way to appreciate which species have been lost
during the last 50 years. The ‘Plant Diversity Hot
Spots in India – An Overview’ (Hajra and Mudgal
1997) has relevance to the floristic bases on which
ESAs in the Western Ghats could be based.
As early as 1904, Hooker had drawn attention to In 1980, Botanical Survey of India published
the distinctive flora of the Western Ghats which he ‘Threatened Plants of India – A state of the Art
called the ‘Malabar’ floristic region. These includeReport’ (Jain and Sastry 1980); and in 1983 fol-
species such as Bambusae, Dipterocarpaceae, Gut- lowed this with ‘An Assessment of Threatened
tiferae, Myristicaceae and Palmae (Arecaceae) Plants of India’ (Jain and Rao 1983) and the ‘En-
(Hooker 1904). demic Plants of the Indian Region’ (Ahmedullah
Four thousand species of flowering plants are and Nayar 1987).
known from the Western Ghats. The gymnosperm A review the vegetation, diversity and peculiar-
flora is represented by Cycas circinalis (Cyca- ity of the flora of the Western Ghats with partic-
dales), Decussocarpus wallichianus (Coniferales) ular reference to angiosperms (Nair and Daniel
and Gnetum ula and G. contractum (Gnetales). 1986) shows that this flora is of an ancient lineage.
Amongst the lower plants around 320 species of Endemism in the angiosperm flora has been re-
pteridophytes, 200 species of bryophytes, 300 spe- viewed with present knowledge on the presumably
cies of algae and 800 species of lichens are known. extinct, endangered, threatened and rare plants of
There are 600 species of fungi. Fifty-six genera this region. An attempt has been made to identify
24
25
the threats. The current conservation status is dis- scribed by the scientists of the Zoological Survey
cussed and certain measures to counter the further of India, during 1916-1991’ (Das, 2003), ‘Globally
loss of species are suggested. Threatened Indian Fauna’ (Kumar and Khama,
2006), ‘Faunal Resources in India’ (Alfred, Das,
The three volumes of the ‘Red Data Book of In-
and Sanyal 1998) and ‘Fauna of Bhimashankar
dian Plants’ were written between 1984 and 1987
Wildlife Sanctuary’ (Mahabal, 2009).
(Nayar et al. 1987). This shows that much of the
floristic work relevant to the ESAs of the Western According to a report by the Critical Ecosystem
Ghats would have to be based on data collected Partnership Fund (Bawa et al. 2007), in the West-
twenty years ago! The two more recent works are ern Ghats, there are:
also a decade old. These include ‘Endemic and 508 species of birds of which 4% are endemic
Threatened Flowering Plants of Maharashtra’
(Mishra and Singh 2001) and ‘Flora of Sanjay Gan- 218 species of fish of which 53% are endemic
dhi National Park, Borivali’ (Pradhan et al. 2005). 157 species of reptiles of which 62% are endemic
This illustrates a need for more updated documen-
137 species of mammals of which 12% are en-
tation of recent floral status compared with the
demic
older versions. However, this requires funds and
expertise. This could use newer methods of species 126 species of amphibians of which 78% are en-
identification and distribution which have been demic
developed in the recent past, for example micro New species are still being identified at irregu-
satellite markers for critically endangered species lar intervals in the northern Western Ghat of both
(Sumangala et al. 2009). plants and animals. Currently the focus has been
Fauna on amphibian insects and plants. A recent exam-
ple is the discovery of a new caecilid caecilian in
the Western Ghat of Southern Maharashtra. These
are just a few examples that demonstrate the rate at
which even little understood taxa are being found.
It is an indicator of not only species richness but
about what still remains unknown to science, hid-
den away in the depths of the forests of the West-
ern Ghats.
Mammals
The status of large mammals of the northern
Western Ghats has been depleted in large sections
During the last decade, work done by the Zoo- of the Western Ghats. There has been a recent
logical Survey of India focuses more on North abundance however in some species within a few
Eastern states of India and Andaman fauna rather of the Protected Areas. Outside Protected Areas
than on the northern Western Ghats. the situation continues to worsen due to habitat
Fauna of Gujarat (Vertebrates) and Fauna of loss as well as hunt by rich urban dwellers and by
Goa were published in 2000 and 2008 respectively rural people for crop protection and to prevent pre-
by the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI). However dation of their cattle and snaring for meat.
a single volume of the fauna of Maharashtra has A few species that were not seen over several de-
not yet been published. There are isolated docu- cades have however been seen in the recent past.
ments pertaining to certain areas of Maharashtra. An example is the Rusty Spotted Cat that has been
These include ‘Fauna of Sanjay Gandhi National seen in the Dangs, Nashik and Borivali.
Park’ (Zoological Survey of India 2006) published
The Gaur population is probably stable in Rad-
in 2006 by the ZSI, ‘A catalogue of new taxa de-
hanagari and may have increased to some extent in
26
Chandoli and Koyna. Gaur have moved towards
old Mahabaleshwar. A single stray male was seen
and tranquilized in the BVIEER Nature Trail at
Dhankawadi which was then considered to be
the southern outskirts of Pune in January 2000
(BVIEER, personal communication).
The Malabar Giant Squirrel may have stable
populations in areas such as Bhimashankar but is
distinctly rarer than a few decades ago in areas
such as Lonavala-Khandala and Mahabaleshwar.
However, as there are no carefully quantified scien-
tific studies on their population dynamics, this re-
mains questionable.
range extension of the tiger into Chandoli and
probably as far north as Mulshi through Koyna and
Mahabaleshwar.
The question that remains unanswered is wheth-
er this indicates a true increase in abundance lead-
ing to moving outwards or an increase in the level
of disturbance in existing habitats.
These movements however, suggest the existence
of viable corridors. But the corridors may be under
serious threats from new forms of landuse.
While sambhar and chital in the Dangs have all
but disappeared except in Vansda National Park,
a small patch of old grown teak forest, these her-
bivores appear to be less abundant everywhere.
Chital however increased distinctly in the Sanjay
Gandhi National Park.

The Mouse Deer and the Four Horned Antelope

are distinctly less common. However, there is little
quantified census of these animals except in PAs
during their annual census.
Nameer et al. provide a comprehensive check-
list of mammals of the Western Ghats which in-
clude 137 species. Thirty two mammals which are
Two species have distinctly expanded their range. threatened globally or in India occur in the West-
The leopard near Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctu- ern Ghats. However, there is not enough informa-
ary has moved into sugarcane agricultural tracts of tion to assess the status of 22 mammals. Of the 16
Junnar. They have led to serious conflict issues. endemics, 13 are threatened in the Western Ghats.
Bonnet macaques moving into village and urban They record 50 species of Chiroptera, 31 species of
environments such as Matheran have even turned Rodentia, 25 Carnivora, 11 Artiodactyla, 11 Insec-
aggressive towards humans. tivora and 5 Primates in the Western Ghats.
Finally the surprise package has been the north- The Western Ghats is store house of endemic
ward spread of elephants into the Sahyadri in Ma- flora and fauna, in which endemicity appears to
harashtra where they have not occurred in histori- increase with decreasing body size. Mammals are
cal times. There has also been a recent northward well represented in this chain of mountains with

27
137 species of which 16 are found in no other place within a very brief span of time.
on earth. The mammalian fauna of the Western Raptors are distinctly falling in numbers across
Ghats is dominated by insectivores (11 species), the northern ranges. However, this appears to be
bats (41 species) and rodents (27 species includ- the case across the country. Studies on pessarine
ing the porcupine). Collectively the various threats bird communities through ringing have not been
had already led to serious implications on mam- done for many years and thus quantified evidence
mal abundance. The authors point out that small- of their abundance is unavailable.
er mammals have been poorly studied which in
fact dominate the species of the mammals in the
Ghats. Few studies have however paid attention to
the community structure and organisation of these
small mammals in the Western Ghats. There there
have been attempts to review the understanding of
the status and ecology of smaller cats and lesser
carnivores. Evergreen forests are particularly suit-
ed to frugivorous arboreal primates and squirrels
while the deciduous forests offer the best habitat
for the larger grazing herbivores like the gaur and
deer (Nameer, Molur, and Walker 2001).
Many of these hill bIrds are common to the Hi-
The other detailed published works on fauna
malayas and are migrants that move southwards in
include ‘Checklist of Mammals of India’ (Alfred
the Ghats during the winter. They also move lo-
2002), ‘Endemic Birds of India’ (Dasgupta et al.
cally up and down the Ghats from the plains to the
2002) and ‘Endemic Mammals of India’, (Alfred
crestline forests seasonally. Nearly a third of In-
and Chakraborty 2002), ‘Wroughton’s Free Tailed
dia’s bird species are found in the Western Ghats.
Bat’ (Ramakrishna et al. 2003), ‘Validation of
Disturbances in the migrational movements, in-
Threatened Mammals of India’ (Alfred et al. 2006)
creasing forest fragmentation with isolation of the
and ‘Checklist of Indian Ungulates’ (Alfred and
forest patches could be responsible for major losses
De 2006) by the ZSI.
of avifauna in the near future.
Birds
Of all organisms, birds are the best studied in
the Western Ghats. Beginning in the 1860s, Brit-
ish naturalists and planters were busy surveying the
Western Ghats, collecting and describing the avi-
fauna. Subsequent surveys by the Bombay Natural
History Society (then led by Dr Salim Ali), the var-
ious State Departments of Forests, especially Ker-
ala, many nature clubs and amateur birdwatchers
have suggested that there are 508 species of birds,
of which a total of 324 species (64%) are resident.
These are predominantly land birds. Nineteen spe-
cies may be considered endemic to the Western
The Western Ghats is well known for its richness Ghats. For example, the most important pheasant
in bird species. What has hit the avifauna seriously species are found only in the Western Ghats and
and precipitously is the near total loss of the cir- nowhere else.
cling vultures that thermaled their way over the
crags and escarpments of the Western Ghats only
two decades ago. Diclophenac has seriously killed
off thousands of these important scavenging birds
28
 move back northwards. The species richness in
shifting cultivation sites, scrubland and paddy
lands, was higher than in evergreen forest, stream
banks and grassland. This suggests that while ever-
green patches in this fragmented habitat are impor-
tant for the rarer forest birds the patches of man-
modified systems are also important as they
support a diversity of generalist species.
Reptiles

Few endemic species have been observed to ex-

tend north of Goa. In general, the endemic bird
species of the Western Ghats are primarily birds of
the rainforests and of the higher elevations of sho-
la-grassland complexes. Locally, when equal areas
are compared, there are more species of birds per
unit area in the central parts of the Western Ghats.
This is primarily due to mixing of migrants and
generalist species of birds with the resident special-
ists and endemics. Although they provide habitat
to a number of specialists and endemic birds with 157 species of reptiles including the crocodile
greater conservation value, wet evergreen forests Crocodylus palustris are known from the Western
and montane sholas are comparatively less diverse Ghats. Majority of the reptile species are snakes.
in bird species than secondary or disturbed ever- In all 97 species, representing 36 genera (2 genera
green and moist deciduous forests (Daniels 2001). of turtle/tortoise, 20 snake, 14 lizard) are endemic.
Endemism is highest amongst snakes, especially
with the family Uropeltidae alone contributing 33
species. Amongst lizards, dwarf geckoes (Cnemas-
pis spp) and skinks (Ristella, Lygosoma, Mabuya
and Scincella) have the maximum number of en-
demic species (Daniels 2001).

Padhye et al. describe season and landscape ele-

ment wise changes in community structure of
Tamhini in the northern Western Ghats. The study
area is a typical semi-evergreen forest patch where
degradation has altered the landscape substantially
over the last 3 or 4 decades (Padhye et al. 2007).
The authors demonstrate two peaks due to migra- Unlike other groups this group has a limited
tion, breeding, food availability and vegetation number of published works. An earthsnake, Uro-
changes. A major peak was in early winter as mi- peltis macrolepis (Peters) from Mahabaleshwar,
grants move south and another in spring as they Satara District which differed from the descrip-
tions in the old and new faunas, not only in the
29
presence of an unbroken line but also in the scala-
tion was identified in 1955 by V. K. Chari (Chari
1955). The state of taxonomy of Uropeltis snakes
has been studied by Gower et al. from the Western
Ghats of Maharashtra. They have demonstrated
the distribution of a species that is known only
from Bhimashankar and Fangul Gawhan which
are 30 km apart (Gower, Captain, and S. S Thakur
2008).

Amphibia
Over three fourths of the amphibia found in the
Western Ghats are endemic to this small biogeo-
graphic zone. Of the 224 amphibia found in In-
dia 121 (60%) are present in the Western Ghat of
which 89 are endemic to this biogeographic region
The 121 species fall under 24 genera, six families
and two orders. The family ranidae (true frogs) has
the largest number of species (49) amounting to
A new ground dwelling gecko has been described 42% of the amphibian fauna of the Western Ghats.
from plateau tops in the northern Western Ghat of There is a remarkable diversity of caecilians in the
Maharashtra. Hemidactylus species of Gekkoni- Western Ghats. 16 out of 20 species known in In-
dae have extremely restricted ranges though they dia occur in the Western Ghats; all 16 being en-
cover wide expanses of geographical area. The demic (Daniels 2001).
habitat in which it was described consists of a de-
graded plateau top with wind mills and electric Species that are unique to the Western Ghat
poles near Satara (Giri and Bauer 2008). New spe- such as caecilians and the frog Nasikabatrachus sahy-
cies are still being discovered in the northern West- adryensis are fairly recent discoveries indicating the
ern Ghats and there could be several other undis- need for more taxonomic research in the northern
covered ones. Giri et al. describe a new ground Western Ghat. This unique frog has been placed
dwelling gecko from the Northern Western Ghat in a new family and is said to be allied to frogs in
near Kolhapur in 2009. A typical feature is the un- Seychelles and Madagascar.
usal occurrence of an iridescent tail not seen in
geckos (Giri, Bauer, and Gaikwad 2009).
The Northern Western Ghats remain largely un-
explored for herpetological values but with more
field work being undertaken the knowledge of spe-
cies level diversity is on the rise. Three new species
of caecilians and two lizards have been described
in recent years (Giri, Aaron Bauer, and Gaikwad
2009). This gives further importance for creating
ESAs as there are likely to be many other species
with limited ranges that are not found in other
parts further south. Daniels described the amphibians of the West-
ern Ghat in 1992. The paper shows that the West-
ern Ghats of India are very rich in amphibian spe-
30
cies with 117 species of frogs, toads and caecilians. Dahanukar and Padhye have described amphibi-
Eighty-nine species are endemic to this biogeo- an diversity and distribution at Tamhini ghat at the
graphical region. Analysis of ranges and patterns boarder of Pune and Ratnagiri Districts. This is a
of geographical distribution of amphibians on the zone that will be increasingly disturbed by urban-
Western Ghats suggest that the southern half of ization and road transport in the Mulshi Taluka.
the Western Ghats and the low-medium elevation This study done in 1997-2000 provides a base line
hills are more diverse in species than the northern study documenting 23 species, of which eight were
half and higher hills. This is attributed to the more restricted to only 3 sites, 5 were partly distributed
widespread rainfall and the less variable climatic in 3-7 sites. The rest were continuously spread.
conditions in the south. About half the species are Spatial distribution of frogs showed a nested bio-
apparently localized. Of those, species with wider diversity in the Western Ghat. It showed a higher
ranges, a majority show patchy distribution. Spe- species richness in the south, a decrease of species
cies preferring the moist evergreen forests as habi- at higher elevations and an increase in number in
tats tend to have a highly patchy and fragmented relation to an increase in tree species (Dahanukar
distributions. This appears to be a result of habitat and Padhye 2005)
destruction and fragmentation and isolation. The
overall patterns of species richness and local ende-
mism are rather different from those of the angio-
sperms and birds. In birds and angiosperms, a sig-
nificant proportion of endemics are found on the
higher hills. On the contrary, endemic amphibian
species are found in the lower altitudinal range of
0-1000 m, with a majority between 800 and 1000 m
(Daniels 1992).
There have been several studies doen on amphib-
ians in the Northern Western Ghats especially Ma-
harahstra. Bhatta has developed a field guide for Another new species of caecilidae was identified
Western Ghats caecilians in 1998 (Bhatta 1998). in Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary in Goa in 2004 (Bhat-
Pillai and Ravichandran have created a taxonom- ta and Prashanth 2004). In between the years 2000
ic study of the amphibians of India in 2005 (Pil- and 2007 four new species of caecilians were dis-
lai, Ravichandran, and Zoological Survey of In- covered (Bhatta et al. 2007).
dia 2005). Dinesh et al. have made an annotated
Fish
checklist of ‘Amphibia of India’ published by ZSI
in 2009 according to which of the 284 species of There are around 218 species of primary and
amphibians that are from India, 132 are endemic secondary freshwater fishes in the Western Ghats.
to Western Ghats (Dinesh et al. 2009) 53% of all fish species (116 species in 51 genera) in
the Western Ghats are endemic (Daniels 2001). A
In Amboli Ghat a new toad Xanthophryne tige-
review of literature shows while there have been
rinus was identified in 2009 (Biju et al. 2009), In
a few publications, a lot of work still needs to be
2004 Giri et al. discovered a new caecilid caeci-
done.
lian from Khandala – Lonavala (Giri, Gower, and
Wilkinson 2004). The region that comprises the A ‘Checklist of Freshwater Fishes of India’ by
Northern Western Ghat is thus recognized as an AGK Menon appeared from the Zoological Sur-
important center of diversity of these little known vey of India (ZSI) in 1999 (Menon 1999). A book
limbless, snake–like caecilian amphibians (Gower on the Deccan Mahseer was published by Jayaram
et al. 2007). Pillai and Ravi Chandran identified in 2005 (Jayaram 2005). Yadav published Ichthyo
four endemic species of caecilids (Ravichandran, fauna of the northern Western Ghat in 2003 (Ya-
Gower, and Wilkinson 2003). dav 2003)

31
 Distribution, endemism and threat status of ence in four dams that limit fish movement thus
freshwater fishes in the Western Ghats of India accounting for their presence only in extreme up-
has been reviewed (Dahanukar, R. Raut, and Bhat stream areas. One of the major losses has been the
2004). From literature review the paper records complete local extinction of the Mahseer that was
288 species belonging to 12 orders, 41 families and found well into the 1950s. Conservation measures
109 genera, of which 118 species are endemic and include pollution management, controlled harvest-
51 are unique. However, the species accumulation ing of fish and artificial breeding (Kharat et al.
curve showed that there might be 345 species in 2003). The Tata Power Company Mahseer breed-
this region, indicating that 16% species have not ing center initiated by Mr. Shashank Ogale has
been recorded. been running a highly successful breeding program
and has performed major reintroduction into their
An analysis of the distribution pattern of fishes
lakes and natural ponds.
in the Western Ghats suggests that the southern re-
gion is more diverse than the northern and central A study by Bhat has stressed that very little is
regions. The southern region shows high endemism known about freshwater species distributions in
and high uniqueness while the northern region the Central Western Ghat. Four rivers, Sharavati,
shows high endemism but less uniqueness. The Aghanashini, Bedti and Kali, of the central West-
similarity index between the zones indicates that ern Ghats were studied for their fish diversity and
as the distance between the zones increases similar- composition. A total species richness of 92 spe-
ity decreases. The status of 105 of 288 species was cies (and an endemicity of 25%) was reported. A
not known due to data deficiency but among the comparison of expected species richness estimates
remaining 183 species, 58 species were categorized using different statistical estimators was made –
as low risk, 41 as vulnerable, 54 as endangered, 24 these showed the expected species richness to be
as critically endangered while the remaining six in the range of 92–120 species. Many of the spe-
species were introduced. cies were found to be shared with those belonging
to the southern Western Ghats, but the study also
The paper concludes that the distribution pat-
unearthed new findings in terms of description of
terns of fishes in the Western Ghats is in accor-
a new species and extension of the known distri-
dance with the geography of Western Ghats, its
bution range of some of the species. The study at
climatic conditions and ‘Satpura Hypothesis’.
varying spatial and temporal scales also showed
The threat status of fishes found in Western that while the rivers are very similar to each oth-
Ghats suggests that at least 41% of fish fauna is er in terms of the species richness values, they do
threatened by either being vulnerable, endangered vary with respect to the species composition. Spe-
or critically endangered. cies compositions across upper (or lower) reaches
Studies by Kharat et al. investigated changes in of these rivers were found to be more similar to
species diversity of riverine fish fauna in North one another than the upstream and downstream
western Ghats. This was done using five faunal reaches in the same river. Temporal patterns, with
checklists spread over the last six decades. Though regard to diurnal activity of fishes were studied.
the fish species diversity of Mula-Mutha river ap- These showed that of the 72 species collected at
pears to be constant, loss of endemic and native night, 29 were exclusive to night sampling. Though
species and their replacement with introduced spe- much of the information of the feeding and habitat
cies is a serious threat. Besides heavy harvest, an- preferences of the fishes in this region is lacking,
thropogenic activities like dam construction, habi- it is speculated that the differences in their activity
tat destruction, biological and chemical pollution patterns could be related to feeding and predator
in the Mula -Mutha rivers are assumed to be re- avoidance (Bhat 2003).
sponsible for the loss of over 30 native fish species Macro and microhabitat analyses were applied
during the last 60 years. They suggest that apart to characterise the fish assemblage structure in ten
from pollution heavy harvesting, introductions of streams of the Western Ghat mountains of Penin-
exotic fish are contributory causes in their pres-
32
sular India. Macrohabitat features, such as chan- to be less common. Moths such as the Atlas and
nel gradient, stream depth, stream width, riparian Lunar Moths have decidedly become rarer in the
cover, instream cover, habitat types and substrates, last decade or two.
were used. Microhabitat requirements of the abun- Joshi and Dahanukar have studied the ecology
dant cyprinids (35 species) were also analysed. and diversity of centipedes in the Northern West-
Macrohabitat assessment indicated that high habi- ern Ghat. The species showed habitat and micro-
tat diversity was associated with a high species di- habitat preferences, feeding habitats and seasonal
versity, and that habitat volume was a major deter- variations. In the northern Western Ghat of the
mining factor for species diversity and abundance. 102 species of centipede found in India 18 were
In all streams, cyprinids were the dominant group found in the study area. Open scrub was a pre-
in the assemblage and almost all cyprinids were ferred habitat type.
confined to pools with varied habitat diversity.
Riffle dwelling species included ancient forms such
as Glyptothorax madraspatnum, G. trewasae and
Homaloptera santhamparaiensis. Suitable micro-
habitats for dominant cyprinid species were pools
and riffle edges. Big-sized barbs and mahseers such
as Hypselobarbus dobsoni, H. curmuca, H. du-
bius, Labeo calbasu, Puntius sarana, Tor khudree
and Tor khudree malabaricus were confined to
deep pools with a large area. Smaller Puntius spe-
cies like P. fasciatus, P. melanampyx, P. narayani,
P. sophore, P. ticto and P. vittatus lived in shallow
backwater pools and pools with low flow. Species Butterflies in the Western Ghats belong to five
like P. arulius tambiraparniei, P. amphibius, P. bi- families, 166 genera and 330 species. Of these, 37
maculatus and P. filamentosus were found towards species are endemic. These 330 species of butter-
shallow pools with moderate flow. Surface-dwell- flies depend on over 1000 species plants for feeding
ing species such as Danio aequipinnatus, Rasbora and breeding. Butterflies of India – Red Data Book
daniconius, Salmostoma spp. and Barilius spp. pre- was published in 2005 by ZSI (Gupta and Mondal
ferred deepwater habitats with high flow. Habitat- 1994). Out of a total of 50,000 km2 of primary
based multivariate analysis revealed four guilds: forest in the Western Ghats, only 16% of primary
surface dwellers, column dwellers, generalized forest cover exists today. Being good indicators of
bottom dwellers and specialized bottom dwellers climatic conditions as well as seasonal and ecologi-
(Arunachalam 2000). cal changes, butterflies can serve in formulating
strategies for conservation. Butterfly visibility gives
The Northern Western Ghats have approximate-
these insects an important place as an indicator of
ly 80 species of food fish, 25 species of aquarium
change in habitats if done repeatedly by using the
fish and 32 species of larvivorous fish which could
same methodology over several years. Single as-
possibly be used in bio-control of malaria. It is
sessments however have a rather limited note ex-
thus evident that maintainenece of natural rivers
cept in comparing their abundance in different
with respect to quality and quantity of water is cru-
landscape elements (Padhye et al. 2006).
cial to fish conservation in the Northern Western
Ghats. Subramanian studied spiders of the Western
Ghat in the 1950s. The author describes the Tet-
Insects
ragnathidae and Argiopidae, with which the paper
Both day and night insect richness is a promi- deals, are two large families of web-weaving spiders
nent feature of the faunal diversity of the Western under Arachnomorphae. In these families there are
Ghats. Their status in terms of abundance is diffi- several curious genera which present great varia-
cult to assess. Several prominent butterflies appear tion in size, shape coloration and habits. Some spe-
33
cies are so small that they cannot be studied with- Others
out a lens. On the other hand there is a well known
gaint spider, Nephila maculata whose body length
measures more than two inches. Most of the mem-
bers weave plain, circular snares suspended verti-
cally, obliquely, or horizontally among plants and
shrubs or between branches of trees (Subramanian
1955).

A few studies in the Western Ghats have paid

attention to aquatic invertebrates including mol-
luscs. During the early 1980s, a study of aquatic
insects in the Nilgiris indicated that human inter-
ference in the upper Nilgiris has apparently reduced
the diversity of species in seemingly undisturbed
areas as Silent Valley. Habitat loss and pollution in
Kunte (1997) work on butterflies in northern Pune city have been attributed as reasons for the
Western Ghats (India), describes four tropical hab- decline of aquatic insects and molluscs.
itats with different disturbance levels which were
Limited range species such as the Malabar Giant
monitored for diversity and seasonal patterns in
Squirrel, pangolin, mouse deer, etc. and a variety
butterfly communities. Species richness was high-
of birds, reptiles and amphibian in the Northern
est in late monsoon and early winter. Majority of
Western Ghats have been inadequately studied
the butterfly species also showed abundance peaks
to develop habitat optimization through strategic
in these seasons. Fire played a significant role in
management of patch size, corridors etc.
determining species composition in fire-afflicted
areas and affected flight periods of some species The status of several species in northern West-
but did not affect species richness. Grazing had a ern Ghats requires detailed evaluation to support
major impact on species composition and it fa- ESAs. This not only will require floristic evalua-
voured only those Lycaenids and Nymphalids tions based on geoinformatics but the use of ‘Con-
whose caterpillars feed on herbs. Kunte identifies servation Assessment and Management Planning’
seasonal patterns in butterfly, abundance and spe- (CAMP), Workshops for selected species (Singh
cies in four tropical habitats in the northern West- and Kaumanns 2005).
ern Ghat with different pressures such as fires and These sub regional differences are further ex-
grazing. The four sites are along the western slopes emplified by more locale specific observations on
of the Ghats in the Pune region. Populations be- plant communities and forest structure. The veg-
gan to rise in the monsoon and peaked in the late etation patterns of the catchment areas of dams
monsoon with a second peak in winter. In case of in the Mawal and Mulshi Talukas were assessed
one of the sites where phenophases of the larval for their species abundance and richness of tree
foodplant and population trend of a small Lycae- species. Each catchment differed substantially in
nid was documented, the population showed rapid structural and species characteristics. Several spe-
increase at the time when the plants were in suit- cies were unique to a single catchment or even a
able phenophase for growth of the caterpillars. The section of the catchment area (BVIEER 1998).
author proposes a possible evolutionary interaction
between herb-feeding and non-herb-feeding Lycae-
nids (Kunte 1997) .
34
 PROTECTED AREAS that slope into the Deccan.
The following section provides an overview of
the status of Protected Areas and their surrounds.
Purna Wildlife Sanctuary

The Purna Wildlife Sanctuary includes 200 km2

of forests in several patches with the best patches
of natural vegetation occurring in Mahal and Bar-
ipada. The 10 km Ecologically Sensitive Zone un-
der EPA is a key to developing a viable corridoring
system between Bansda National Park and the
Purna Wildlife Sanctuary and neighbouring Re-
serve Forest patches.
Bansda National Park
The PAs include 3 National Parks and 15 Wild-
life Sanctuaries in the three states of Gujarat, Ma-
harashtra and Goa in which the northern sector of
the Ghats are situated. Gujarat and Maharashtra
rank among the top five states in terms of PA cov-
erage. In the Western Ghats the PAs include Purna
Wildlife Sanctuary, and Vansda National Park in
Gujarat, while Kalsubai Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhi-
mashankar Wildlife Sanctuary, Koyna National
Park, Chandoli Wildlife Sanctuary (proposed Na-
tional Park) and Radhanagri Wildlife Sanctuary in
Maharashtra are situated along the crest and slopes
of the Western Ghats in Maharashtra. In Maha- The Bansda National Park once the private prop-
rashtra the Protected Areas that extend into the erty of the Maharaja of Vansda was acquired by
coastal belt include Tansa Wildlife Sanctuary, San- the Government of Gujarat in 1972 for a paltry
jay Gandhi National Park (Borivali) and Phansad sum of Rs. 10 lakh. The 24.5 km2 area contained
Wildlife Sanctuary while those that extend into the some of the most valuable residual mature teak in
Deccan Plateau are the potential PAs of Mulshi Gujarat. It still contains viable populations of leop-
and Mawal talukas which were discussed frequent- ard, chital, barking deer and an abundance of bird-
ly but were never formally notified. Some of these life. The flagship, rarely seen species is the Rusty
PAs extend from the coastal plains into the West- Spotted Cat that has been observed on several oc-
ern escarpment. Others include forests between
catchment areas of dams along the eastern spurs
35
 Trogon, Three-toed Kingfisher and the Yellow-
backed Sunbird. The PA includes 59 species of
mammals, 155 species of butterflies, 24 species of
ants, 52 species of reptiles, 13 species of amphib-
ians and 30 species of fishes. The important mam-
mals found here include the Leopard, Common
langur, Rhesus Macaque, Wild boar, Chital, Sam-
bar, Barking Deer, four-horned Antelope and the
Mouse Deer. Reptiles such as the Pond Terrapin,
Deccan Banded Gecko, Spotted Forest Gecko are
also seen here.

The pale coloured squirrel, once found in the Dangs is

now probably extinct. The darker squirrel is found from
Bhimashankar to Lonavala.

casions since 1988.

Sanjay Gandhi National Park
This Sanjay Gandhi National Park (10307 ha),
Tungareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary (8750 ha) and
Reserve forests between them constitute an IBA. It
is partly located in the Mega Meteropolitan, Mum-
bai. The PA constitutes the prime catchment area
of two freshwater lakes, Tulsi and Vihar, which
supply water to Mumbai city. The forest here is
classified as Tropical Dry deciduous or the South-
Illegal tree felling, man-animal conflict, en-
ern Dry Deciduous according to Champion and
croachment, illegal styone quarries, firewood col-
Seth (1968).
lection, poaching, tourism, and presence of anti-
Nearly 300 species of birds have been identified, social elements are the major threats faced by the
cluding some threatened ones. The park lies in PA.
the Western Ghats Endemic Bird Area (EBA 123)
In order to ensure long-term viability of Sanjay
where Statterfield et al.(1998) have identified 16 re-
Gandhi National Park and Tungreshwar Wildlife
stricted range species. The important avifauna seen
Sanctuary, it is extremely important to protect the
here include the Oriental White-backed Vulture,
reserve forest lying between them.
Long-billed Vulture, Pallas’s Fish-Eagle, Greater
Spotted Eagle, Lesser Adjuctant, Nilgiri Wood-
Pigeon, Emerald Dove, Drongo-cuckoo, Malabar

36
Tansa Wildlife Sanctuary 2000). It leaves the high rainfall plateau during the
monsoon to reappear in winter. Its arrival is also
dependent on the fruiting season. The Blue-winged
Parakeet and Plum-headed Parakeet also visit the
Sanctuary from late winter onwards.

This sanctuary is of great relevance to the sur-

vival of Mumbai city as it supplies water for the
people of the city. The sanctuary primarily consists
of dry deciduous and moist deciduous forest. Its
wildlife values are relatively low. The Malabar Grey Hornbill an endemic species,
is generally found below the plateau on the Konk-
an side and not observed in the plateau, while the
Yellow-browed Bulbul a biome species, and White-
bellied Blue-flycatcher an endemic species are hill
species and seldom seen below 620 m(Gole 2000).
Small Sunbird another endemic of the Northern
Western Ghats has good resident population in this
IBA. One of the most interesting winter visitors to
this site is the Tytler’s Leaf Warbler a bird of the
Western Himalaya (Ali and Ripley 1987, Grim-
mett et al. 1998). It has good population of the
Grey-fronted or Pampador Green Pigeon. The im-
Kalsubai (Harishchandragad) Wildlife Sanctuary
portant fauna found here include Leopard, Sam-
The Protected Area is the northernmost sanctu- bar, Barking Deer, Wild Boar, Common Langur,
ary in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra. Its for- Rhesus Macaque and Mouse Deer, Striped Hyena,
ests are highly fragmented, both due to topographic Golden Jackal and the Indian Pangolin. The lan-
and edaphic features. duse pattern includes wilderness as well use of
Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary land for tourism and recreation, transport, re-
search, livestock grazing and agriculture.
It is well known for highly endangered subspe-
cies of the Indian Giant Squirrel locally known as Issues such as tourism, lLivestock grazing, man-
Shekru. This is an IBA. animal conflicts, fuel wood gathering, agriculture
intensification and expansion, commercial devel-
Gole (2000) listed over 172 bird species in the opment and plastic consumption by animals are
Sanctuary including several globally threatened some of the major threats to this PA.
and restricted range species. The site falls in the
Western Ghat Endemic Bird Area (Stattersfield
et al. 1998). The Nilgiri Wood-Pigeon, a global-
ly threatened and restricted range species of the
Western Ghats (Birdlife Internation 2001) gener-
ally arrives in February and can be seen/heard till
the break up of the monsoon in end June (Gole
37
Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary Koyna is well-known trekking location. Aggressive
promotion of tourism in this area would increase
the garbage and noise pollution.
Chandoli National Park
This protected area has recently been upgraded
to a National Park status. Recently, there have been
a spate of sightings of tigers which has led to sug-
gestions to upgrade it to a Tiger Reserve. There
are also endemic and endangered species reported
from the Protected Area.
Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary
This is the only important coastal protected area
in Maharashtra. It was once the shooting reserve
of the rulers of Janjira. The forest has evergreen
and semi-evergreen elements with areas of grass-
land and small rocky plateaus. The floristic values
are considered to be very important as there is no
other sanctuary along the coast of Maharashtra.
Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary
The Chandoli corridor connects this sanctuary
to Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary in the South.
Historically the Vasota fort constructed in during
The Radhanagari Wildlife Sactuary is situated
1178-1193 lies in the Center of the Sactuary. The
on the border of Kolhapur and Sindhudurg dis-
PA has Southern Tropical Evergreen Forest and
tricts. The PA harbours several sacred groves inside
Southern Moist Mixed decidous Forest as per the
the Sanctuary which are traditionally protected by
classification of Champion and Seth (1968). The
local people. Thus large stands of virgin forest still
Sanctuary hosts a threatened tree species called
exist here. This sanctuary houses the major irriga-
Narkya Mappia foetida. Tiger, Gaur, Indian Wild
tion projects in the Kolhapur district. Besides some
Dog, Sloth Bear, Sambar, Barking Deer, Mouse
parts of sanctuary are rich in bauxite ore and many
Deer, Indian Giant Squirrel and Common otter are
plateaus with high quality bauxite have been
some of the important mammals found here. The
mined. The mining company wants more areas to
PA is also home to the Indian Python, Beddome’s
be opened for mining which is a major threat to
Keelback, Indian Chameleon, Banded Gecko and
this fragile ecosystem.
Dwarf Gecko among reptiles and endemic am-
phibians such as the Koyana Toad, Indotyphlus, a
caecilian, Wrinkled Frog and Bombay Frog. The
land use here is primarily wilderness, agriculture
with a hydroelectric project. Dam construction,
hydroelectric project, poaching and exploitation of
medicinal plants are some of the threats to this PA.
At the peripheary of the Sanctuary, the area is
being actively promoted as a tourism zone by the
Government of Maharashtra. This would create
serious environmental problems in the form of
increased tourist traffic, water pollution, littering
of non-degradable waste and general disturbance. The forest types are Southern Semi-evergreen,
Southern Moist Mixed Deciduous and Southern of the long billed Vulture, Gypes indisus, a critical
evergreen. The vegetation includes several threat- endangered species is found here. Eight out of 16
ened and endemic tree species such as Mappia restricted range species of the Western Ghats En-
Foetida, Turpunia malbarica, Euphorbia longna, demic Bird Area are found here.
Elaeocarpus tectorium and Harpullia arborea. It
lies in the Western Ghats Endemic Bird Areas
(EBA 123) where Stattersfield et al (1998) have
identified 16 restricted range species.

Leopard and Uropelttid snakes are also common

here. Many endangered amphibian species such as
the Bombay Bush frog, Humayun’s wrinkled frog,
Nyctibacrachus humayuni, besides endangered
During winter, many Himalayan forest birds are and endemic caecilians, inhabit the area (Varad
found here. Indian Blue Robin belonging to the Si- Giri pers.comm.).
no-Tropical Temperate Forest has been seen here.
Strategic presence of a defense establishment,
Some interesting species such as Ceylon Frog-
the Mumbai Pune corridor which is on fast track
mouth, Yellow-browed Bulbul, Dusky Eagle-owl,
to development continue to play havoc with the
Great Pied Hornbill, Black Bulbul, Speckled Picu-
original pristine habitats unless conservation mea-
let, and Malabar Crested Lark are commonly seen
sures are initiated at the earliest.
here.
Bhagwan Mahavir Wildlife Sanctuary
INS Shivaji and Lonavala
Bhagwan Mahavir wildlife sanctuary located in
The presence of this defence establishment,
the Sanguem taluka on the eastern border of Goa
spread over 1,500 acres, has protected some valu-
has a core area, consisting of 107 sq. km. which
able original tropical moist/semi evergreen forest
was declared as Mollem National Park. National
and upland grass land habitats of the area against
highway 4A and Mormugao_Londa railway line
growing urbanization and development.
run through the sanctuary. Collem Railway station
The surrounding hills include good forest beyond lies within the sanctuary area.
Khandala towards Duke’s Nose hill. Extending to-
Many small rivulets flow through the Sanctury
ward the Tiger’s Leap ravine along top of the ridg-
in the monsoon, but dry up in summer. Dudhsagar
es, and upto 2 km on either side of the ridges is pro-
falls is a popular tourist spot. The Devil Canyon
posed as an IBA. The area has evergreen and moist
is a splendid piece of geological rock formation.
deciduous type vegetation with a high diversity of
The canopy is almost closed and the availability of
plant species. The carnivorous plant Utricularia sp.
grass is very limited. Evergreen vegetation is main-
which plays an important role in ecology and nitro-
ly seen in higher altitudes and along the riverbanks.
gen cycle is a common plant found in small springs
The main vegetation types are West Coast Tropical
here. Carvia callosa (Karvi) is a dominant plant
Evergreen Forest, West Coast semi-Evergreen For-
species on the hill slopes. Other tree species Careya
est and Moist Deciduous Forest.
arborea (Kumbha), Memecylon umbellaum (An-
jani), Vitex nigundo (Nirgudi) and Randia dumeto- The Malabar Pied Hornbill and the Indian Black
rum are commonly found here. Nesting population woodpecker or White-bellied woodpecker can be
39
seen in the most part of Sanctuary. According to ment has planned a chain of seven diversion dams
Harvey D’Souza the Nilgiri wood-pigeon, Blue- and three main dams for the Mhadei Hydroelectric
winged parakeet, Malabar Gray Hornbill and project.
small Sunbird are present in this IBA. These birds Another grave danger comes from open-cast
are listed as Restricted Range by Statersfield et al mining. There are about 40 mining leases, of which
(1998) under the Western Ghats Endemic Bird Ar- only 11 mines are active, while others are not work-
eas 123. This PA has excellent wet evergreen, semi- ing. The miners lease owners want the potential
evergreen and moist deciduous forest. mining areas to be excised from the Sanctuary.
The Leopard, Gaur, Barking deer, Mouse deer Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary
are also found here. Other important mammals of
the site are Pangolin, Slender loris, porcupine, and The Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary at the southern-
small Indian Civet. most tip of Goa protects a remote and vulnerable
area of forest lining the Goa-Karnataka interstate
Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary border. The main vegetation type is the West Coast
Tropical Evergreen Forest, West Coast semi-Ever-
green forest and Moist Deciduous forest. The Ever-
green forests are mainly present on higher altitudes
and on riversides.
The site lies in the Western Ghats and has listed
16 species as Restricted Range. The flying squir-
rel is present here alongwith the slender loris and
pangolin but difficult to see due to their nocturnal
habit. The small Indian civet and the golden Jackal
are the smaller predators here. Cotigao has many
species of interesting reptiles, including the King
Kobra but not much is known about them. Simi-
This is an IBA site named after the river Mha- larly, the freshwater fish have not been adequately
dei (Mandovi) which is considerd the lifeline of surveyed here.
Goa. The forest type range from moist deciduous, Carambolim Lake
semi-evergreen and secondary scrub. The annual
rainfall is 3,000 mm. This IBA site is of great cul- Carambolim Lake lies in Ilhas taluka, about 12
tural significance as most of the sacred groves of kms from Panjim, the capital of Goa. The main
Goa are located in this region. The sacred grove vegetation consists of Nymphea stelleata, a root-
Nirankarachi is dominated by a unique plant spe- ed plant with floating leaves, Oryza rufipogon,
cies Myristica malabarica, which is endangered an emergent wild paddy, and submerged Hydrilla
and endemic to the site. More than 45 species of verticillata. Carambolim lake attracts thousands of
snakes are known to occur in the region. The thick birds, especially waterflowl.
forests of Mhadei provide an ideal habitat for aga- Close to Carambolim lake, at Corlim (Tiswadi),
mids, skinks and geckos. There are also confirmed is located Swiss-owned Hindustan Ciba Geigy
reports of the presence and movement of tigers in Ltd (HCGL) factory which produces highly toxic
the area. The Atlas Moth is also recorded here. pesticides for agriculture use. The large factory
Deforestion, poaching and encroachment are compound contains two shallow ponds that give
major threats here. Exrensive habitat degradation undisturbed shelter to Goa’s only known heronry,
and loss are a constant problem at the site. Alter- and a safe haven to quite a number of migrant and
ing the habitat structure has resulted in reduction vagrant Ciconidae and Threskiornithidae (Lainer
in abundance and range of several bird species. In 1999).
this ecologically rich area, the Karnataka Govern- One of the biggest threats faced by Carambolim
40
Lake was the construction of the railway track of
the Konkan Railway Project very close to the lake
and increasing disturbance due to urbanization.
The long-term and irreversible disturbance is
from private encroachment, night soil generated
from the migrant human population, and the silt
deposition, leading to the development of marshy
conditions.Carambolim lake need to be protected
under the new category of Community Reserve in
the modified Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act.

41
 CHAPTER 3: IMPACTS

T
he northern sector of the Western Ghats on a single landscape element.
has not been given sufficient conservation
INDUSTRY
attention over the years. All the attention
has been concentrated in the south while the for- Gujarat has initiated a program of neo – indus-
ests of the Ghats sections of Gujarat, Maharash- trialization which borders on the catena of the
tra and Goa have been continually degraded. No Ghats and spreads into the periphery of the Dangs.
effort at an overall protective strategy or attempt Gujarat’s industries are now an emerging threat to
to reverse the degradation has been attempted in both the sensitive coastal and hill ecosystems in the
this section of the Ghats. The southern sector has state. It has been estimated that 1,782 km2 of for-
a large number of PAs which are relatively close est area in Gujarat (12% of the current total forest
to each other and have been protected even across area of the state) was lost between 1960 and 2000
state boundaries. In the northern states there are as a result of irrigation projects, agriculture, min-
large unprotected or inadequately protected sec- ing, road building, industry and the legalisation of
tions that have isolated the PAs from each other. encroachments (Trivedi and Soni 2006)
The Western Ghats in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Maharashtra was one of the earliest States that
Goa have been subjected to greater impacts of rapidly developed its industrial capability, as a re-
rapid industrial growth than the southern sector of sult of its proximity to Mumbai which is consid-
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. ered to be the business centre of the country. The
Threats can be intrinsic to the area or extend unsustainable levels of industrial development
from its periphery, or even from a distant site. The around Mumbai and its link-city of Pune thus
threats include a wide spectrum of human activi- led to rapid urbanization and industrialization to
ties of different intensities. These impacts disturb the West and East of the Ghats section in Karjat,
the ecosystem as a whole or inflict their influence Lonawala, Mulshi and Mawal Talukas. This trend
43
has now inevitably spread to Maharashtra’s second from the hydel dams and expansion of the road
level townships such as Nashik, Kolhapur, Sangli transport sector in Maharashtra, such as, for exam-
and Satara with their sugarcane based industries ple, the Pirangut Industrial Estate.
that are now diversifying into other sectors. In Goa, the mining and tourism industries have
severely impacted the integrity of its ecologically
diverse landscape elements.
The hydro based energy sector in the Ghats is
dependent on east flowing rivers, which are within
the Ghats. The dams and their lakes segregate the
forests into multiple isolated patches that create a
discontinuity in the habitat making it impossible
for many species to cross the water spread. Most
of these waterspreads span across the eastern val-
leys while their backwaters cut into the forested
slopes of the Ghats, thus fragmenting and isolating
The various state industrial development corpo- forested regions into smaller patches. There are
rations are strong supporters of industrial develop- hardly any large valleys in Maharashtra that have
ment in the rural sector. Several of Maharashtra’s remained intact.
MIDCs, with their concomitant urbanization, dot
The intactness of the narrow forested strip of the
the landscape which was once a mix of rural and
fragile Western Ghats in this region is threatened
wilderness areas, within and adjacent to the Ghats.
by landscape level changes due to ports and other
These centres are growing as a consequence of
development projects in the adjacent coastal belt
easy access to cheap unskilled rural labour, water
and by the sugar and heavy industries developed
that comes from the forested Ghats sector, energy

Impacts of Industy in selected PA surrounds (Bharucha 2006)

Possible Impact Possible Impact

Name of
MIDC Areas Industries Saw Mills Mining
Protected Area
Solid Solid
Water Air Water Air
Waste Waste

Forging &
Tansa WLS NIL High Mod. Shahapur Nil
Chemicals
Bhimashankar
Nil Nil Info. NA Info. NA
WLS
Karnala Bird Rasaini Chemicals Chemicals and Stone Quarry
High High High High Info. NA
Sanctuary and Dyes Dyes Chinchwan
Stone Quarry,
Phansad WLS Roha Moderate Moderate Chemical Mod. Mod. Phansad
Mazgaon Phansad
Koyna WLS Nil Nil Info. NA Info. NA
Sugar Factory
Chandoli WLS Nil Low Info. NA Info. NA
(Karanguli)
Radhanagari INDOL, Bauxite
Shiroli, Shirgaon Low Sugar Factory Mod. Info. NA
Bison WLS Mine
Chemical Forging,
Marol, ITC and Pharmaceutical, Stone Quarry
Sanjay Gandhi NP Kalwa, Thane, High High High Dairy, Textiles, High High High Info. NA along the
Mira Dyes, Tanneries, Boundary
Domestic Waste

Impact Colour
High Moderate Low Nil
Codes

44
through irrigation and water availability on the carried out inadequately. Most abandoned mined
eastern aspect in the Deccan Plateau. areas are left for years and are covered by exotic
weedy growth that can support only the general-
Mangrove ecosystems in Maharashtra are under
ist species of fauna. The mined blanks thus lead
heavy pressure as a result of increase in human ac-
to severe impediments for many species to move
tivity with their area being reduced, and thus some
between patches of forest.
important species are becoming extinct (Mulik and
Bhosale 1989). The threat to mangroves has since In Maharashtra, the major impacts among the
become more severe even though it should have PAs surrounds is due to stone quarrying in the
been reduced by the Coastal Regulation Zone and ESAs. Therre are also impacts due to bauxite and
increasing awareness. The same situation applies other mining operations. Major mining conces-
to the Western Ghats unless the planning and im- sions lead to serious impacts on conservation val-
plementation of sustainably managed ESAs does ues leading to serious conflict issues during land-
not reduce the threat to this fragile forest ecosys- scape level lanning and is a serious concern for the
tem. future. A major problem that constantly recurs is
due to the major mining potential at Radhanagari
Industrialisation has occurred most rapidly in
WLS. This is a serious concern as there is a con-
Shahapur and Wada near Tansa; roha and murud
stant pressure to open this area to mining (Bharu-
near Phansad; Radhanagari and Gargoti near Rad-
cha, 2006).
hanagari Sanctuary. The industrial development
is a reponse to the state’s strong Maharahstra In- ROADS
dusrial Development Corporation (MIDC). San-
The Dangs have a better road network than ten
jay Gandhi National Park, Karnala Bird Sanctu-
years ago, with almost all the villages having mo-
ary, Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary have one or more
torable roads. Most fo the forest roads till 2000
MIDC’s within the 10 km ESAs around PAs.
were unpaved. The negative effect of the growing
These industries lead to variable elvels of air, water
road network is that the Reserved Fores patches
and noise pollution and environment management
which did nto have motorable access till about ten
problems due to indusrial and even toxic solid
years ago are now highly accessible. This can be
waste affecting lichens, fish populations causing
disastrous in the Dangs, especially a illegal timber
disruption of aquatic ecosystems. Species such as
extractors can now access certain remote areas.
the Deccan Mahseet once common in these rivers is
There is also a growing threat of unsustainable
extinct throughout the rivers of Maharsahtra. The
tourism spreading from Saputara.
small and large scale industries also lead to loss of
spill over habitats for wildlife and produce impacts The need to link these two economic develop-
on the seclusion required for wildlife to breed suc- ment zones (coastal zone and the Deccan Pla-
cessfully. This is a result of increasing movement teau) has led to more roads traversing the Ghats
of people both through and around the PA. Saw- section to move goods and business services. The
mills create problems as frequently illegally felled quantum of industrial products developed in Ma-
timber is easily processed at a mill that is the vicin- harashtra’s industrial belts has grown enormously
ity of a PA. There are saw mills near Tansa Wild- and is dependent mainly on constructing shortcut
life Sanctuary at Shahapur and near Phansad. new roads, often without a proper analysis of the
real needs of the industrial sector. The plans are
MINING frequently an outcome of local political pressures.
The industrial use of raw material from mined The widening of existing roads, to reach the ports
areas within the Ghats is a serious impact factor is another persistent demand without a proper as-
on local biodiversity. Consumerism is the driving sessment. An example is the road that connects
force and the forest is its victim. Mined areas cre- Pune from the Deccan Plateau to Mahad on the
ate large gaps which are left as blanks covered in coast via the Western Ghats in Mulshi Taluka of
weedy growth. While mitigation is expected to re- Pune district, effectively fragmenting the forests of
habilitate and restore these areas this is generally the Western Ghats in this region.
45
Name of Protected Length of roads
Road ((I) = Inside, (O)= Outside) Type Railway Lines (length)
Area
Inside Within 10 km Total
Tansa Mumbai-Agra NH-3 40 40 Kalyan-Nashik (50 km)
Murbad-Vada (I) SH-38 9 25 34
Shahapur-Javhar (I) SH-36 10 15 25
Murbad-Vada (I) Pakka Road 6 22 28
Javhar-Khardi Pakka Road 15 15
Palghar-Nashik (I) SH-34 8 27 25
Total 32 144
Bhimashankar Ahupe-Ambegaon (I) Pakka Rd. 3 13 16 Nil
Ahemadnagar-Karjat (I) (O) SH-37 32 24 24
Ahupe-Nigdale (I) Pakka Rd. 12 12
Bhimashankar-Rajgurunagar (I)SH-54 4 11 15
Total 19 48
Karnala Mumbai-Goa (I) NH-17 2 24 26 Panvel-Uran (14.6 km)
Pune-Panvel (O) NH-4 0 19 19 Konkan Railway Line (34. 6 km)
Panvel-Aware (O) Pakka Road 0 25 25
Total 2 68
Phansad Murud-Alibag (O) MSH-4 28 28 Nil
Murud-Roha (I) SH-90 2 5 6
Murud-Roha (O) SH-92 18 18
Alibagh-Roha (I) Pakka Road
Total 2 51
Koyna Karad-Chiplun (I) SH-78 0 42 42 Nil
Patan-Jalu (I) Pakka Road 0 14 14
Morgiri- Dicholi (O) Pakka Road 14 22 36
Mahableshwar-Vasota (O) Pakka Road 38 11 48
Mahableshwar-Satara (I) Pakka Road 0 46 46
Total 52 134
Chandoli WLS Karad-Sangameshwar (I) SH-78 27 40 67 Nil
Chiplun-Karad (O) SH-78 12 12
PaKKa
Kokisare-Humbarli (I) -27 23 23
Road
Sangameshwar-Kolhapur (O) MSH-3 0 26 26
Total 27 100

Radhanagari Kankawli-Kolhapur (right) (I) SH-116 33 32 65 Nil

Kankawli-Kolhapur (left) (I) Pakka Road 25 33 58

Radhanagari-Gawathanwadi (I) Pakka Road 10 12 22
Vaibhavwadi-Kolhapur (O) SH-115 0 15 15
Radhanagari-Sawantwadi (O) SH-120 0 57 57
Total 68 150
Mumbai Ahmedabad (35
8 2 10
Sanjay Gandhi Borivali Mulund West (I) Pakka Road kms)
Goregaon Mulund West (I) Pakka Road 4 Mumbai Nashik (38 km)
Thane Vasai (I) SH-41 2 9 11
Mumbai-Agra (O) NH-8 41 41
Western Express Highway (O) 23 23
Mumbai-Ahmedabad (O) NH-3 37 37
Impact Colour Codes High Moderate Low Nil
Impacts of Roads in selected PA surrounds (Bharucha 2006)
46
 The gaps between PAs are traversed by several their future maintenance costs is a crucial concern.
existing highways, minor roads, and a major ex- Orienting road planners to prevent damage to sur-
pressway between Mumbai and Pune. There are rounding forests during construction, retaining in-
proposals for several small roads to be widened and tegrity of the local hydrology of nalla courses and
there are demands for more roads across the Ghats. waterfalls, preventing landslides and damage to ar-
The latter will increasingly isolate the patches of eas which have unique floral and faunal elements
natural forests in future. This will reduce the vi- located in even small restricted ecosystems types
ability of potential corridors unless the areas are must become a part of future road development in
notified as ESAs and mitigation measures such as the Ghats. Areas in the Ghats section which include
underpasses and over bridges are made for wildlife multiple highly specific ‘niches’ must be carefully
to get across these gaps. studied during the EIA for roads. Such local issues
must be cautiously dealt with if present within a
There are demands for more East-West roads to
larger ESA during the EIA process. Road align-
link south bound highways in the Deccan to the
ments that would traverse across on ESA must be
coastal highway. These new roads will continue to
planned only if adequate mitigation is offered by
create further fragmentation. Such roads cannot be
using norms as have been suggested for CAMPA
sanctioned on merely political grounds but must be
by the Hon. Supreme Court.
prioritized based on a balance of economic societal
and most importantly ecological considerations. The existing roads especially on the Western es-
This brings in the need for sustainable land use carpment wind back and forth from the base to the
planning and judicious governance by involving crest line and then more gradually wind down to
scientifically trained regional development plan- the plateau. Thus the impact is not only of a few
ners for the whole Ghats section of these states. An meters on either side of the road but consists of a
orientation on the ecological costs for road plan- wide belt from the northern most to the southern-
ning and the special requirements for constructing most point where the road twists back and forth
roads along steep escarpments while considering through a wide belt of forest along the side of the
(BVIEER 2002)

47
range. The road thus creates a large zone of dis- ous concern as they stimulate unsustainable devel-
turbance in the Ghats section where roads have opment.
been developed. Unless special measures are taken Three of the PAs in the NWG are impacted by
to permit wildlife to get across such gaps the con- railway lines. These result in animal kills, distur-
tinuity of the Western Ghats forests to maintain bance of wildlife migration routes, pollution and
biological values is heavily compromised. A set of solid waste management problems.
ESAs which specifically consider the possible im-
pacts of the present road transport network and its The growth of these transport facilities has thus
future development is a key concern for identifying disrupted the continuity of the forest ecosystem
impacts on biodiversity. Thus such areas need to be along the entire length of the Western Ghats in
seen as a specific ESA category. these states. The steepness of the escarpment ne-
cessitates developing long stretches of winding
There are several major roads that transgress roads that span an extensive tract of vegetation for
some of the PAs in the Western Ghats in Maha- each new road.
rashtra. While these have been implicated as ma-
jor impacts on these PAs, and their development This disrupts the floral and faunal integrity of
has often been resisted by conservation oriented a wide sector to construct what is considered ‘just
NGOs, they have been developed in spite of this one more road’. This does not take into account
resistance. Several such incidences can be reported the length of the winding road sector that traverses
from Maharashtra, such as the road in Bhimashan- along major sections of the escarpment through the
kar connecting the Deccan Plateau to the Coast. Ghats. The roads created thus have multiple wide
While these are known concerns, all the 10km gaps that many species may not be able to bridge
ESZs of the PAs have major roads and highways from one forested patch to the next. A good exam-
through them. Some of these impact belts are sev- ple is the Giant Squirrel which is found in this part
eral kilometers long and therefore impact large pro- of the Western Ghats. It is an arboreal species that
portions of the ESAs. The development of high- rarely comes to the ground and needs an unbroken
ways stimulate urbanisation and industralisation canopy for its survival. There are no under passes
along them and thus will lead to serious impacts or over bridges for wildlife to cross these roads that
on conservation values of these PAs. This road re- already have a high density of vehicles. Road kills
lated change in landuse leads to water, air and solid are extremely frequent.
waste pollution, noise and disturbance to adjacent AGRICULTURE
wildlife populations in the PA. National Highways
pass through Karnala and borders Tansa Wildlife
Sanctuaries. The scenario is much worse in the
ESAs with 5 National Highways that impact PAs
such as Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Tansa and
Karnala. There are State Highways in 5 PAs and in
ESAs of all the PAs in the NWG. Several PAs have
more than one or two roads that lead to impacts.
However road length is not an adequate indicator
of pressure as there are differences in traffic den-
sity. Four PAs have road lengths exceeding 100kms
in the ESZs. These are Radhanagari 149.5km, Tan-
sa 144km, Koyna 133km, and Chandoli 100.4km. Traditional hill slope agriculture in forested ar-
Sanjay Gandhi National Park has 110km of ma- eas from the Dangs southward into Maharashtra
jor roads and a large number of smaller roads net- has long been considered an ecological problem.
worked in the ESA, which is in fact a major part of Local tribal people have used the ancient agricul-
the Mumbai and Thana Metropolitan areas. Road tural practice of rab by lopping forest biomass
widening and development of new roads is a seri- which they burn in the fields for wood ash cultiva-
48
 Water Reservoirs and Agricultural
Name of Protected Area Irrigation Canals Agriculture
Impacts Impacts
Tansa WLS Tansa Dam, Vaitarna Dam Bhavsa- Bhivandi Rice Low
Backwater of Wadeshwar Rice, Nachani, Varai.
Bhimashankar WLS Nil Low
and Dimbhe Dam Shifting Cultivation
Karnala Bird Sanctuary Ransai Dam Info. NA Rice, Cereals, Varai Low
Phansad WLS Vihur Dam, Phansad Dam Nil Rice, Varai, Coconut Moderate
Koyna WLS Koyna Dam Nil Sugarcane, Rice Moderate
Chandoli WLS Chandoli Dam, Chandoli- Shirala Rice, Sugarcane, Nachani. Low
Radhanagari Dam, Sugarcane, Rice, Nachani,
Radhanagari Bison WLS Present Moderate
Kallamawadi Dam, Moderate Vegetables
Sanjay Gandhi National Tulsi Lake, Vihar Lake, Irrigation Canals from
Rice Nil
Park Pavai Lake Tulsi and Vihar Lake

Impact Colour Codes High Moderate Low Nil

Impacts of Agriculture in selected PA surrounds (Bharucha 2006)
tion. The fire also helps kill off insect pests in their food chain and affect for instance raptor popula-
rice paddies. They cultivate rice, nachani, varai and tions (Bharucha, 2006).
legumes by rotation every few years. In the past
this was followed by several years during which the
forest could regenerate before the next cycle was
initiated. Cutting trees and retrieving branches or
leaf material from surrounding forests at an in-
creasing frequency has led to the development of
deforested patches that are now not given a suffi-
cient period to regenerate. The increasing number
of farmers who use this once sustainable agricul-
tural practice has led to shorter periods for forest
regeneration and consequently an increasing num-
ber of open patches along the once thickly forested
Since most of the high and moderate pressures
slopes (Goswami, Chatterjee, and Worah 2006).
due to agriculture are observed in irrigated areas
Agricultural pressures in Maharashtra are due mainly for sugarcane holdings, they are linked
to traditional farming practices (wood ash culti- through sugar co-operatives to adjacent sugar fac-
vation) also known as ‘rab’ mainly in hilly areas, tories which have their own serious impacts on the
which is forest biomass based. This has been preva- PAs. Chandoli and Radhanagari have sugar facto-
lent, both inside and on the periphery of several ries within 10km of the boundary of the PA which
PAs. Recently irrigated sugarcane based agricul- lead to serious waste management issues from the
ture has replaced traditional agriculture as seen release of molasses etc. See table Other changes
in the table. The variation is a result of distance brought about by conversion of rainfed agriculture
and spatial differences in the proportion of the Eco to sugarcane include an increasing conflict level
Sensitive Zone that has been converted to intensive due to predation of livestock by carnivores. Jumar,
agriculture. Factors such as effects of monocrop- a town close to Bhimashankar, has recently been
ping patterns and the use of fertilizers, herbicides irrigated and used as sugarcane fields. Leopards
and pesticides can have serious implications on the persistently move out of the Western Ghats from
biodiversity of the adjacent PAs. This includes dis- the vicinity of Bhimashankar Sanctuary into the
ruption of food chains where insects form major adjacent cover of sugarcane. Conflict levels have
link species as well as deranging their function of increased with livestock and even human life is put
pollinating both forest plants and crops. It could at repeated risk. During the last couple of years a
also lead to biomagnification of pesticides up the
49
large number of leopards have had to be caught have been a reflection of local political pressures
and translocated or put in zoos, only to be rapidly and land speculation from the builder lobby. Urban
replaced by other leopards. fringes include slums and shanties that spread into
the ecologically fragile hillslopes. The largest and
NEW TOWNSHIPS
most serious being the slums around the Sanjay
While traditional farming has indeed been a Gandhi National Park at Borivali near Mumbai.
gradually growing impact, it is the newer forms of
economic development strategies that have rapidly TOURISM
created expanding gaps that have led to a loss of
corridors between the PAs of the Ghats. The de-
velopment of neo-townships in the Western Ghats
will have the most deleterious consequences for the
integrity of the ecosensitive slopes of the Western
Ghats. While townships such as the Amby Valley in
Lonavala and Lavasa in the Mulshi Taluka in Pune
District already exist and have disrupted forest con-
tinuity, there will be increasing demands for land
in this ecosensitive region for high income based
satellite townships for Pune and other growing cit-
ies in Maharashtra as well. This trend will displace All the PAs have some level of impacts of tourist
poor agriculturists of the Ghats, deprive them of facilities on the edges of the PAs. The impact of
their lands, and create a new set of landless rural day visitors is different from the pattern of impact
people across the whole length of the Ghats. This of overnight stay visitors. Both these groups require
has already happened in the Mawal and Mulshi different management strategies. Based on the
Talukas of Maharashtra. For example, under the number of tourists alone, there are three high im-
Special Township Act of the Maharashtra Govern- pact, two medium impact and three low impact
ment, by 2010, 34 new townships, of a minimum PAs due to tourism. Having said this, the true car-
area of 100 acres, have been planned and many of rying capacity depends on the size of the area, the
them sanctioned in and around the city of Pune in presence of an effective core, buffer and tourist zo-
the Western Ghats (Bari and Savitha 2010). These nation, as well as the length of road networks in
will have an obvious impact on the integrity of the PAs and the pattern of tourist vehicles used. While
ecosystems of the Western Ghats. these aspects are related to impacts that emanate
Yet another impact is from the growing fringes directly within the PA, the tourist facilities on the
of cities that have now begun to spread into the boundaries of the PA have equally serious impacts
foothills of the Ghats both from the west coast and which create high levels of water pollution, large
from the rapidly growing large cities of the Dec- amounts of non-degradable waste, noise, etc. In
can. Pune along with Pimpri-Chinchwad is well these PAs, 2 have major tourism development
on the way towards becoming an emerging mega- plans through the MTDC and several others are in
city that is spreading into the Western Ghats. A the offing. These plans tend to increase generalised
case in point is the scrapping of the proposed Bio- tourism and are only ‘ecotourism’ in name. This is
diversity Parks covering an area of 18,000 acres in probably one of the most serious concerns in which
23 newly merged villages of Pune city, in order to the two concerned line agencies, the Forest Depart-
permit FSI of 4 on the hill tops and hill slopes sur- ment and the Tourism Department, require intense
rounding the city (Chandawarkar 2010). interactions to appreciate that tourism itself can
form a major impact on the resource on which it
Unsustainable development of the urban edges depends, viz. wildlife. While its impact on the
from growing towns and cities from the eastern glamour species that tourists wish to see can be
and western aspects into the Ghats has not been quantified to some extent, it is the less known spe-
studied from a scientific point of view. The biases
50
 Name of MTDC
Tourists Per Year and Pollution due
Protected Tourist Facilities Tourist Density Develop-
Impacts to Tourism
Area ment Plan
Rest House, Huts, Interpretation Water (Nil)
Tansa 100-200, Low 0.328-0.656 Nil
Center (Inside) Garbage (Nil)
Water (High)
Bhimashankar Private Lodges (Inside) 1,00,000-2,00,000, High 764.64-1529.28 Info. NA
Garbage (High)
Suits, Log huts, Tents, Guest
66964.28- Water (Nil)
Karnala Houses, Dormitory, Interpreta- 3,00,000-4,00,000, High Info. NA
89285.71 Garbage (High)
tion Center (Inside)
Interpretation Center, Guest Water (Nil)
Phansad 3,000-4,000 Low 56.053-74.738 Nil
House (Periphery) Garbage (Nil)
Private Lodges (Tapola) Irrigation Water (Nil)
Koyna 15,000-20,000 Moderate 35.41-47.21 Yes
Dept. (Koynanagar) (Periphery) Garbage (Mod)
Water (Nil)
Chandoli Irrigation Dept. (Inside) 5000 Low 16 Nil
Garbage (Mod)
Irrigation Dept. Forest Dept. Water (Nil)
Radhanagari 5,000 - 6,000 Moderate 14.23-17.08 Info. NA
MTDC - Suits(Inside) Garbage (Nil)
Resthouse, Dormitory, Interpreta- 14949.40- Water (Nil)
Sanjay Gandhi 13,00,000-15,00,000, High Yes
tion Center, Museum, Canteen 17249.31 Garbage (High)

Impact Colour
High Moderate Low Nil
Codes
Impacts of Tourism in selected PA surrounds (Bharucha 2006)

cies, such as endemic plants, insects, etc. on which

there are likely to be cryptic impacts which could
lead to their extinction and/or to serious loss of
critical habitats of endemic species. Other issues
related to animal breeding behaviour, territorial be-
havior, migration routes, etc. require more detailed
studies as this is linked to the level of tourism pres-
sure See table
Based on very general observations, Bhimashan-
kar gets over a lakh of tourists per year who come
for pilgrimage to the temple. Karnala gets over 3
lakhs mainly day visitors, picnickers and people
passing along the highway. Sanjay Gandhi Na-
tional Park has the largest number of visitors who
are picnickers and casual visitors to the temple.
The carrying capacity for tourists in these PAs is
already exceeded. However, there are PAs which
if managed for sustainable ecotourism, can evolve
a strategy where the activity provides alternate in-
come generation for local people. Some high pres-
sure tourist areas in the northern Western Ghats
are Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mahabalesh-
war-Panchgani, Mathern, Panhala, Sinhgad, Bhi-
ma-shankar, Saputara, Radhanagari and Goa.
51
INVASIVE EXOTIC SPECIES
One of the less studied impacts on the forests of
the Western Ghats is from accidental and purpose-
ful introduction of exotic plant species over the last
few centuries. Several of these highly invasive spe-
cies have invaded the forests of the Western Ghats
and are now considered naturalized species. These
vigorous shrubs and ground flora have in many in-
stances become integrated into the existing ecosys-
tem and have developed linkages within the food
chains of the ecosystems of the Ghats. Lantana,
eupatorium, congress grass are examples of plants
that now cover wide sections of the Ghats. Their
impact on the forest ecology has led to alterations
in the abundance and species dynamics of natural
flora and fauna.
Ramakrishna et al. have shown that since many
of them entered the region long ago, they have
become pseudonatives (naturalised exotics). For
example, eucalyptus, coffee, tea, rubber etc. and
exotic fauna such as rainbow trout and tilapia (Ra-
makrishna, C. Radhakrishnan, and K. C. Gopi
2001). There are more than 35 well established
exotic trees in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra
(Ghate and Vartak 1990). However current distri-
bution of exotics remains poorly documented even taneous adaptation by species will occur and sal-
though the importance of these plants as a threat to vage species from possible extinction may be little
natural ecosystems is better appreciated.
more than an optimistic speculation.
It is predicted that by the end of the 21st century
rainfall will increase in most of India, (especially
along the west coast, and Western Ghats). The ef-
fect on species may well be more serious than other
existing human pressures that are seen due to al-
terations in the landscape The PRECIS climate
model from the Hadley Center, has shown the pat-
tern of changes in climate between 1961-1990, and
predict the expected trend in future from 2071 to
2100 under A2 and B2 scenarios. This shows that
by 2040 India will see a generalized warming and
increasing rainfall. The Indian Institute of Tropi-
cal Meteorology simulations predict a 20% rise in
the summer monsoon rainfall along the West coast
in future. This biogeographic region would thus
shift towards favouring plant species that grow un-
der wetter conditions (Kumar et al. 2006).

The Forest Department has used Eucalyptus,

Subabul, Glyricidia and Acacia auriculoformis se-
quentially over the last fifty years. These planta-
tions generally do not support the habitat needs of
wildlife in the Ghats. Their ability to act as corri-
dors is limited. Altering this to an ecorestorative
naturalistic plantation would enhance a biodiver-
sity oriented outcome.
CLIMATE CHANGE
The rather unpredictable outcomes of climate serious impacts on the forest type and structure in
change is a major deterrent to designing appropri- the future.
ate responses and strategies for responding to al-
terations in climate that may affect the Protected
Area system of the Ghats. The current regional
scale models appear to be imprecise and are fur-
ther complicated by existing monsoonal vagaries,
and the limited data on temporal and spatial scales
of ecosystem responses to future climate change.
Some ecosystem responses could take centuries,
others may take decades. Thus expecting that spon-
The forests of the Western Ghats depend not
only on the high level of precipitation but on the
number of rainy days. With the anticipated chang-
es in local weather conditions, alterations in the
regulatory action of the monsoon could produce
Several of the local endemic habitat specific
species in the Western Ghats could be seriously
threatened by climate change. Local ground flora
could be substituted by a host of invasive species.
Those species that have evolved to survive in limit-
ed climatic ranges or are dependent on specialised
restricted habitat needs may see either positive or
negative effects on their populations depending on
the magnitude and shifts of rainfall regimes. Spe-
52
 The globally recognized ‘hot spot’ of biodiversity in the Western Ghats and its adjacent coastal region
has 56 PAs spread over its length from the Dangs of Gujarat, Sahyadris of Maharashtra, the Ghat sections of
Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu hills and Kerala. As the warming progresses and rainfall patterns alter there is
a need to be able to create south to north oriented corridoring that could benefit conservation in the aftermath of
climate change. This is perhaps the most valid and rational use of our current knowledge of the relationship of
biodiversity conservation strategies to climate change. No efforts should be spared in creating these all important
‘species survival corridors’ between the Protected Areas of the Western Ghats and its off shoots in the Nilgiris
and Agasthamalai ranges. The sites would thus include different categories of Ecologically Sensitive Areas that
must be declared and protected through selected executive bodies which are provided with a new set of legal provi-
sions.

cies that are specific to drier habitats could suffer a cascade of extinctions both of floral and faunal
a restriction of their ranges if rainfall increases. elements even though the more robust species may
Those that depend on higher levels of precipitation relocate themselves in a new northern location or
could expand their range. into higher altitudes in the Western Ghats, when
temperatures increases.
Studies on the possible shifts of geographical
ranges of species due to climatic alterations are It is not expected that evergreen plants may colo-
still at a preliminary stage. The ability of species to nize the semi evergreen eastern slopes of the Ghats
adapt to climate change is thus difficult to predict. if rainfall increases, as these tree species grow from
This has implications for the future planning of ef- seedling banks under cover of a thick closed for-
fective ESAs for responding to the unpredictable est canopy. If however some elements of the ever-
changes in rainfall and temperature in the Western green forests do spread northwards and eastwards
Ghats. some of its dependant fauna would also migrate,
expanding the potential ranges of species such as
Various studies quoted in the IPCC Report
the Nilgiri Thar (Hamitragus hilocrius), the Lion
(Parry et al. 2007) suggest that there will be a loss
Tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus), Nilgiri Langur
of species diversity in several forest types due to
(Trachypithecus johnii), Malabar giant squirrel
climate change. This would particularly damage
(Ratufa indica) and Grizzled giant squirrel (Ratufa
tropical forest hotspots in the Western Ghats. For-
macroura). However, this can only be possible if
ests in higher altitudes will be encroached by low-
viable corridors are preserved through the length
land vegetation. A decrease in the colder high alti-
of the Western Ghats. Several arboreal evergreen
tude habitats will change in response to increasing
forest birds could potentially spread northwards
temperature. This should make species of the low
into the Sahyadris of Maharashtra and into the
lands move into the crest line, making it imperative
altered climatic conditions in the Dang forests of
to use new adaptive strategies to conserve all the
Gujarat. However the breeding biology of most of
threatened landscape elements within the Western
these species, which is tuned to very specific envi-
Ghats.
ronments, and the number of rainy days in mon-
Climate change responses in the forests of the soon months could be disrupted and breeding suc-
Ghats cannot be expected to lead to a general over- cess depressed. These potentially positive effects on
all ecosystem shift. While some species of native biodiversity would be reversed if rainfall decreases,
plants have better adaptive strategies, others may which would reduce the habitat for species of the
be adversely affected as their adaptive capacity to Shola forests in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
change in altered climatic conditions is limited.
The population of rare and endemic reptiles and
Thus plant communities cannot be expected to
amphibians of the Ghats is already affected by for-
migrate as complete entities. This implies that the
est fragmentation. Any further alteration in their
newly located ecosystem will not have an intact
habitat may be disastrous for these little researched
food web. The ‘drop out’ species could well trigger
53
taxa. Endemic fish of the Western Ghats could that are mandated to preserve corridors or even
also find themselves unable to cope with the more stepping stones for wildlife between PAs could be
erratic monsoon that will derange the flow in their crucial to protect biodiversity.
breeding streams. Increased temperature and a fur-
ther enhancement of flow rates due to the increase
in rainfall in the longer and heavier monsoons
could damage the breeding niches of freshwater
stream fish.
OTHERS
There are two impact agents that have not been
given attention and are data deficient. The first
deals with the long stretches of power lines across
the Ghats where the forests are cut down and al-
tered to a shrubby condition. Species such as the
Giant Squirrel would find this a serious barrier.
The newly instituted windmills on plateau tops
have not been studied for their impacts on avifauna
and the ground flora as they require connecting
roads and maintenance crews.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the age old impacts of traditional
rab agriculture, cattle grazing, fire and NTFP col-
lection within the Ghats forests was far lower than
the neo-impacts of urbanization, transport, tour-
ism, mines, dams and industrial development that
is expanding rapidly into the ecosensitive Western
Ghats and isolating its biologically important PAs
from each other. A set of ESAs with their own
policies, and implementation of locale specific
rules and regulations will be required to arrest the
threats that will lead to a rapid degradation of the
ecological values of the region. Creating a series
of ESAs with different locale specific objectives
would substantially reduce the potential impacts
on these fragile ecosystems. It is insufficient to
do routine EIAs for specific development proj-
ects. Apart from these EIAs, a carrying capacity
study that looks at the cumulative impact on the
region must form a major concern of the Western
Ghats Authority. Developing corridors to support
the Integrated Protected Area System in order to
preserve bioresources and wilderness ecosystems
in the long term is one important strategy. The un-
predictable nature of future climate change itself
brings home the importance of the precautionary
principle in managing ecosystems, species and ge-
netic values of the Western Ghats. Creating ESAs
54
The loss of the original habitat of the Ghats has
created the most profound impact on several spe-
cies. This includes mammals, birds and other less
studied taxa. Forest bird abundance is a good indi-
cator of habitat quality in the Western Ghats.
Competition and overcrowding however, appears
to limit breeding success. Declines in the Malabar
Giant squirrel populations is evident in areas where
the canopy is opened up due to over use and altera-
tions in species composition of trees due to planta-
tions. The disappearance of habitat sensitive spe-
cies is the earliest signs of habitat degradation. As
shown by Mac Arthur and Wilson (1967) the rate
of species loss in isolated fragments of habitat is
inversely related to patch size. Only some species
can cross over from patch to patch if the distance
between them increases. Tigers for example are re-
luctant to cross from one isolated patch beyond a
certain threshold. Leopards in contrast will fre-
quently attempt crossing over, as is observed in
Junnar Taluka.
Thus combinations of several factors facilitate
or deter specific species from retaining a healthy
breeding population in the Western Ghats. These
factors include habitat quality, reduced fragment
size, increased edge effects and extent of isola-
tion. Matheran a relatively isolated patch for in-
stance has no sambar deer, but Mahabaleshwar is
frequently visited by sambar moving into the for-
est from Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary. These factors
together act as a threshold, where local extinction
results and recovery without a relocation program
becomes next to impossible. Ecorestoration using a
carefully designed strategy that creates room for re-
covery requires both corridoring as well as manag-
Impacted areas will require new norms for
ing patch habitat quality. The ESAs would have to
ecorestoration. Current greening programs insti-
be managed through scientific ecorestoration pro-
tuted as mitigation and rehabilitation of mined ar-
grams. This will essentially require detailed habitat
eas is insufficient to provide the necessary habitat
studies so that populations of habitat specific spe-
conditions for the sensitive species.
cies are able to recover in the ESAs.

THE DANGS FOREST, GUJARAT

The ecology and manage-

ment of frgemented forests in
the Dangs was studied by Bha-
rucha and Worah, 1994. The
study used a GIS analysis to
identify potential habitats of
four key species namely the
Rusty Spotted Cat, the tiger,
the Giant Squirrel and the
spotted deer.

Based on the GIS analysis it

was found that the distribution
of optimal habitat conditions
for each of the four target spe-
cies was fragemented into iso-
lated pockets. The species that had the largest amount of good quality habitat is the rusty spotted cat. This animal
here is reported to use steep, rocky forested areas.. Studies also indicated that the forst on the steep rocky slopes in
the Dangs was least disturbed. Thus the study reports that based on a combination of these two characteristics the
rusty spotted cat has good chances of long term survival in the Dangs. This conclusion was supported by frequent
sightings of this animal by local people. Good quality tiger habitat was patchy and thus the chances of long term
survival of this animal in the Dangs was questionable. No evidence of tigers was obtained during the present study.

Of the four target species the giant squirrel had the least amount of potential habitat left in the Dangs. Besides
it had nto been reported for the last forty years and is almost certainly extinct. Although the potential spotted
deer habitat is scattered throughout the Dangs, the only existing population of this species today is found in
the Bansda National Park where it has managed to survive. The only large mammal species that seemed to be
surviving was the leopard.

The study showed that although the potential habitat for individual species is highly fragmented, the overall
suitable habitat for the four target species combined showed a reasonably large contigous area. The best habitats
were in the northern and the western parts of the Dangs where the Purna Wildlife Sanctuary and the Bansda
National Park are located.

Both the Protected Forests and the plantations supported low wildlife values. However conservation of these
areas was suggested in lieu of their role as forest corridors between the Reserve forest patches.

55
 Given the complex socio-eco-
logical situation in the Dangs
where the people are highly de-
pendent on the forests for their
survival, the study suggested a
management strategy that would
focus on the dual objectives of
conservation of biological values
of as much of the forest as pos-
sible and improved management
and restoration of the remain-
ing forests for the benefit of local
people. In order to achieve this,
the study suggested increase of
the boundary of the Purna WLS
to increase the contiguous RF
patches and shifting of the core area towards the east and the north where there were less pressures alongwith
tightening controls of these areas. At the same time it suggested opening up of other areas for utilisation by local
people as ‘multiple-use areas.

A follow-up study in the Dangs was carried out by Bharucha & Kolte, 2005. This study suggested that the
forests has been increasingly fragmented and degraded due to expansion of ‘rab’ in Protected Forests with severe
loss of habitat due to tree felling. The Dangs also underwent a periof of insurgency during 1989 to 1992 and
villages with high disturbance showed large loss of trees. Illegal timber felling and increased population pressures
also contributed to its degradation.

56
 CHAPTER 4: PLANNING OF ESAs

O
ne of the major mandates of the WGEEP more biologically valuable potential ESAs that
is to demarcate areas of the Western must be categorised into different types for area
Ghats to be notified as Ecologically Sen- specific management.
sitive. In spite of the obvious sensitivity of the glob- 1. Areas Proposed but not Notified as ESAs
ally recognised hotspot of biodiversity the Com-
mittee is expected to bring out those areas that can 2. Reserve Forests and Closed Canopy Forests
be included as Multiple Use Areas with sufficient 3. Water Bodies
protection to ensure long term sustainable develop-
4. Sacred Groves
ment.
5. Specialized Ecosystems
This will require identifying of landscape ele-
ments with clearly defined norms of landuse man- 6. Species Based ESAs
agement. Thus the proposed ESAs would have to
be categorised into different types, as their sensitiv-
ity levels and patterns vary across the Ghats. Two CATEGORIZATION OF
basic issues need to be considered: EXISTING ESAS
I. Existing ESAs: There are already notified The existing ESAs in the northern Western
ESAs supported by the MOEF and the judiciary. Ghats as stipulated by the Ministry of Environ-
ment and Forests include the network of Protected
1. Protected Areas Areas, a 10 kilometer buffer around each Protected
2. ESAs around Protected Areas Area and the three hill stations of Matheran, Ma-
habaleshwar and Panchgani.
3. Hill-station ESAs
II. Proposed ESAs: There are equally and even
57
 Protected Areas
The most important group of ESAs in the West-
ern Ghats are the existing and potential sites noti-
fied as Wildlife Sanctuaries (WLS) and National
Parks (NP). While the notified areas are protected
under the Wildlife Protection Act 1972, the process
of notification has not been completed for many
reasons for several PAs.
The PAs of the Northern Western Ghats include
3 National Parks and 15 Wildlife Sanctuaries in
the three states of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Goa.
Gujarat and Maharashtra rank among the top five
states in terms of PA coverage. In the Western
Ghats the PAs include Purna Wildlife Sanctuary,
and Vansda National Park in Gujarat, while Kal-
subai Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhimashankar Wildlife
Sanctuary Koyna National Park, Chandoli Wild-
life Sanctuary (proposed National Park) and Rad-
hanagri Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra are
situated along the crest and slopes of the Western
Ghats in Maharashtra. In Maharashtra the Protect-
ed Areas that extend into the coastal belt include
Tansa Wildlife Sanctuary, Sanjay Gandhi National
Park (Borivali) and Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary
while those that extend into the Deccan Plateau
are the potential PAs of Mulshi and Mawal talukas
of Pune district which were discussed frequently
but were never formally notified. Some of these
PAs extend from the coastal plains into the West-
ern escarpment. Others include forests between
catchment areas of dams along the eastern spurs
that slope into the Deccan.
List of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in the northern Western Ghats
State National Park
Gujarat Vasda National Park
Maharashtra Sanjay Gandhi National Park
Goa Molem National Park
58
The PAs in this biogeographic region include
several landscape types which lie in the hill sec-
tions and adjacent coastal plains. Several of the
floral and faunal elements are common to both
these sub regions. A number of species are how-
ever unique to the hills (Bossuyt et al. 2004). To-
gether this group of PAs constitute the most im-
portant ESAs of the Western Ghats. Most of them
spread across the crest line and extend into parts
of the eastern slopes into the Deccan where they
include patches of deciduous forests and old teak
plantations. This gives rise to a wide range of land-
scapes with many different and unique landscape
elements. As the rainfall drops drastically from the
crest line to the Deccan plateau, the vegetation of
most of these PAs changes dramatically from west
to east (Champion and Seth 1968).
Several of these Protected Areas have villages
within them. The settlements are usually situat-
ed where the hill slope meets a river flood plain.
Patches of agricultural land surround the villages
even within the PAs. In several hill slopes there are
blanks due to ‘rab’ cultivation, where a mosaic of
forest and ‘rab’ agriculture forms a distinctive lan-
duse category with these two different landscape
elements.
The priority would be to create not just contigu-
ous but continuous corridors in between the above
given network of PA’s.
The Protected Areas have already been pri-
oritized based on their legal status into National
Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and recently newly sug-
Wildlife Sanctuaries
Purana Wildlife Sanctuary
Kalsubai Harishchandra Wildlife Sanctuary
Tansa Wildlife Sanctuary
Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary
Chandoli Wildlife Sanctuary
Karnala Wildlife Sanctuary
Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary
Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary
Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary
Sagareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary
Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary
Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary
Madei Wildlife Sanctuary
Molem Wildlife Sanctuary
Netravalli Wildlife Sanctuary
State Area Name Status Significant Biome / Land Unit
Evergreen Semi-Evergreen Moist Deciduous Dry Deciduous
Forest Forest Forest Forest Plantation
Gujarat Bansda P P
Maharashtra Tansa S
Bhimashankar S ? P P
Koyana S P P
Chandoli S P P
Kalsubhai-Har-
ishchandragad S P P P
Radhanagari S P P P
Goa Mollem S P P
Bondla S P P
Cotigao S P P P

State Area Name Status Significant Species

Rusty Malabar Mugger
Tiger Elephant Gaur Spotted Cat Civet Hornbills Crocodile
Gujarat Bansda P E ?
Maharashtra Tansa S P P
Bhimashankar S P
Koyana S P P P P
Chandoli S P P P
Kalsubhai-Har-
ishchandragad S P
Radhanagari S P P P P
Goa Mollem S ? ? P P P
Bondla S
Cotigao S P P
Summary of Values of Existing and Proposed Protected Areas (Rodgers and Panwar 1988)

gested as Community Reserves. level is a distinct advantage making restoration an

Early efforts for prioritization of Protected Ar-
eas were done for the World Bank Forestry Sector
in Maharashtra in 1991. Planning a PA network
for Maharashtra led to the institution of new PAs
mostly based on Rodgers & Panwar 1988. A pa-
per by (Bharucha 1996) dealt with prioritization
among the 29 PAs of Maharashtra.
For the Western Ghats PAs this paper has rated
Radhanagari, Koyna and Phansad as (+++) indi-
cating above average scoring for all the major cri-
teria ie: conservation potential, utilitarian potential
and conflict levels. The author notes that the pos-
sibility of restoration appears almost feasible in
this group. He suggests that the aim of manage-
ment should be to create as large a core as pos-
sible with ecodevelopment inputs for conserving
the buffer on a sustainable basis. The low conflict
59
attainable target. It was also suggested that Rad-
hanagari, Koyna and Phansad should be upgraded
to NP status to provide inviolate cores and better
management which would ensure their preserva-
tion on a long term basis. Chandoli has been given
a rating of (+00) indicating that it has a high con-
servation potential with average ecodevelopment
possibilities and moderate levels of conflict. Bhi-
mashankar has been given a rating of (+0-) as it has
a very high biological significance being situated
in a ‘hot spot’ of biodiversity but has local conflict
problems. Sanjay Gandhi National Park has been
given a rating of (0+-) signifying a PA of average
importance where ecodevelopment is feasible but
unduly high conflict levels. The paper suggests that
management here must focus primarily on reduc-
ing conflict. Kalsubai and Karnala have been given
a rating of (--0) indicating a low conservation po- and its surrounding Reserve Forest blocks. Roads
tential with low utilisation potential and moderate passing through these PAs and their surrounds
levels of conflict. The paper suggests that manage- have not been considered as requiring a different
ment planning must focus on a good substitution level of management. Such areas should have tran-
program for resources and identify those that have sit passages for wildlife in the form of underpasses
specific conservation objectives. or overbridges. No industrial or urban development
should have occurred in these areas. In many situa-
Very little work on prioritizing PAs in the north-
tions, tourist complexes have spread all around the
ern part of the Western Ghats appears to have
PAs in what is now considered an ESA.
been done in the recent past. The currently ongo-
ing Management Effectiveness Evaluation being The rapid deforestation that has occurred in the
carried out by the MoEF and the WII can be used catchment areas whenever dams have been built,
as an available source of data and information on even in the vicinity of Protected Areas has broken
management outcomes that can be used to plan the continuity of the forests. These areas on the
ESAs and their selection based on this evaluation fringes of Protected Areas are vital to the integrity
experience. Several of these PAs have already been of the Western Ghats Protected Area system, es-
included in the study and have a wealth of useful pecially in relation to their potential value as cor-
information for planning ESAs in the Ghats. ridors between PAs. A corridor that includes the
PA surrounds must be notified as an ESA as part of
There are two other useful data sources that can
a precautionary principle even beyond the 10 km
be used to plan effective ESAs. While both these
rule. The currently notified PA surrounds must be
were carried out in the late 1980s, reviewing them
notified and managed as per the orders of the Hon.
and comparing their data to current situations could
Supreme Court. New projects that require landuse
form a vitally important study to formulate plans
alterations must not be permitted around the PAs
for ESAs in the Ghats section. The two studies are:
in the Ghats in the future. This includes establish-
Planning a Wildlife Protected Area Network in In-
ing new tourism areas, or ‘cities’ like those devel-
dia (Rodgers and Panwar 1988) and Management
oped at Amby Valley and Lavasa, which have led
of National Parks and Sanctuaries in India: A Sta-
to disruption of potentially viable forest corridors.
tus Report (Kothari, Forests, and Division 1989).
There is thus a strong rationale to include the
ESAs around Protected Areas
surrounding landscape of Protected Areas as a spe-
Currently the Ministry of Environment and For- cial category of ESAs. In the future, surrounding
est (MOEF) has mandated that a 10 km buffer zone human perturbations around PAs will have strong
around the Protected Areas should be notified as negative impacts on the conservation potential of
an ecologically sensitive area. However, this ruling PAs in the Ghats. Several PA surrounds harbour
has been repeatedly violated around the PAs of the a mosaic of forest types in Reserve Forests and
Northern sector of the Western Ghats. specialized ecosystems such as plateaus and scrub-
In the Western Ghats the surrounds of Protected lands that act as vital buffers to the biodiversity
Areas are of special significance. There are 18 PAs sequestrated in National Parks and Wildlife Sanc-
within and at the periphery of the northern part of tuaries. A review of the present landuse around
the Ghats. The level of protection has been varied PAs in Maharashtra (Bharucha 2006) suggests
and fluctuating due to unclear management and that there are a large number of existing impacts
differences in the prior ownership of the land. The on these ESAs. These include industrial establish-
PAs are however ‘protected’ at least on paper. Ex- ments, dams, hydel power stations, roads, mines,
amples of management alterations in time include and townships. These existing landuse categories
issues such as tribal retaliations that occurred in cannot be wished away. However attempts must be
and around Purna Wildlife Sanctuary in Gujarat a made to limit the impacts and provide mitigating
few years ago. This led to the uncontrolled felling measures by creating legislations and rules to re-
of a large number of trees in the Protected Area duce their impact. No new development should be

60
permitted in this category of ESAs. This is an im-
portant issue as many PA surrounds in the North-
ern Western Ghats are already surrounded by other
forms of landuse (Bharucha 2006).
Hill-station ESAs
Increasing levels of tourism have led to defor-
estation, problems of waste disposal, housing
expansion, roads and water shortage in most hill
stations both in the northern Western Ghats and
elsewhere in India. For several years, and more so
from the early 1990s, NGOs and conservation re-
search groups have debated the need to protect hill
ecosystems and the hill stations within them. The
Pronab Sen Committee Report (Sen 2000) includes
hill stations as an ESA group. Currently new town-
ships such as Sahara and Lavasa and the proposed
New Mahabaleshwar Township should be brought
under the purview of the same conditions as they
are nested in the Western Ghats and are distinctly
a growing threat within the biodiversity hotspot
region of the Western Ghats (Kapoor, Kohli, and
Menon 2009).
Among the hillstations of the Western Ghats,
only Panchgani, Mahabaleshwar, Matheran in the
Sahyadris have been classified as Ecologically Sen-
sitive Areas. This leaves out areas such as the new
townships, old forts such as Panhala, Sinhagad etc.
that area growing into urban centers with serious
environmental problems due to garbage dumping,
water pollution, etc. as their tourist carrying capac-
ity has been exceeded.
The Mahableshwar-Panchgani Ecologically
Sensitive Area covers an area of 237.28 sq km. In
terms of the history of the ESA classification, the
Department of Environment, Maharashtra Gov-
ernment carried out a study on the environmental
status of the Mahabaleshwar plateau in 1982 and
stated in its report ‘unless checked now, the entire
plateau may well be destroyed within a decade and
rendered unfit for human habitation’. Around the
same time, the Ministry of Environment and For-
ests (MoEF) had gazetted a preliminary notifica-
tion inviting public objections and suggestions for
the declaration of Pachmarhi as an Ecologically
Sensitive Area. This was the first hill station to be
that time the Pronab Sen Committee’s report (see
considered for declaration as ‘ecologically frag-
section 4 of this chapter) was out and the Matheran
ile’. This created the ground for pushing the Ma-
61
habaleshwar-Panchgani Notification in the Min-
istry. Thus the Mahabaleshwar-Panchgani ESA
Notification follows the same pattern as used by
the Pachmarhi draft ESA Notification. For the first
time provisions were made for heritage conserva-
tion, regulation of groundwater extraction and
regulation of traffic. These provisions were added
keeping in mind the ecology of the hill station as
an ESA.
A review by Kapoor et al., 2009 of the ESAs de-
picts milestones from 2000 onwards that have led
to the process of a proposed Sahyadri ESA. The
altitudinal gradient of the proposed area coupled
with the difference in rainfall across the area con-
tributes to the creation of the diverse forest types
that are seen in the area which provide the range of
hills with exceptional biological values.
They have shown that deforestation, poaching
and encroachments are serious deterrents to the
ecological and environmental assets within this re-
gion. The concept was initiated around 1991 when
a Sahyadri Ecologically Sensitive Areas (SESA)
consisting of 4200 sq km. in Karnataka in Maha-
rashtra was suggested as an ESA in the Northern
Western Ghats. This was first proposed by the Na-
tional Committee for the Protection of Natural
Resources. By its notification dated June 21, 1999,
the MoEF invited suggestions or objections on the
draft rules proposed to prohibit or regulate loca-
tion of identified industries in proximity to iden-
tified ecologically and environmentally sensitive
areas. After the last meeting of the Mohan Ram
Committee on June 29, 2004 and its suggestions,
the Sahyadri Ecologically Sensitive Areas has not
been discussed in the MoEF. According to Dr.
H.Y. Mohan Ram, the Chairman of the committee
to declare areas as ecologically sensitive, though
SESA was a good proposal and aimed at protect-
ing the Western Ghats, how it would ensure sound
management being spread across three states was
not clear. Thus, he felt it was better not to notify
the entire region as an ESA, but select areas which
could be declared as ecologically sensitive within
the larger area (Kapoor, Kohli, and Menon 2009)
Matheran was constituted as an ESA in 2003. By
Notification was now re-drafted to fit the criteria ESAs.
laid down in this report. The Eco-Sensitive Area If the objective of a Western Ghats Authority is
covers an area of 214.73 sq km and a 200 m buf- a sustainable management strategy for the Western
fer zone and consists of the area of the Matheran Ghats it must look at environmental social and eco-
Municipal Council and its environs. nomic factors to permit or disallow certain forms
CATEGORIZATION OF PROPOSED of development.
ESAS Thus the rating for a parcel of land that is to be
There can be several categories of ESAs depend- protected or developed through ESAs must take
ing on the ecological process and biodiversity val- into account all three concerns. As the primary fo-
ues that can be maintained within them in the long cus is biodiversity conservation this must be given a
term. Each category can be separately rated on the large score; as social issues related to local farmers
basis of their function in the Western Ghats land- and tribal folk require a greater degree of protec-
scape as well as their level of threat. For example, tion to their resources rather than shift their land
the Bhor Ghats at Khandala is a substantial gap in use into an urban category, this must be based
the effort at corridoring, which needs to be included on social issues such as traditional resource use
as an ESA. Some patches of relatively good forests and sacred groves. The economic concern here is
that function as critically important corridors must closely linked to social concerns as for example the
form a key aspect of notifying ESAs. . Similarly, ar- support for ecotourism through which the income
eas where new dam and mining projects have been goes to the local communities rather than five star
proposed need to be extensively reviewed. It is im- tourism operators. Economic considerations must
portant to balance the needs of conservation and focus on providing a better quality of life for local
development through a set of priorities, the institu- people such as access to potable water, access to
tion of good governance practices and principles health, better housing, agricultural technology and
of sustainability to stem or reverse threats. alternate income generation possibilities.
(Sarkar et al. 2006) outline these concerns which Based on these three conditions activities can be
apply to conservation planning for the Western considered as sustainable or unsustainable in a par-
Ghats. They contend that representation and per- ticular ESA category. Thus for example a parcel of
sistence are important parameters as conservation ESA could be permitted for grazing or collection
competes with other forms of landuse. The long- of firewood or NTFP at a sustainable level of de-
term sustenance of ecological and evolutionary velopment.
principles must govern the objectives of creating The rating scale to quantify this would thus have
ESAs in the Western Ghats. The authors consider conservation assessment, evaluation of social ben-
‘complimentarily’ ‘irreplaceability’ and ‘vulner- efits and economic concerns. It would also assess
ability’ as key issues for conservation planning. present and future threats. Thus rather than a sin-
The ESAs in the Western Ghats will require the gle score the outcome should include a ‘signature’
use of several decision making tools to bring out a for each category that would give a positive value
well-considered ESA management strategy. to conservation social and economic importance
and a negative scoring system for threat evaluation.
The ESAs in the northern sector of the Ghats is
one strategy that could bring about longterm sus- However to prioritize the level of eco-sensitivity
tainable land management in the Ghats. This must most authors add the conservation importance to
bring to the front not only activities or development the threat values to compare different areas.
projects that cannot be carried out, but also indi- The various categories of areas that could be in-
cate areas where activities may be permitted based cluded as an ESA are described below.
on the special needs or under specific requirements.
This must be based on cumulative (region based) Areas Planned but not Notified as PAs
carrying capacity studies rather than single project The existing PAs of this biogeographic zone as
62
 ‘Signature’ for ESAs based on sustainability
Conservation assessment score 6RFLDOVLJQL¿FDQFHVFRUH Local Economic stability Threat considerations
(positive) (positive) (positive) (negative)

listed by (Rodgers and Panwar 1988) and (Rodgers across the Ghats. This effects forest communities
et al. 2002) are useful documents that could be used from north to south – the geomorphological effect,
as a basis for suggesting inclusion of the potential and west to east – the climatological effects of pre-
PAs into a network of ESAs under the proposed cipitation.
Western Ghats Authority. There are two such ar-
eas in the northern Western Ghats, both in Maha-
rashtra. These are Mahabaleswar and Fr. Santapau
Sanctuary, later suggested as Rajmachi and Mulshi
wildlife sanctuaries.
For example, the mitigation measures suggested
for the Mumbai Pune Expressway was to develop
two Protected Areas of 100 km2 each in the West-
ern Ghats north and south of the alignment. While
this was planned by the Forest Department in great
detail using satellite imaging and Reserve Forest
from toposheets, the mitigation agreed to, has nev- Historically, the protection strategy in early times
er been implemented. The proposal had envisioned is evident only from the very small but widespread
including only the RF blocks and renotifying them groups of sacred groves maintained by local forest
as Wildlife Sanctuaries. This proposal could be eas- dwelling people. These form benchmarks of what
ily revived and either notified as has been agreed to the ESAs should look like in the future.
or be included as ESAs under the Western Ghats
For purposes of creating viable ESAs the most
Authority.
obvious patches of forest are within Reserved For-
Reserve Forest and Closed Canopy Forest ests in the Western Ghats. The forests with over
Das et al. 2006 have identified high conserva- 60% canopy values appear to be mainly the RF
tion value grids containing RFs adjoining existing patches some of which have been incorporated
PAs. The feasibility of including these forests in the into PAs.
respective protected area should be examined. In A major concern is the need for forest connec-
Maharashtra, the Sahyadri Konkan corridor con- tivity which is a prime concern in the design of
sisting of the Bhimgad Reserve Forest, Amboli a network of ESAs. This must not only look at
Reserve Forest and the forests of Mahabaleshwar North – South corridoring but at connectivity be-
have been put into this category. tween forests of the hill range and the coastal belt.
The pattern of vegetation in the Ghats is influ- While several floral and faunal elements between
enced strongly by geological, climatological and the Western Ghats hill section and the forests in the
altitudinal factors. Most of the RF patches are rela- coastal belt differ significantly, there are common
tively small and have been altered by decades and elements which require this connectivity between
even centuries of human interference of different hill range crests, the escarpment, and the coastal
types and levels of impact. These natural and bi- plain. Much of this West – East connectivity is
otic influences have led to the most complex forms through stream edge vegetation which is linked to
of forest communities and created a jigsaw puzzle riparian vegetation of river banks and finally to the
of landscape elements that form distinct mosaics mangroves in estuaries.

63
 Several species of insects, amphibians and fish cies)
are most vulnerable to a breakdown of such tracts The level of fragmentation of different forest
which are highly susceptible to the negative im- types is a key concern for developing a system of
pacts of roads, power lines, and to some extent the ESA corridors for the Western Ghats.
conversion of nachni-varai and paddy lands into
terraced sugarcane. Water Bodies
In the Northern Western Ghats there is a need to The aquatic ecosystems of the Ghats consist of
classify forests into ecologically based formations. lotic and lentic systems. While the streams and riv-
The two more typical examples to be considered er tributaries range from temporary monsoon tor-
include high tall and low stunted forest structures rents to slow moving pools, the lakes contiguous
that are seen in patches. The dominant trees in- to the Ghats area all artificial impoundments due
clude the Memecylon – Syzygium – Actinodaphne, to the construction of a series of dams developed
semi evergreen formations – for example of Ma- progressively for over a century.
habaleshwar and the very different Dimocarpus River Sources
– Holigarna in Bhimashankar, Chandoli, Koyna
In the Western Ghats the forest is the source for
that forms another distinctive forest. In contrast a
all the rivers that meander through the vast Dec-
majority of the forests of the catena in Gujarat has
can, as well as give birth to the river deltas and es-
moist and dry deciduous teak or miscellaneous for-
tuaries in the coastal region.
ests (Worah 1991).
The relationship of river sources with Protected
Existing forest corridors and potential corridor-
Areas, temples and other historical sites is found
able sites are a key to preserving biological val-
in several parts of the Western Ghats, such as the
ues of these varied forests types. This is of great
five rivers including the Krishna from old Maha-
relevance to managing faunal values not only for
baleshwar and the Bhima river in Bhimashankar.
the areas intervening between the PAs but for the
These sources have some level of traditional or in-
longterm genetic and evolutionary processes of the
stitutionalized protection. However, most other riv-
Ghats as a bio-ecological entity of global value.
er sources have no protection from the impacts of
The Forest Survey of India’s categorization a number of development related activities. New
of vegetation classes into high density moder- townships that have sprung up in the Ghats have
ate density and scrub land is an indication of the created impacts on these river sources by using the
fragmentation of the forests. Any further degrada- perennial sources for their own use, disrupting their
tion is likely to have the most serious consequenc- flow and altering their natural ecological attributes.
es. While some of this could be tackled through
Changes made by human activity at these river
ecorestoration, mined areas for example that have
sources can have serious consequences down-
been rehabilitated by a green cover of exotic trees
stream. These rivers arise from water that perco-
may be unusable for a large variety of fauna. The
lates from a lateritic plateau into underground
outcome of neglect at this stage could well lead to a
stores and then emerges at a lower level as a spring.
permanent and irreversible damage to biodiversity.
The disturbance to the flow of surface water on
Some of the important aspects of notifying the crest of the range can modify the flow from
ESAs in the Reserve Forest category include the the spring. This not only adversely affects the veg-
following: etation around the spring, but reduces the critical
1. Size (for core species) availability of a perennial source of water for wild-
life. These sites should form a separate category
2. Configuration
of ESAs. The most critical spots are sources of
3. Connectivity streams that are perennial as they form keystone
4. Naturalness (Least disturbed by plantations resources for wildlife in summer.
>60% canopy of indigenous forest tree spe- While the temples attempt to protect these river
64
sources, the growing level of pilgrimage tourism to tributaries emanating from the Ghats, (both on the
these sites due to better roads up to the temple has Western and Eastern aspects) leads to severe altera-
become a serious impact on the ecological features tions, in water supply for all types of human use,
of these river sources. Bhimashankar receives thou- besides creating a serious problem for the conser-
sands of tourists during the Mahashivratri festival, vation of wildlife.
causing pollution from food waste, faecal matter, The aquatic and terrestrial features of the catch-
plastic bags, bottles and oil from motor vehicles ments constitute a complex and interrelated eco-
that pollute the crystal clear waters of the spring logical mosaic. Destabilising either component
where the Bhima originates. Such sacred temple leads to disruption in the other. Thus deforestation
sites where rivers originate must be included in a of the terrestrial ecosystem alters flow rates in the
specific set of ESAs to prevent the desecration of streams of the Ghats. Altered overutilization of
the water sources especially during religious yatras. water from the stream destroys the riparine threat-
The important river sources that need to be pro- ened ecosensitive vegetation.
tected are linked to the integrity of watersheds with The watershed as a whole thus is an important
different types of land and resource use within ESA with very special management considerations
them. as a category requiring its own norms and rules.
Watersheds Securing these functions is a key to sustainable de-
velopment at the regional level. This will require
The Western Ghats are collectively an important
locale specific microlevel planning and the coop-
watershed region. All the major rivers of the Dec-
eration of local people.
can Plateau and the coastal region arise in a series
of adjacent independent watersheds in the Western Catchments of Dams
Ghats. Their upper catchments are the most eco- The catchment zones are rapidly losing the
logically sensitive zones as they are on steep slopes forests that once prevented soil erosion and mon-
which were once surrounded by an intact continu- soonal flooding downstream of the dams. The de-
ous forested tract along the Ghats and its offshoots. forested areas in the catchments have led to rapid
The rivers are fed by a large number of tributar- siltation with a serious reduction in the water hold-
ies of ecological significance. The major rivers from ing capacity and the life span of the dams. Desilt-
North to South include Godavari, Purna, Manjra, ing dams is a much more expensive process than
the Pranhita (Penganga-Wardha), Indravati, the preventing deforestation and afforesting the de-
Sabari, Darna, Kadwa, Mula, Karanji, Madhur- graded catchment areas.
nala, Devanala, Hebbala, Krishna, Koyana, Varna, A review of the catchments of the dams along
Panchganga, Doodhganga, Bhima, Musi, Paleru, the Western Ghats demonstrates that there are
Maneru, Ghataprabha, Malaprabha and Tungab- hardly any large valleys left without a water-spread
hadra. created by the series of dams. Thus once the dams
The west flowing rivers in the Western Ghats are have lost their long term viability through siltation
Purna, Auranga, Par in Gujarat; Surya, Vaitarna, there are no valleys where new dams can be built.
Damanganga, Ulhas, Savitri, Vashisthi, Gad, Kaja- Thus the command agricultural areas, of the dams,
vi and Kodavali in Maharashtra; Mandovi, Zauari, the cities and industrial belts that are completely
Tiracol, Chapora, Talpona in Goa. dependent on a year round supply of water from
the dams will be crippled and an entire set of nega-
Several of the smaller tributaries are of ecologi-
tive economic and social concerns will be seen af-
cal importance. Each river has its own abiotic fea-
ter a few decades.
tures in its catchment zone which includes topog-
raphy, slope, geological nature, soil characteristics, It may be noted that if all the catchments are
rainfall patterns and biotic features such as forest to be considered as ESAs there is very little inter-
types, open grasslands and shrubby growth. Dis- vening land between them. They are separated by
regard for the integrity of the watersheds of the a narrow range of steep hills. Thus the whole of
65
the Ghats section which surround the catchment cha 1999). In Mawal and Mulshi even though the
of the dams must be included in these ESAs. Each sacred forest patches are small in size their aggre-
catchment area of these dams must be included in gated species richness usually represents the com-
a highly essential group of special category ESA. plete spectrum of plant species of the forest type
around the catchments of the hydel lakes in this
Studies by Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Envi-
region (BVIEER 1998).
ronment Education and Research for Tata Electric
Company’s hydel catchment areas (BVIEER 1998)
demonstrated two patterns of biotic pressures. At
Valvan and Shirowata, the area within the catch-
ment has no villages and has tracts of Reserved
Forests from which the villages were resettled in
the early 1900s outside the catchment. Here the
pressure of grazing and fuel wood collection oc-
curred from outside the catchment. This created a
centrifugal pressure which began at the ridge and
has moved progressively downwards into residual
patches of forest in a less degraded condition at a
lower level. In contrast, in the Andhra Lake and in
the Mulshi catchment the villages are in the flood
plains of the original Indravati and Mula rivers.
Here the pressure is primarily centripetal, begin-
ning from the base of the hill ranges and extending
gradually towards the crest line. The more intact
forests are closer to the higher ridges of the catch-
ment areas. This has implications for managing
ESAs of all the catchment areas in the Western
Ghats.
Sacred Groves
The large number of small patches of ‘sacred
groves’ maintained by local communities in a
Sacred groves have been defined as a biological
relatively high state of ecological integrity are of
heritage and a system that has helped to preserve
considerable conservation value as benchmarks of
the representative genetic resources existing in the
naturalness. Established conservation programs
surrounding regions for generations. They are a
(e.g. protected area networks) do not recognize the
rich repository of biodiversity and a product of a
value of traditional institutions, despite the exist-
certain socio-ecological philosophy, which is today
ing evidence for their effectiveness in biodiversity
a potent tool to avert any crisis in the society (Singh
conservation and pressure from researchers to in-
et al.2009). They reflect a cherishment of sanctity
clude them in local and regional conservation plan-
through conservation of biodiversity. Tree cutting
ning (Bhagwat and Rutte 2008).
and other such extraction of resources is forbidden
Gadgil and Vartak as early in the late 60s pio- only in the smaller groves, while larger groves often
neered studies on the sacred groves of Maharashra. function as resources for the sustenance of local
When the floral species richness of adjacent groves people. Threats to sacred groves today are due to
is aggregated, the small groves together contain modernisation, liberalisation, privatisation and
most of the species found across wide expanse of globalisation, leading to an erosion of values that
the Ghats. They thus not only act as bench mark- created the concept of sacred groves.
ers of ecological intactness but as gene banks for
These informal protected areas are as impor-
seed recovery of the rarer species of plants (Bharu-
66
tant for biodiversity conservation as formal areas. The local ‘kaul’ ritual is performed in several
While endemic trees were more abundant in for- groups of groves in the Western Ghats which lim-
est reserves than in sacred groves; threatened trees its resource extraction by a ceremony based on
were more abundant in sacred groves in the south- chance. The priest makes two trickles of water on
ern Western Ghats. (Bhagwat et al. 2005). sacred the side of the deities platform. He then places a
groves cover many important habitats and species grain of wheat in each of the trickles which stick to
which are not covered by Pas. A study on the sa- the side of the platform till the decrease in surface
cred groves of Mawal and Mulshi Talukas showed tension permits one of them to fall. Depending on
that each grove had a different complement of whether the right or left grain falls first the deity
large old trees. However when they were added to- permits or discourages the extraction of branches,
gether even the small groves had contributed to the or trees from the grove. There are several alterna-
list of tree species and thus all the species found tive ways of doing the ceremony, all of which have
in the forests of Mawal and Mulshi Talukas were a fifty-fifty percent chance of permitting a resource
accounted for within the groves (Bharucha 1999). to be taken from the grove.
The patches of old growth forests which have
large trees and hollow trunks are of importance
for forest birds, giant squirrels, flying squirrels,
bats and several insects. These old growth patches
in Maharashtra are associated with tribal deities
which are protected by local people as ‘devrai’s,
‘deo rahati’ or have no specific nomenclature, but
are never-the-less preserved as intact or semi-intact
forest patches dedicated to animistic deities. These
are often depicted as fearful female gods, or ani-
mals such as the tiger. For example, in the Mawal
and Mulshi talukas there are 44 groves of one to
eight hectares in size maintained by local commu-
nities. They have been looked after mostly by the
Mahadeo Koli tribe. Each grove is named after a
special deity. Several have a mythological story re-
lated to their origin (Malhotra et al. 2001)
Intricate local traditional customs have main-
tained the groves through a stochastic method in
which a ritual by the pujari controls the amount
of resources that may be extracted from the grove
at any point in time. The local communities es-
tablish rules that vary from grove to grove. These
norms often prohibit the felling of trees and the
killing of animals, but do allow for the collection In most groves a blanket preservation of the ex-
of firewood, fodder, and medicinal plants by local traction of all resources is not usually carried out.
people (Hughes and Chandran 1998). Also, in a A temple for the grove may be built on money col-
majority of groves studied in Mawal and Mulshi lected by selling timber from the grove under spe-
Talukas some resources are extracted based on rit- cial conditions. This has strong community sup-
uals which permit a small and sustainable level of port from local village folk. In contrast the groves
resource-use for local purposes. In some deadwood in Kerala are maintained by each family in their
and fruit may be collected. In others palm juice backyards.
may be taken for toddy. In most cases the protection afforded is governed

67
 List of Prioritized Sacred Groves in the Northern Western Ghats
District Taluka Village Area (HA) Deity
Ratnagiri Chiplun Kudap 14.81 ---
Ratnagiri Chiplun Sawarde 12.18 ---
Ratnagiri Dapoli Kudavale 46.00 ---
Ratnagiri Dapoli Sadavali 12.14 ---
Ratnagiri Sangmeshwar Adawad 25.00 Unapdev
Ratnagiri Sangmeshwar Devde 30.00 Mhasoba
Ratnagiri Sangmeshwar Marleshwar 100.00 Marleshwar
Sindhudurg Kankavli Bidvad 12.04 ---

Sindhudurg Kankavli Pise Kamate Bidvad 12.79 ---

Sindhudurg Kudal Awalegaon 23.29 ---
Sindhudurg Kudal Khochre 23.29 Dungoba
Sindhudurg Sawantwadi Ambegaon 20.00 Mauli
Sindhudurg Vengurle Achra 20.00 Rameshwar
Raigad Alibag Adi 17.25 ---
Raigad Alibag Chirgaon 32.18 ---
Raigad Alibag Dahan 30.08 ---
Raigad Alibag Deodhar 33.69 ---
Raigad Alibag Khandala 90.00 Siddheshwar
Raigad Alibag Kole 17.59 Kole
Raigad Alibag Mangloli 18.72 Kalkai
Raigad Alibag Mapgaon 125.00 Kanakeshwar
Raigad Alibag Talwadi 14.33 Talwadi
Raigad Alibag Varvante 16.39 Bhairidevi
Raigad Dehan Dehan 17.6 Dehan
Raigad Mangaon Tilore 18.00 Bhairoba
Thane Wada Ambiste Bk. 60.5 Nagnath
Thane Wada Ambiste Bk. 44.4 Nagnath
Thane Wada Gourapur 43.7 Laxmi Narayan
Thane Wada Gunj 22.36 Bhargavnath
Thane Wada Gunj 18.87 Vajreshwari
Thane Wada Sange 37.6 Tryambakeshwar
Thane Wada Shelte 34.22 Gramdevi
Kolhapur Chandgad Bhololi 20 ----
Kolhapur Shahuwadi Ugwai 34 Ugwaidevi
Ratnagiri Chiplun Kotakwadi 27.56 ----
Ratnagiri Chiplun Pathe 13.73 ----
Ratnagiri Lanja Prabhanvalli 27.4 ----
Ratnagiri Mandangad Pat 18.01 ----
Ratnagiri Sangmeshwar Gothane 18.37 ----
Ratnagiri Sangmeshwar Gothane 16.47 ----
Ratnagiri Sangmeshwar Kinjale 13.00 Gaondev
Sindhudurg Kudal Shivapur 19.14 ----
Sindhudurg Sawantwadi Sarmale 40.65 ----
Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Het 31.94 ----
Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Karul 20.02 ----
Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Kumhavade 19.10 ----
Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Madhalwadi 19.12 ----
Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Mandvikar wadi 53.55 ----

68
Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Navale 77.49 ----
Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Nimarule 47.35 ----
Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Sonali 14.17 ----
Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Tiavde turf. Khare 27.84 ----
Sindhudurg Vaibhavwadi Vayamboshi 14.03 ----
Kolhapur Shauwadi Kassarde 12.00 Dhopeshwar
Pune ------ Bibi 54.5 Shambhu
Pune Bhor Shirgaon 15.00 Durgadevi
Pune Junnar Junnar 20.00 Jalvandidevi
Pune Junnar Khubewadi 63.00 Khubidevi
Pune Junnar Kopare 50.00 Virobha
Pune Junnar Madh 110.58 Khandoba
Pune Junnar Pimpalgaon Joge 15.00 Kotamichidevi
Pune Junnar Taleran 14.00 Kalubai
Pune Junnar Khubi 63.00 Chedoba
Pune Maval Vahangaon 20.23 Anjubai
Pune Velhi Mangaon 18.00 Jananidevi
Pune Junnar Kolhewadi 263.00 Bhairavnath
Pune Junnar Pimpalgaon Joge 15.5 Kotmai
Ahmednagar Sangamner Ambidumala 80.00 Rokdeshwar
Sangli Atpadi Hivtad 40.00 Shukdev
Sangli Atpadi Nelkarnje 25.00 Bhimashankar
Sangli Atpadi Nelkarnje 25.00 Mhasoba
Sangli Atpadi Ramghat 25.00 Shriram
Sangli Jat Banali 20.00 Banshankari
Yeotaml Wani Khansadgaon 19.80 Pharsopen
Bhandara Bhandara Korambhi 22.00 Kalkai

Source: Deshmukh 1999

by locally set principles of resource use. The con- protective strategy that has been traditionally used
cept that in all sacred groves no utilization of re- by local people. Similar groves are found in Satara,
sources is permitted is an over statement based on Kolhapur and Ratnagiri Districts.
insufficient scrutiny on the way in which the groves In the Dangs of Gujarat, the Bhils have their
are traditionally managed. Groups of these groves own system of preserving trees around their sacred
must become a part of a special category of Eco- totems that are situated on the road side or at some
logically Sensitive Areas, by supporting the tradi- remote site in the hills. Hot springs such as at Un-
tional sentiments that have led to their preservationnai in Gujarat have been insufficiently studied for
over several generations. their ecology and the impact of the human activity
Incorporating these sites into conservation net- on these sources which is very high. A large num-
works could enhance the effectiveness of PAs by ber of people who believe that the spring water has
covering a wider variety of habitats and by har- medicinal properties channel water through to the
nessing the support of local people. tank built around this special feature. Hot springs
should be considered as special ESAs.
Most of the groves are small in size and isolated
from each other. As an ESA category their man- The study of the Bombay Natural History Soci-
agement may be entrusted to the same village in- ety on ‘Conservation and development of sacred
stitutional arrangements that have protected them groves in Maharshtra done in 1999 has a list of im-
over generations. Giving them an ESA status must portant sacrd groves that could be given an ESA
be used primarily to strengthen the existing local status (See table on next page). During the study

69
the Western Ghats region was divided into zones to exist for over several centuries, harboured atleast
based on the agroclimatic regions of Maharashtra one or more sacred grove their size ranging from
as used by Deshmukh (1999) (Guidelines provided a clump of trees to a few hundred hectares (S.
by National Agricultural Research Programme, Deshmukh, Gogate, and Gupta 1998).
Planning Commission, Govt. of India). Within The distribution of sacred groves overlaps with
these zones the sacred groves that have been pri- the distribution of forests in the State. The aver-
oritized are given in the second table (Note: These age size of the groves is a few acres. Large groves
sacred groves are from outside the protected areas.) are found occasionally. Smaller groves in the west-
River sources and hill tops have been used to ern and eastern parts rarely allow extraction of
build temples for several generations. In many situ- resource from the groves. Sacred groves form an
ations there are trees planted in their enclosures. important landscape feature in the deforested hill
They act as staging sites and roosts for colonies ranges of the Western Ghats of Maharashtra.
of birds and bats. These should be included in the In Gujarat, twenty nine sacred groves have been
category of traditionally protected ESAs. The pres- reported from Banaskantha district of Gujarat. The
ence of sacred groves in cultivated landscapes can sizes of the groves run from one acre to two square
also provide habitat and corridors, allowing the kms (Ramakrishnan, Saxena, and Chandrashekara
movement of many different organisms. It is ques- 1998).
tionable whether any single sacred grove could
have conservation value, in view of the small size Specialised Ecosystems
of these fragmented forest patches. However, as a Specialized ecosystems are unique communities
network, the sacred groves in a region can preserve of plants and animals using complex ecological
a sizeable portion of the local biodiversity in areas situations that have a limited range. They frequent-
where it would not be feasible to maintain large ly include highly specific abiotic conditions that
tracts of protected forests and where protected re- strongly influence the ecosystem which supports
serves would be unlikely to receive local support. specialized floral and faunal elements. The com-
Such sites could play an important role in commu- plexity results from mutually dependent param-
nity based conservation of biodiversity and should eters such as topographic features, climatic condi-
therefore be included in ESA conservation strate- tions, soil type and the resultant biotic features that
gies. form islands of unique landscape elements within
The integration of sacred groves and other sa- the Western Ghats. They are inherently fragile
cred natural sites into the existing protected area due to their special nature and small size. Due to
networks must take into account the local ecology the restricted range of their species they are eas-
of the area, as well as the prevailing threats. As ily disrupted by human activity that affects habitat
a result, it would be unwise to prescribe a single specific species. An alteration in their abiotic char-
management approach. acteristics can lead to perturbation in the entire bi-
otic community leading to a few or several local
In Maharashtra sacred groves are found in tribal
extinctions. Such perturbations may be effected by
as well as non-tribal areas. The sacred groves in
changes beyond the immediate surrounds of these
the Western part of the state are called devrais or
super sensitive ecosystems. A specialized ecosys-
devrahatis. Gadgil and Vartak documented 233
tem may have a single or multiple limiting factors.
sacred groves from Thane, Raigad, Jalgaon, Pune,
Satara, Kolhapur, Yewatmal, Bhandara and Chan- These highly specialised and fragile ecosystems
drapur districts (Gadgil and Vartak 1981). A recent of the Ghats such as plateau tops, steep escarp-
study by Bombay Natural History Society shows ments, gorges, nala courses, have an intrinsically
existence of about 1600 SGs in Maharashtra. It low resilience to environmental disturbance from
was found that almost every village in the Western a variety of human activities. As most of these
Ghats region of Maharahstra – where the concept specialized ecosystems have restricted areas, or
of sacred groves has been evolved and continued form islands within a matrix of more robust sys-
70
tems, there is a need to find ways for these special possible extinctions is the only way to conserve
‘niches’ and their species to be preserved even as these unique ecosystems.
isolated patches. As impacts keep increasing they The problem of notifying these specialized eco-
may require special attention towards corridoring systems is that their identification requires to be
at even small spatial levels. On the other hand as done at a highly localized level. Creating these
they are by nature found as isolated patches, there ESAs is like notifying individual cultural heritage
may be special mechanisms that keep them intact sites where thousands of ancient monuments that
as isolated fragments as long as external pressures dot the Indian landscape have been notified by the
are within acceptable limits. Archaeology Department. The ability to preserve
Plateau tops such as in Panchgani have been de- these natural heritage micro-sites depends on the
stroyed by high levels of tourism. Caves in Maha- land tenure in which they are situated. This could
baleshwar which have colonies of endemic and rare be the Forest Department, the Revenue lands un-
bats have been disturbed by tourists. The carrying der local tehsildars, or under Village Panchayats.
capacity for tourists of such specialized sites is ex- Specialized ecosystems within the Ghats are of
tremely low and increasing demands for enhancing several types.
tourism with its inherent uncontrolled disturbance
levels can lead to rapid extinction of species. Old Growth Forests

Eagles and vultures have been disturbed by rock Intact old growth forests in the Western Ghats
climbing enthusiasts as these precipices are the fa- harbor several keystone species. Several of the fi-
voured nesting sites of these birds due to the inac- cus species are found in the less disturbed forests
cessibility to most humans and predators. However and are vital suppliers of food for frugivorous in-
such challenging rock faces are also prime targets sects, birds and mammals during several months
for highly skilled climbers for the excitement of the of the year when most other fruit bearing plants
ascent and the fun of rappelling down on ropes. do not have edible fruit. The patchy forests of the
Added to this is the impact of overenthusiastic Northern sector of the Western Ghats which have
wildlife photographers who disturb nests dur- rain only for 3 or 4 months support moisture laden
ing their photographic expeditions. Such areas of micro-climates and highly fluctuant water courses,
high ecological importance must be secured under all of which contribute towards a highly special-
ESAs however small they may be. In fact the small- ized forest type and structure which is easily dis-
er unique patches may be of the greatest conserva- ruptedby human interferences. While it may not
tion significance. be possible to put a grading scale on the level of
susceptibility to such habitats, there is enough evi-
Areas that have a low resilience are related to dence to show that such regimes, especially if tra-
highly specific abiotic features such as rainfall pat- ditional agro-pastoral use is shifted to other forms
terns, temperature variability, and/or number of of land-use can lead to a rapid loss of biodiversity.
rainy days per year. They are limited by soil char- Developing new pressures which can spread their
acteristics, topographic features, patterns of land ecologically adverse effects through the whole re-
cover and different land use categories. Any shift gion in the Ghats cannot be restored for several de-
in land use towards more intensive utilization can cades.
lead to irreparable damage even if it appear to be a
minor alteration in one or more of the above abiot- Valleys
ic parameters. Once disturbed, the capacity of such There are valleys inundated by heavy cloud
ecosystems to return to their original state can take cover for prolonged periods which is known to ac-
decades. count for a profusion of species of plants includ-
These are all landscape elements that have ing ground and canopy orchids, ferns and fungi.
unique floral and faunal elements on which very The Father Santapeau valley at Khandala near the
limited work has been done. Making them poten- Dukes Nose Point is one such example.
tial ESA sites as a precautionary measure against
71
 rock that are nearly devoid of vegetation for sev-
eral months of the year but are covered by a profu-
sion of ground flora in the monsoon. The lateritic
plateau tops are examples of naturally restricted
ecosystems in the Ghats and they have floral ele-
ments that flower fruit and seed only for a brief few
weeks during the monsoon. These are thus habitats
of ‘restricted range species’. These highly special-
ized ‘niches’ are sites of endemism that are used by
small restricted populations of highly specialized
species. Many of these species are probably threat-
ened by local or even global extinction. Some of the
Waterfalls
important plateaus in the northern Western Ghats
Large waterfalls and small cascades comprise are (personal communication, Aparna Watve).
only a small percentage of the overall landscape
Plateaus of the Western Ghats are all ecologi-
of the Western Ghats, but are of considerable eco-
cally sensitive and extremely difficult to prioritize
logical value. The floral and faunal elements are
in the absence of locale specific data. Thus the pre-
adapted to the torrential flow of water during the
cautionary principle would apply more strongly to
monsoon and change to completely terrestrial con-
this category. This is all the more so as a very small
ditions in the rest of the year. These are found near-
percentage of the 160000 km2 of Western Ghats
ly everywhere along the western escarpment.
lies within this highly unique landscape element.
Another aspect is that there are several types of
plateaus based on primarily geomorphological fac-
tors which strongly influence their mosaic of tiny
patches of monsoon flora.
Important Plateaus in the Northern Western Ghats
Location Plateau
Junnar Naneghat
Durgawadi
Harischandragadh
Bhimashankar Ahupe
Nashik Anjeneri
Plateau Tops Nashik Saptarshungi
Nashik Wani
Exposed lateritic plateau tops are a good exam-
Kas
ples of specialized ecosystems in which endemic
Amboli
and rare ground flora are linked to their specific Chaukul
specialized habitats. The plateaus have a patchy Chorla
distribution and are isolated from each other by Vishalgadh Zenda
valleys and ridges. The crest of the Western Ghats Masai
is locally capped by lateritic plateaus at varying in- These factors present a severe problem in prioriti-
tervals. These plateaus are well known sites having zation based on ‘good guess’ studies done rapidly
high floristic values. Panchagani’s five plateaus, the in the absence of a large number of authenticated
Kas plateau near Satara and fragments of plateaus data sets. As all the different types of plateaus have
in Mahabaleshwar are the best known examples. been placed here in a single category each type
(Watve and Thakur 2006) have done a great deal of must be represented. This indicates that protect-
work on the vegetation patterns of the monsoonal ing a mere 10 or 20% of plateaus as ESAs would
plants of these rocky outcrops and flat expanses of not provide the category with a sufficient area to
72
conserve all their species. The types are based on special ecological significance. They invariably in-
their altitude; geomorphology, vegetation commit- clude waterfalls, cascades and nala courses which
tees and can be observed on the ground and from flow in the monsoon. As their catchments in the
satellite images. mountain tops are relatively small peaks and pla-
teaus their flow rate rapidly increases in a down-
Hill streams
pour and equally rapidly shrinks to a trickle when
The hill streams that alter their flow rate within the shower abates. Some plant and animal species
minutes of a cloudburst are specialized habitats of are unique to these highly variable habitat condi-
molluscs, crustaceans and fish which have to alter tions. The catchments of the streams are covered
their movement, feeding patterns and breeding be- by forests that are dependent on high levels of pre-
haviour within very brief intervals as the flow rate cipitation. The closed forest canopy and the thick-
alters from a torrent to a trickle within even a few ness of the detritus on the forest floor hold the rain
minutes. Avifauna that feed on such aquatic inver- water like a sponge. This permits greater penetra-
tebrate species know when and how to alter their tion into the ground water stores which are slowly
own feeding behaviour to remain in tune with the released into the perennial streams. The detritus
constant fluctuations in the availability of their preserves the evergreen forests’ need, not only for
food. The Malabar Whistling thrush and the Black- retaining large quantities of water, but maintains
bird for example have close association with rapid- nutrients for forest growth and prevents soil ero-
ly flowing waterfalls and streams and are adapted sion of the steep slopes. As alterations in stream
to feeding in the micro habitat and niche present in flow by deforestation, or changes in the upper
the waterfalls that it frequents. catchments can have serious local and even region-
Ridges al consequences. These steep areas must constitute
a special category of ESAs. The steeper the slope
The Western Ghats has a main north-south ridge
the more grave the need for an appropriate protec-
with outlying west-east ridges that extend into the
tive strategy.
Deccan between each major river watershed. The
steepness of these ridges determine the level of uti- The categories for slope used are: Flat- 0°; Gentle
lization from terraced paddies, hillslope broadcast- slope 2°; Sloping-4°; Moderately steep- 8°; Steep-
ed nagli and varai fields, grazing lands and unap- 14°; Very steep-26°; Extremely steep-45°. Any area
proachable rocky precipices. This must be included with a slope steeper than 260 should constitute
as an ESA. an ESA, as it is generally considered ecologically
sensitive. On either side of a steep slope a protec-
Escarpments and Steep Slopes
tive buffer of 500m must be maintained to prevent
landslides along these steep and easily eroded hill
slopes.
The disturbed escarpment of the Ghats along
the Mumbai-Pune expressway and the Konkan
Railway are examples where well known adequate
management principles have not been instituted
during planning, construction and follow up res-
toration that has led to years of grave ill effects
on economic social and ecological aspects. Land-
slides have been a constant feature and enormous
funds have been allocated without attending to the
The crest line of the Western Ghats constitutes a root cause of the problem. This is related to inad-
very special geological and biological form that is equately done EIAs, lack of appreciation that the
not seen elsewhere in India. The trees are gnarled area is of special significance and is consequently
and stunted with a closed thick canopy. The pre- a future hazard to lives and wellbeing of users; and
cipitous escarpments of the Western Ghats have a
73
a complete disregard for preventive maintenance, sector which have a limited soil cover are covered
and a lack of a serious restoration of the ecology by naturally occurring grasslands which have been
and habitat conditions on the periphery of roads traditionally used for grazing by agro-pastoralists
constructed in the Western Ghats. A special cat- of the Ghats. These grassy slopes are also used by
egory of ESAs along the escarpment with special migrant shepherds who move from the Deccan to
provisions to address future problems should be in- the coastal plains feeding their flocks along their
cluded in the management strategy established by traditional route along the hill slopes. The southern
the Western Ghats Authority. part of the Western Ghats have shola grasslands
where the forest grows along sheltered streams
Shrubland
beds while the grassland patches cover the inter-
The presence of shrubland with copts of stunted vening hill slopes. In the Northern sector there
trees such as Memecylon, Jamun and Carissa are a are similar grasslands maintained by annual fires
common occurrence. Most of these areas are due which are used as grazing areas for the large popu-
to continual lopping for fuelwood, where the trees lation of domestic livestock. These grasslands are
are lopped year after year. The root stock is old and thus maintained by fire regimes, grazing pressure
the copt of shrubby growth has an old tree at its from domestic stock and grass collection for thatch
base. If permitted to regrown, the shrubby growth and other purposes. The diversity of flora and fau-
begins to grow into tree cover. This provides an op- na of these grasslands is high and supports several
portunity for an ecorestoration strategy that can be endemic species of conservation importance. The
used to reform corridors between forest patches. less disturbed natural grasslands of a considerable
However, this would only be possible if such a po- size which lie outside the PAs of the Ghats should
tential corridor is considered ecosensitive and pro- be given the status of ESAs.
vided protection during restoration.
The genesis of such areas is frequently due to
the grazing pressure of domestic anumals. Cattle
that browse along cattle trackes in the forest gradu-
ally feed on the lower branches of trees and widen
the path into small clearings. Lopping for fuelwood
and rab material removes larger branches creat-
ing a treeless patch. The root stock copices into a
shrubby growth. Fire maintains the shrub copt and
does not permit the regrowth of trees. This creates
larger and larger matrices of grass covered areas
with islands of shrubs. This finally develops into a
Grassland types that are uncommon in terms of
shrubland used by both cattle and generalist wild
dominant or endemic species of grasses and herbs
fauna.
should be given the highest importance.
Grasslands
Grasslands that are less grazed have a low in-
Grasslands in the northern sector of the West- cidence of fire, include palatable species for wild-
ern Ghats are either natural where the soil depth life and domestic animals and are a valuable part
and quality is too poor to support woodland, or are of the mosaic of vegetation patterns in the Ghats.
formed due to forested areas that have been cleared Those that support abundant wildlife (grazers),
for rab. During the recent past, land that has been and include the presence of forest corridors be-
transferred to urban developers has been bulldozed tween large forest patches are important and could
to reduce the slopes. Trees and shrubs have been re- be considered to be ESAs.
moved for construction and left fallow. These areas
have become weedy grass covered patches
Open areas of the Western Ghats in the northern
74
Forts
While forts in the Ghats are described as having
historical and archaeological significance and
should be protected on these grounds alone, they
invariably have high but cryptic ecological values.
The people of Maharashtra see these forts as a part
of their cultural heritage. They have been the seat
of power of the Maratha Empire that alone could
stem the expansion of the Moghul Empire into
peninsular India. While this sentiment can be used
to protect the forts, their inaccessible locations and
their forested surrounds are of equal ecological im-
portance. In historical times, the hills were devel-
oped as forts due to their extreme inaccessibility
and the availability of perennial water sources.
Their near vertical rocky formations that are sur-
rounded by belts of inaccessible vegetation formed
an impenetrable barrier to the invading Moghul
forces. The fortifications were built around lateritic
flat plateaus. They frequently had springs that had
a year round supply of water. The natural charac-
teristics of the forts thus include remoteness, inac-
cessibility due to their steep terrain, forested sur-
75
rounds, presence of perennial streams and flat
open lateritic plateau tops, all of which also form
special habitats for a range of plant and animal spe-
cies and landscape elements of considerable eco-
logical significance. These areas are well known
habitats for reptiles, both snakes and lizards. As
they have water sources, they are favoured by both
carnivores and herbivores especially when the
stream courses and pools on the hillslopes have be-
come dry in the summer. With only these water
sources left, the wildlife aggregates around the
tanks in the old uninhabited forts.
The forts are now more accessible due to the
development of roads for enhancing cultural tour-
ism, for communication towers and other purpos-
es. With the increasing access to these sites they
are now under severe biotic pressures. Setting aside
these forts and sequestrating them from being ‘de-
veloped’ with new housing and tourist complexes
can be achieved by notifying them as special Eco-
logically Sensitive Areas.
High Precipitation Areas and Cloud Forests
The exceptionally high rainfall tracts especial-
ly those covered by low clouds that provide near
100% humidity in the Ghats must be included
as ESAs. This places special valley sectors of the
Western Ghats into an ecosensitive zone that re-
quires especially well protected areas. The south-
ern ranges which gets a year round rainfall due to
a dual monsoon from south-west and north-east
forms a tract of high conservation value. Equally
important are valleys in the northern sector where
low cloud cover during several monsoon months
provides special habitat needs for ferns, orchids,
mosses and lichens.
At the regional level topographical situations
lead to very high rainfall tracts that receive tor-
rential rain in the Northern sector of the Ghats
VXFK DV DW 0DKDEDOHVKZDU %KPD 6KDQNDU DQG
Matheran. It is here that the vegetation cover has
unique biological values and is of utmost impor-
tance in preventing severe erosion. Torrential rain
predisposes the region to landslides and floods af-
ter deforestation.
 Species Based ESAs Apart from the well-known endemic mammals
and birds it is known to harbour endemic snakes
Habitats of Species of Great Value
and other reptiles, molluscs, and insect life (Groom-
There is a serious paucity of data on the distribu- bridge, 1983).
tion range and population dynamics of the endan-
Mammals, birds, amphibia, insects tend to have
gered, endemic and highly restricted range species
overlapping areas referred to as congruent ende-
in the Northern sector of the Western Ghats. For
mism (International Council for Bird Conserva-
example little is known on the status of the Mala-
tion). This congruence in endemism occurs in sev-
bar Giant Squirrel outside the well known pockets
eral vertebrates, invertebrates as well as the plants
in the PAs such as Bhimashankar, Koyna, Chan-
which form their habitat. It is important to map
doli etc. The ability of Giant Squirrel populations
endemic species of plants and animals in the West-
to move between isolated between forest pockets is
ern Ghats and overlay their distribution patterns
highly unlikely. As it is primarily restricted to the
on the landscape elements using a geoinformatics
canopy level, their ability to cross gaps of a relative-
platform which constitutes their specialized and
ly large size is likely to be poor at least (BORGES
frequently restricted habitat ranges. This aspect of
1992; Borges 1993; Joshua and Johnsingh 1994).
congruent endemism of the Western Ghats can
On the other hand the status and distribution of
also become a basis for arresting threats from al-
species such as the Lion tailed macaque, Nilgiri
terations in land use by categorising these zones as
Tahr and Nilgiri Langur of the southern Western
a special category of ESAs.
Ghats is better appreciated.
While it is of importance to study the range of
The dwindling population of vultures is yet an-
distribution of all the endemics it would be more
other serious concern. Their residual colonies must
important to look for sites of endemic congruence
be included in this important ESA category. Birds
to give these special areas the highest level of pro-
of prey frequently use the same tree for nesting
tection.
year after year. These are not protected and are fre-
quently disturbed. Similarly the Great Pied Horn- The topographic, geological, microclimatic and
bills and owls nest in the same nesting hole year vegetation distribution pattern correlated with con-
after year. Bayas use the same nesting colony for gruent endemism is a most valuable tool in notify-
many years. Among mammals bats use the same ing these sites as important ESAs.
roosts in caves and large copts of trees. Apart from a simple correlation of endemic taxa
All these individual and disaggregated sites will it may also be possible to identify areas that have
need protection by local communities. Once identi- high concentrations of rare or threatened species.
fied the only chance of success is gaining local pub- Indications of such high concentrations in even
lic support to protect them. A strong public aware- small sized pockets must be identified by docu-
ness strategy is the only way to make this happen. menting the more obvious endemic species such as
hornbills, rare endemic butterflies, less known rep-
Any pocket outside PAs where species of special
tiles, amphibia, molluscs, insects, spiders etc.
importance are present must constitute a highly
specialized category of ESAs. Their linkage to the Species that are easy to observe and whose abun-
PAs through natural or man-made corridors is an dance can be estimated are better indicators than
important conservation concern. less overt species such as cryptic endemic micro
flora and fauna, fungi and even insect life which
Habitats of Endemic and Endangered Species
are generally not overtly seen in nature. Birdlife
The Western Ghats forests have special floris- that can be seen and heard are good indicators of
tic features related with their high level of species overall abundance as well as for identifying areas
richness and endemicity. There are several identi- where there are endemic avifaunal species.
fied centers of locally important floristic endemism
The refuge theory suggests that there could be
(Nair and Daniel 1986).
small areas in the forests of the Western Ghats
76
where species richness and local endemism has re- in the Ghats from Kalsubai to the PAs of Goa.
sulted from speciation in ancient geological times. Among the herbivores of the Northern sector
The refuges could also result from subsequent frag- the Mouse Deer (Conservation Status: Least Con-
mentation of the habitat. Such areas require special cern) is less frequently seen than were observed a
attention as there may still be unidentified species few decades ago. The large hornbills, such as the
in such small sequestrated areas within the Ghats. Malabar Pied Hornbill and the Great Pied Horn-
There are specific patches in the Western Ghats bill (Conservation Status: Near Threatened) which
that are of special significance as they constitute are rare and endangered are found in small patches
habitats of endangered species several of which are distributed in the more intact forests. The popula-
on IUCNs endangered species list. tion of birds such as green pigeons, barbets, wood
peckers appear to have dwindled in most parts of
The rarity of plant life has been discussed by
the Ghats. Their populations however seem to be
many authors. Rarity can have several causes. They
more stable in the PAs. However there are no quan-
may be relict old populations or recently evolved
tified studies done in the northern sector to be able
species that are still to spread to their outer limits.
to know for certain the population trends of these
Thus there are genetic ecological geological and
hill forest birds over the last few decades. There ap-
historical aspects to rarity and endemism. Endem-
pears to be a depletion in the abundance of night-
ic species are related to a geographical area, have
jars outside the Protected Areas in many parts of
a limited ecological breadth and are seen in rela-
the Ghats during the last three or four decades.
tively more isolated areas from each other. Moun-
Vultures are severely threatened and only a few
tains are known to be rich in endemic species often
pockets in high elevations are observed in different
related to soil characteristics and microclimates.
isolated patches in the Ghats. Even here, numbers
Waterfalls, stream sides and pools form local micro
are down to 5 and 6 birds where once there were
climatic conditions increasing diversity of plants.
hundreds.
This also supports local endemics with their niche
requirements (Kruckeberg and Rabinowitz 1985). The BNHS and other organizations have studied
the frogs and reptiles in the Ghats. However these
In the Northern Western Ghats the well-known
consist of taxonomic studies and are not focused
mammals include the tiger and the lesser cats. Of
on ecological and population trends that are so vi-
special importance is the Rusty Spotted Cat (Con-
tal for taking appropriate and timely conservation
servation Status: Vulnerable) that has been seen in
action.
a few locations by observers (personal observation
by Bharucha, Solanki and Worah). The most fre- The only way to counter this uncertainty is to
quent sightings in the wild are from Sanjay Gan- create ESAs wherever there are known populations
dhi National Park where two were trapped a few of endemic or endangered groups of species.
decades ago. Another location where the species Chandoli has less than 1% of the geographical
has been seen is in the Dang forests of Gujarat. At area of Maharashtra but it supports nearly 30% of
least three live specimens have been collected in the the total number of woody species recorded from
last three or four years. These have been bred at the the Western Ghats of Maharashtra (Kanade et al.
zoo at Sanjay Gandhi National Park. These three 2008). Chandoli is a Wildlife Sanctuary with very
kittens have grown into adults. These are the only low levels of impacts which has recently seen a
Rusty Spotted Cats being successfully bred apart return of a small tiger population after several de-
from those from Sri Lanka which are being bred in cades. (Imam, Kushwaha, and Singh 2009; Rithe
Frankfurt zoo in Germany. and Fernandes 2002)
The Giant Squirrel of the Dangs which was Habitats of Restricted Range Species
golden yellow has not been seen over the last four
or five decades. The Giant squirrel (Conservation Restricted range species of the Western Ghats
Status: Near Threatened) is seen in small numbers include several well-known mammals such as the
in the patches of forests with very dense canopies Lion Tailed Macaque, the Nilgiri Langur, Grizzled
77
Giant Squirrel, birds such as Great Pied hornbill stricted range species have begun to emerge.
and the Malabar Pied Hornbill which are found in Presently Cnemaspis kolhapurensis is known
restricted ranges. Frequently these species have a only from the south central part of the northern
few separate small habitats and are isolated from Western Ghats. Based on the extent of the degrad-
each other. ed semi-evergreen type forest patch which extends
Any species which has a range less than 50 sq. into Belgaum and South Goa district, it is possible
km. within the Ghats should be considered as a that C. kolhapurensis could also be found through-
‘restricted range species’ and the area considered out (Giri, Bauer, and Gaikwad 2009) Other species
a special ESA category. Quantitative data on habi- that currently show restricted range include Hemi-
tat distribution are lacking on species such as for dactylus, Uropeltis bicatenata and more than seven
example the Malabar Brown Civet. It is possible diverse species of caecilians.
that montane species distributions of the Ghats are Sinhagad and Amboli in Maharshtra have been
related to highly specific habitat variables that have described by the IUCN as wholly irreplaceable for-
not been studied for taxa such as bats, small mam- ests due to Millardia kondana (Mishra and Dhan-
mals, and several others. da 1975) and Philautus Amboli (Biju and Bossuyt
Paucity of data on range and abundance or rar- 2009) respectively.
ity of especially the less obvious species is a seri- Important Bird Areas
ous limitation in creating a crucially vital ESA to
prevent extinctions. Thus while the more overt spe- The Important Bird Areas Program (IBA) is a
cies may find a place in ESAs, less easily observed global effort to identify and conserve areas that are
species could be left out of the planning of ESAs vital to birds and other biodiversity. IBAs that have
in the Ghats. The precautionary principle must be been identified by Bombay Natural History Soci-
applied in this situation and any likelihood or sus- ety in the Western Ghats include primarily all the
picion of a record of a less known species should existing National Parks (NP) and Wildlife Sanctu-
be used in creating ESAs. aries (WLS) (Rahmani and Islam 2004). The non-
protected area identified in the northern Western
A special feature of the Western Ghats is the re- Ghats is in INS Shivaji and the surrounding hills
stricted range of flora of the basaltic and lateritic of Lonavala.
plateau tops. Examples include the five plateaus of
‘Panchgani’, the plateau at Wilson Point in Maha- IBAs are good indicators of overall biological
baleshwar, Kas and the other plateaus near Satara, wealth. Hill birds in the Western Ghats are specific
and those near Panhala and Kolhapur all of which to this evergreen and semi evergreen forest ecosys-
have important floral elements. Any interference or tem which is characterized by a high rainfall of
changes in the texture of the rock layer of the later- over 5000 mm. The avifaunal communities in these
itic crust that has multiple holes and cervices, with distinctive biogeographic entities are a characteris-
only a very thin layer of soil, can disrupt this sensi- tic feature of this region.
tive ecosystem. The rarer monsoon plants grow in Avifauna is reasonably well documented in many
small patches barely a few sq. meters in size. They Protected Area and IBAs. However the paucity of
are seen in a matrix of more abundant species of data outside PAs makes it difficult to select ESAs
herbs, utricularia and grasses. These plateau tops outside the chain of Protected Areas. As birdlife is
constitute a special habitat that needs urgent pres- a good indicator of biodiversity richness and ende-
ervation as ESAs (Watve and Thakur 2006). There micity this is an excellent tool for identifying the
are probably a large number of restricted range spe- existence of viable corridors in the Ghats section
cies about which we have no data and thus will be that should be considered as a special category of
unable to include these in the selection of ESAs. ESAs.
With increasing levels of data several species may
There are 345 bird species, including 5 near-en-
be included in this group resulting in creating new
demic species that are found in the montane forest
ESAs progressively. A few examples of such re-
78
 Site Number of Species Coordinates Land use Threats
Critically Vulner- Threat- Endem-
Endangered able ened ics
Bhimashankar 2 3 1 5 19º59’28”N Tourism and recreation Tourism and recreation
WLS 73º35’09”E Transport Transport
Livestock grazing Livestock grazing
Agriculture Agriculture
Man-animal conflicts
Fuel wood collection
Commercial development
Plastic consumption by animals
INS-Shivaji 1 2 8 18º46’10”N Defence establishment Deforestation
and Lonavala 73º24’46”E Reserve forest Roads and railways
Roads and railway lines Land development
Hydroelectric project
Koyna WLS 2 1 2 17º38’26”N Nature Conservation Dam construction
73º42’31”E Agriculture Hydroelectric project
Hydroelectric project Poaching
Exploitation of medicinal plants
Radhanagari 2 1 2 16º22’60”N
WLS 74º00’00”E
Sanjay Gandhi 2 5 1 19º18’35”N Nature Conservation Transport
NP 72º57’48”E and research Livestock grazing
Man-animal conflicts
Fuel wood collection
Poaching
Tourism
Illegal tree felling
Anti-social elements
Tansa WLS 2 1 19º31’18”N Nature Conservation Livestock grazing
73º15’36”E Catchment area of Illegal tree felling
reservoirs Poaching
Expansion of agriculture
Bhagwan Ma- 2 6 15º19’32”N Nature Conservation Tourism and recreation
havir WLS 74º01’27”E Tourism and recreation

Cotigao WLS 1 1 6 14º59’04”N Nature Conservation Encroachment

74º12’13”E Grazing
Mhadei WLS 1 7 15º37’34”N Nature Conservation Poaching
74º12’22”E Encroachment
Deforestation
Carambolim 1 2 15º22’60”N Irrigation Urbanization
lake 73º49’60”E railways
Important Bird Areas in the Northern Western Ghats (Source: (Rahmani and Islam 2004))

Scientific Name Common Name Status

Gyps bengalensis Oriental White-Backed Vulture Critically Endangered
Gyps indicus Long-billed Vulture Critically Endangered
Leptoptilos javanicus Lesser Adjutant Vulnerable
Haliaeetus leucoryphus Palla’s Fish Eagle Vulnerable
Aquila clanga Greater Spotted Eagle Vulnerable
Falco naumanni Lesser Kestrel Vulnerable
Rynchops albicollis Indian Skimmer Vulnerable
Columba elphinstonii Nilgiri Wood-Pigeon Vulnerable
Schoenicola platyura Broad-tailed Grass Warbler Vulnerable
Circus macrourus Pallid Harrier Near Threatened
List of Threatened Bird Species in the northern Western Ghats (Source: (Rahmani and Islam 2004))

79
eco region. However, they are patchily distributed. plants such as orchids and ground flora such as the
The better (less disturbed) patches of a consider- curcumas whose utilization as garden plants has
able size must find a place in this ESA category. been ignored even though they are exceptionally
beautiful.
This shows that endemic avifauna require as
much attention as rare or vulnerable species as they Habitats Supporting Migration
occur nowhere outside the Western Ghats. Areas The birds of the Western Ghats have both resi-
where these birds are found in even small patches dent and migrant species. Several of these hill forest
with reasonably appreciable numbers must be in- birds are similar to species found in the Himalayas.
cluded as ESAs. Bird distribution studies show that several species,
The globally threatened Spot-billed Pelican (Pele- or their subspecies, are found both in the Ghats
canus philippensis) and Lesser Florican (Eupodotis and the north and east Himalayas as discontinu-
indica) are or have been a part of the ecoregion’s ous populations (Hora 1953; Ali 1949). This phe-
bird community. The Malabar grey hornbill (Ocy- nomenon of two distinct isolated populations has
ceros griseus), Indian grey hornbill (Ocyceros bi- been ascribed to ancient linkages through a range
rostris), and Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) re- of mountains that has now disappeared. Similar
quire mature high forests for nesting and are a focal evidence is found in the fish fauna of hill streams
species for conservation. The ecoregion overlaps of the Ghats and the Himalayas in the North East
with an EBA, Western Ghats, identified by Bird- Movements of several taxa have not been studied
Life International. However, relative to the south- in detail. The migration southward of hill birds
ern part of the Western Ghats, the northern parts through the Ghats during winter is a major rea-
have been poorly surveyed (World Wildlife Fund son to protect a corridor of forests from Gujarat
and McGinley). through to Kerala. Migration of resident birds also
shows a North-South seasonal movement. Several
Habitats of Wild Edible Plants and Wild Rela-
hill forest species move from a lower to a higher
tives
elevation in summer for breeding during the mon-
These habitats indicating high levels of ecologi- soon. In winter they move down into the valleys
cal sensitivity are less important but should be con- to avoid the cold and move back into the crestline
sidered to be ESAs in the Ghats on a case to case forest in summer.
basis. These include areas that contain wild rela-
Bird such as thrushes, babblers and flycatchers
tives of food plants. Several studies need to be initi-
move to and from favoured breeding areas in the
ated to identify grasses, fruiting shrubs and trees
hills. Herons and egrets which use specific roosting
which have been used by local people as there are
colonies in the Western Ghats also have seasonal
edible, such as Carissa.
local migrations into low lying areas on the coast.
Jamun and Mango are good examples of trees
The movement patterns, several of which have
that grow naturally in the Northern Western Ghats.
been insufficiently documented, are integral to the
Their taste and other attributes vary from those
maintenance of bird populations of the Ghats.
which are cultivated. As we do not know which
This is a special ESA category that supports Im-
attribute will be of use in future these wild varieties
portant Bird Areas, or IBAs of the Western Ghats
must be preserved.
(Rahmani and Islam 2004).
Carissa shrubs give fruit that ranges from sour to
sweet and even tasteless in different shrubs. They
even vary in size and the amount of pulp. Their
genetic variability is extremely high, and this needs
to be preserved. The plant also has a great potential
to make jams and preserves.
Another potential use is the flowering species of

80
Colonies and Breeding Sites of Fauna
There are several birds and bats whose popula-
tions are dependent on forming colonies for roost-
ing and breeding. These include several endangered
birds such as storks and vultures. Heronries which
are dependent on large colonies constitute impor-
tant locations that must be included in small ESAs.
A minor disturbance can lead to these birds aban-
doning their colonies never to return. Colony nest-
ers require an optimum population for successful
breeding. Several such nesting sites are associated
with large trees in village surrounds along the foot-
hills of the Ghats. Colonies of storks, ibis, spoon-
bills, cormorants, egrets etc. are associated with
copts of tall trees where they nest year after year.
The trees act as their traditional nursery, However
the feeding ground is linked to wetlands or rivers
which may be several kilometers away where the
parents gather food for their nestlings. The to and
fro movement from the colony may fan out to sev-
eral important feeding areas where fish crustacea
and molluscs abound, or to a single stretch of un-
disturbed river or a marsh. The feeding grounds
should also be considered as part of the ESA. There
are cryptic ecological reasons for the birds to select
a specific patch of trees to build their nests. The
nesting sites require special protection along with
their identified feeding zones to protect their popu-
lations. Protecting the small copts of trees can only
be done through local support. Public awareness is
a key to their protection.
Bats that belong to several species live in colonies
of which at least two are endangered in the West-
ern Ghats (Korad, Yardi, and Raut 2007). The bat
colonies which are found in caves and on excep-
tionally large old trees in the Ghats are a cause for
81
concern. Their population distribution in the West-
ern Ghats has not been identified.
The endangered vultures have selected roosts
and nesting colonies on steep rocky cliffs. Each and
every site however small must be protected as an
ESA as a last ditch stand to prevent the complete
extinction of the depleted vulture colonies. Finan-
cially protecting the residual population of vultures
in their colonies in-situ is cheaper that the expense
incurred in breeding and managing them in ex-situ
conservation facilities.
Breeding streams of Western Ghats fish such as
the Mahaseer require protection. Mahaseer are al-
ready gravely endangered and will become extinct
if their breeding micro niches in the streams of
Western Ghats are disturbed or polluted further.
The Deccan Mahaseer was known to move from
rivers into the hill streams during the monsoon to
spawn in the 1950s. Dams and other impediments
have reduced their breeding sites leading to a dras-
tic fall in their population. The Mahaseer which is
now highly endangered once bred profusely in such
streams and moved eastwards into rivers of the
Deccan as adults. This has been severely curtailed.
In many sites where breeding once occurred the
species is locally extinct. A major ex-situ breeding
program run by Tata Power Company at Lonawala
restocks their hydel lakes with these fish. There is a
possibility that these fish have begun to breed again
spontaneously in some of the less silted streams
around the lakes.
The large number of small fresh water fish of the
streams of the Western Ghats choose special breed-
ing sites and move towards clear streams during the
monsoon to spawn. Such sites are currently outside
the Protected Area network of the Ghats. Identify-
ing these local sites will require a large scientifically
done status survey to identify these micro-ecologi-
cally sensitive areas (Arunachalam 2000).
A locale specific management profile for such ar-
eas can only be effective with localized initiatives to
prevent impacts on these hot specks of ESAs. Pub-
lic awareness strategies and involvement of local
school students could go a long way in identifying,
protecting, monitoring and sustainable develop-
ment of a long-term conservation strategy through
notifying a set of special micro-eco-sensitive areas
for faunal breeding sites.

82
 CHAPTER 5: PRIORITIZATION

T
here are various tools described to priori-
tize ESAs. For the Western Ghats, there are
two concerns. The first relates to prioriti-
zation within each category of ESA. The other is
prioritization between the different categories. Ob-
viously not all ESAs are equally ecologically sen-
sitive. However, it must be kept in mind that the
whole of the Western Ghats is in fact a globally
recognised hot spot of biological diversity. No area
in the Ghats section can be considered essentially
a robust area.
Das et al 2006 describe areas of high conserva-
tion value which were identified in the Western
Ghats using a systematic conservation planning
approach. They chose surrogates which were as-
sessed for effectiveness on the basis of spatial con-
gruence using Pearson’s correlations and Mantel’s
tests. The surrogates were, threatened and endemic
plant and vertebrate species, unfragmented forest
areas, dry forests, sub-regionally rare vegetation
types, and a remotely sensed surrogate for unique
evergreen ecosystems. The author has shown that
at the scale of this analysis, amphibian richness
was most highly correlated with overall threatened
and endemic species richness, whereas mammals,
83
especially wide-ranging species, were better at cap-
turing overall animal and habitat diversity. There
was a significant relationship between a remote
sensing based habitat surrogate and endemic tree
diversity and composition. None of the taxa or
habitats served as a complete surrogate for the oth-
ers. Sites were prioritised on the basis of their ir-
replaceability value using all five surrogates. Two
alternative reserve networks are presented, one
with minimal representation of surrogates, and the
second with 3 occurrences of each species and 25%
of each habitat type. These networks cover 8% and
29% of the region respectively. Seventy per cent of
the completely irreplaceable sites are outside the
current Protected Area network. This observation
is of great importance as ESAs outside the PA net-
work would help protect these key conservation
sites in the Western Ghats. While the existing Pro-
tected Area network meets the minimal represen-
tation target for 88% of the species chosen in this
study and all habitat surrogates, it is not represen-
tative with regard to amphibians, endemic tree spe-
cies and small mammals. Much of the prioritised
unprotected area is under Reserve Forests and can
thus be incorporated into a wider network of con-
servation areas.
Prioritisation of areas and consequentially with-
in a PA network or the future network of ESAs in
the Western Ghats is a major concern for manage-
ment. It must entertain issues related to cost benefit
analysis, the serious impacts of industry and busi- used as a basis by the Maharashtra Forestry Sector
ness strategies, the need for eco restoration versus Project for the PA network in Maharashtra.
simple protection, ecodevelopment for the local
people and monitoring and evaluating long term need to prioritize carefully is even greater than for
effects of positive and protective land-use change PAs as the whole area cannot be given a single man-
and possibilities of further degradation.
Economic valuation methods for biological as-
sets are a means towards prioritization at different
spatial levels and for genetic, species and different
landscape elements. These tools and principles
for managing a network of ESAs can become a
basis for setting of priority areas within the West-
ern Ghats. Valuations based on purely economic
terms however are often questioned as there are di-
rect and indirect benefits especially related to the
various functions that are inherent in the different
types or categories of ESAs. For example PAs con-
serve genetic species in the ecosystem structure and
function. Catchment areas protect water resources.
Agriculture in the Ghats means food security for
the poor. “Devrai’s” are intrinsic to societal and
religious needs. These are a few examples that
make economic value based decisions in prioritiz-
ing ESAs extremely complex (Nunes and van den
Bergh 2001). Pierce et al. 2005 bring out the need
for ‘Systematic (target-driven) conservation plan-
ning products. This includes developing maps and
guidelines and the use of stakeholder inputs.
While at larger spatial scales it is possible to use
IUCNs, PAs ranked in terms of management ob-
jectives from I to VI and Management Effectiveness
Evaluations which are being done in India over the
last few years. These do not however provide the
fine nuances required for developing management
strategies for the different categories of ESAs of
the Western Ghats.
Margules, Pressey, and Williams 2002 point out
the importance of sampling the known biodiversity
of a region and separating biodiversity from pro-
cess that threatens its presence. ESAs apart from
being prioritized in the Western Ghats must also
look at issues such as uniqueness and representa-
tiveness. Scoring systems based on diversity, rarity,
naturalness, endangered and endemic species size
and vulnerability of the habitat have all been used
to indicate priority areas for conservation.
Early attempts in India, (Bharucha 1996) were
In the ESA network for the Western Ghats the
agement strategy. As Margules and Pressey suggest
conservation planning has generally not been sys-
tematic and new reserves have often been located
in places that do not contribute to the representa-
tion of biodiversity.’ (Margules and Pressey 2000)
Within each category a prioritization can be
made based on a variety of characteristic features
that indicate its level of importance. This is more
difficult when one has to compare between differ-
ent categories. The most simple characteristics in-
clude the ‘3S s’ of Siting, Size, Shape. Other char-
acteristics include interior to border ratio, linkage
to the same or other category, and level of intact-
ness and inclusion of unique features. Levels of in-
tegrity, fragility and high levels of threat decrease
effectiveness and increase costs.
Siting:
‡ An ESA within the boundaries of the West-
ern Ghats is better than one that is at the pe-
riphery or close to the edge.
‡ An ESA that is directly contiguous to anoth-
er is better than one that is connected by a
corridor or is surrounded by gaps.
‡ An ESA that is contiguous with its own cat-
egory which is adjacent to it is likely to be
better than one that is linked to some other
category as it is corridored for the same rath-
er than different species making the corridor
more useful.
‡ Broadly linked patches of the same category
are better than those connected by short nar-
row corridors which are better than those
connected by long corridors even if they pass
through a different category of ESA as spe-
cies communities are different.
84
 Size: may be capable of withstanding short and small
‡ The well-known effect of island biogeogra- perturbation to their environments in comparison
phy and its more recent ramifications is an to the more fragile systems. Ecosensitive areas are
important characteristic to prioritize ESAs primarily related to evergreen forests the best ex-
within the same category. However, even amples being within the cores of National Parks.
small islands are of value as jump stations They also include areas of special importance on
for migrant bird species. account of the small or relict populations of flo-
ral communities such as in semi –evergreen forests,
‡ Large size that includes several West to East plateau tops and other significantly unique assem-
forest types is better than those having a small blages of flora and fauna.
size in a single forest type.
Relict populations refer to ecosystems that are
‡ Large size would usually contain a better in- likely to have had a wider range than at present.
terior – fringe ratio as the type of interior spe- Evolutionary, climatic or human induced altera-
cies are likely to be rarer and are endemics or tions due to effects of climate change or habitat
unique species rather than fringe generalists degradation from overuse or misuse has greatly re-
that are more robust and can adapt better to duced their erstwhile extent in the Ghats.
man – modified habitats.
‡ Highly fragile areas where restoration may
Shape: not be feasible and ecosystems that harbour
‡ A more or less circular, square, or rectangu- several endangered species, or endemic spe-
lar ‘regular’ shape is better taken an irregular cies. They are the best examples of highest
shape with finger like protrusions, as interior value in their own category.
to edge ratios are better and they invariably ‡ Fragile areas are ecosystems that can be re-
contain less disturbed interiors. verted through high cost ecorestorative strat-
‡ Interior – edge boarder ratios are primar- egies and harbour some endangered or en-
ily governed by the ‘3Ss’ mentioned above. demic species and constitute the best known
However the inclusion even of a relatively second level within each category.
inadequate and disturbed ESA is better than ‡ Highly sensitive areas that are mostly large
none, as the site may be crucial to corridor- areas that cover a considerable position of
ing and it could be used as a restorative site the Ghats but require special care and avoid-
for better long-term connectivity in future. ance of certain types of pressures while per-
Sensitivity: mitting some selected activities on a case to
case bases.
We have used the term fragile for ecosystems
that are likely to be seriously impacted by the ‡ Sensitive areas where restoration is now un-
slightest disturbance to their ecosystem. Such areas feasible, which can be used for multiple se-
are invariably small in extent highly diverse, con- lected purposes but cannot be used for any
tain rarer threatened and several endemics which damaging landuse change.
are vulnerable or threatened by extinction.
Sensitive ecosystems are easily disturbed but

Robust Sensitive Highly Sensitive Fragile

Sensitive area needs some
protection – MUA for sus-
Not present is the Western
tainable use, some changes
Ghats as it is a global hot-
in landuse permissible only
spot of biodiversity. Resil-
for local peoples long term
ient systems are absent.
benefit
Areas for non-use. Suitable
Require high levels of
for WLS or corridoring
protection – MUA for
and/or ecorestoration
sustainable use at a very
No more utilization or alter-
minimized level
nate uses permissible.
Management Strategy:
Management Strategy:
Ecodevelopment
Ecorestoration

85
 An Attempted Prioritization Exercise individuals across the country.
This section attempts to discuss prioritization IDENTIFYING BIODIVERSITY ASSET
factors that need to be considered in the process of VALUES
identifying ecosensitive areas, when adequate data
Protected Areas
is available. Here, an exercise has been attempted to
identify potential ecosensitive zones based on exist- National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries and
ing secondary data using GIS. This aspect must their adjacent buffers with a core and a larger buf-
thus be kept in mind while interpreting the results. fer ESA form a unit for management. In some
situations the ESA around the Protected Area cov-
Review of literature has revealed that the data
ers the full width of the Western Ghats. In such
needed for an exercise of this kind is extremely lim-
situations the ESA must evidently permit certain
ited. Most species data that is available give very
activities while disallowing others. For example
broad descriptions of areas, mostly in terms of Ta-
traditional landuse such as agriculture and lim-
lukas or PAs or RF areas. However species related
ited grazing would be permitted but no new lan-
data is an important criterion for identifying of
duse such as urbanization can be permitted. In a
ESAs. The Biodiversity Information System por-
low priority situation decisions would have to be
tal set up by the Department of Space and Depart-
carefully made on possible future impacts based on
ment of Biotechnology maintained by the Indian
a cumulative carrying capacity study rather than
Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun is a good
single project wise EIA.
starting point for such a database and needs to be
used in fine tuning the results of the present study. The PAs in the Northern Western Ghats were
prioritized based on three parameters, namely their
Due to the limited availability of data, this study
size, area-perimeter ratio and the forest type. The
has used the Taluka boundaries as the basic unit for
total weight for the PA was an average of these three
prioritizing zones on a landscape level. The Taluka
parameters. The forest cover was given weights us-
is also the administrative unit for managing ESAs
ing the above methodology while size and area pe-
in the future. Based on the availability of data this
rimeter ratios were given weights from 10 (highest)
basic unit could be narrowed down to a village,
to 1 (lowest) based on the calculations. Each Ta-
block, etc. The results are thus only indicative and
luka was then assigned the PA weight according to
need a detailed ground survey for finalization and
the PAs it contained.
identification of specific sites within these Talukas.
High (10) Low (0)
The study has primarily relied on data provided
Protected Area Size
by the Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Deh-
radun for the base maps of landuse cover, frag- Large Medium Very Small
Small (50-
mentation and disturbance of the northern West- (More than (100-300 (Less than
100 km2)
300 km2) km2) 50 km2)
ern Ghats. Taluka boundaries have been obtained
from Survey of India. The PA boundaries are ap- Protected Area Shape: Area to Perimeter Ratio
proximate boundaries digitized on the basis of
Regular Irregular
data available at BVIEER and that provided by the Regular Irregular
without without
with core with core
Wildlife Institute of India. Catchment areas have core core
been extracted from Google images. The Aster
Forest Type
DEM was used for extracting elevation. The spe-
cies data has been compiled from various sources Semi Ever- Moist De- Dry De-
Evergreen
green ciduous ciduous
and have been indicated at the end of each table
in the report. These have chiefly included reports The following is a list of protected areas catego-
and publications of the Botanical Survey of India, rized by ecological and threat value
the Zoological Survey of India, the ENVIS Cen-
1. Chandoli
tres, the French Institute, Pondicherry, the Gujarat
Ecological Society and published work of several 2. Bhimashankar
86
87
3. Karnala rated out and then used for calculation. The ESA
weights for a Taluka were averaged and calculated
4. Mhadei
based on their percentage coverage in the Taluka.
5. Cotigaon
High (10) Low (0)
6. Radhanagari
Level of Disturbance
7. Koyna
Undis- Partly Dis- Moderately Severely
8. Phansad turbed turbed Disturbed Disturbed

9. Kalsubai Forest Type

10. SGNP Semi Ever- Moist De- Dry De-
Evergreen
green ciduous ciduous
11. Mollem
Threats
12. Bondla
Industry/ Intensive Traditional Fallow
13. Bhagwan_M
Settlements Agriculture Agriculture Land
14. Tansa
The following is a list of PA surrounds ranked by
15. Purna ecological and threat value
16. Vansda 1. Mollem WLS
2. Mhadei WLS
Protected Area Surrounds 3. Chandoli WLS
This is going to be increasingly problematic and 4. Cotigaon WLS
for any such PAs the 10 Km Surrounding ESAs
5. Bhagwan Mahavir WLS
must be given the highest priority in this category.
Examples include the neighbourhood mining activ- 6. Radhanagari WLS
ities of Radhanagari at the fringe of the Protected 7. Phansad WLS
Area. The slum outside Sanjay Gandhi National
Park and Mumbai itself makes the 10 km Zone ap- 8. Bondla WLS
pears to be a no-win situation. There are no fringe 9. Koyna WLS
areas in some of these locations. They are difficult
10. Bhimasankar WLS
to rate during prioritizing within a category.
11. Karnala WLS
This gives a very high priority status to a sur-
rounding or adjacent ESA. Examples of important 12. Vansda NP
locations for these ESAs abound in the southern 13. Tansa WLS
Western Ghats such as habitats of Nilgiri tahr,
14. Kalsubai WLS
Nilgiri languor, Lion tailed macaque. In the north-
ern Western Ghats consider the Rusty spotted cat 15. Sanjay Gandhi NP
known from only two or three PAs with small 16. Purna WLS
populations. Isolated patches of old growth forests
(RF or Sacred Groves) with Malabar Giant Squir- Hill Stations
rel may exist. The ESA surrounds of these PAs Hill stations can be prioritized using the following
are of greater importance in the northern Western parameters.
Ghats due to a lack of interconnectedness. As a ten
km zone around each Protected Area is a notified
ESA, a buffer was drawn around each PA and a
similar method followed for assigning weights to
the ESA. Areas overlapping the buffers were sepa-
88
 High (10) Low (0)
Water Bodies
Intactness and Notification

Notified Notified Non-notified Non-notified

Intact Disturbed Recognized Unrecognized

Forest Type
Semi Ever- Moist De- Dry De-
Evergreen
green ciduous ciduous

Reserve and Closed Canopy Forest

As these are envisioned as Multiple Use Areas

the highest priority should go to those that have
steeper slopes and more erode-able sides. Those
with paddy lands within them should not be per-
mitted to use land for alternate land use unless cer-
tified by the Western Ghats Authority as sustain-
able in environmental, (ecological) societal and
long-term economic terms. Catchments were pri-
oritised based on their forest cover as described
The larger forest patches must be prioritized as above as well as their elevation. Highest elevations
they probably contain a higher proportion of forest were given a weight of ten. The catchments weights
interior species. This would have to be done for all for a Taluka were averaged and calculated based on
forest types – evergreen, semi evergreen and moist their percentage coverage in the Taluka.
deciduous. High (10) Low (0)
Using the base vegetation map of the IIRS, areas Disturbance
consisting of evergreen, semi evergreen, moist de- Disturbed
Undisturbed Traditional Disturbed
ciduous, dry deciduous, shrubland, grassland were Forest Agriculture (Scrubland)
(Changed
extracted for every Taluka and weights given based Landuse)

on the respective percentage cover in each Taluka. Forest Type

The weights were given on a scale of 10 with ev- Semi Ever- Moist De- Dry De-
Evergreen
ergreen having the highest and shrubland having green ciduous ciduous
the lowest. These ranks have been based on the fact
Threats
that evergreen, semi evergreen and moist decidu-
ous forests are likely surrogates for high species di- Industry/ Intensive Traditional Fallow
Settlements Agriculture Agriculture Land
versity.
The following is a list of dam catchments ranked
High (10) Low (0)
by biodiversity value
Forest Cover
Discontinu- Highly Completely
1. Supra
Continuous
ous Fragmented Degraded 2. Shirowata
Forest Type 3. Temghar
Semi Ever- Moist De- Dry De- 4. Varasgaon
Evergreen
green ciduous ciduous
5. Dodamarg

89
90
6. Uksan Specialized Habitats
7. Bhandardara These are essentially small but are of high prior-
8. Dimbe ity status. Examples include the largest and least
disturbed sacred groves and plateau tops.
9. Selaulim
Specialized ecosystems (plateau tops, and water-
10. Pavana falls for example) are relatively small but at multiple
11. Mulshi locations. They cannot be placed in a few ESAs as
they are widely spread out and are included in mul-
12. Panshet
tiple ESA categories. Prioritizing such hot speck
13. Pimpalgaonjoga locations for sufficiently long term possibilities for
14. Valvhan survival of their species will require a completely
new thinking from traditional concepts of manag-
15. Manikdoh
ing an interlinked and corridored network of PAs.
16. Bhatgar
Many such factors which have been observed
17. Thokarwadi in the northern Western Ghats will have to be run
18. Chapet through prioritization exercises by groups of spe-
cialists and ecological experts.
19. Vadaj
For example we know that the Malabar Giant
20. Warana Squirrel is found in small pockets where cano-
21. Chaskaman pies are intact. But protecting only a few locations
makes little sense as this squirrel has several varia-
22. Chandolilake
tions in coloration all of which require protection
23. Shivaji SG in ESAs.
24. Bhama The BNHS list of prioritized sacred groves devel-
25. Urmodi oped by the BNHS (Deshmukh, 1999) for Maha-
rashtra was used for this purpose. There has been
26. Tulsisagar
no such prioritized list available for Goa although
27. Dhom dam a list of groves in each Taluka is available with Goa
28. Khadakvasla Foundation.

29. Doodhgangasagar Forests are known to harbour several important

species and also have a high cultural heritage value.
30. Mukhane As only a list of forts was available and no priori-
31. Chitri tization was done, this weight was done on a pres-
ence/absence basis for each Taluka.
32. Karanj
33. Jangamhatti
34. Salher
35. Yedgaon
36. Kanher
37. Punegaon
38. Ganagasagar
39. Kadava

91
 Name Height Base Village District Highlights
High (10) Low (0)
Rockface
Biodiversity
Hadsar 4687 Hadsar Pune Cave
High Biodi- Unique Moderate Low Lake
versity Ecosystems Diversity Diversity Nimgiri 3635 Bagadwadi Pune
Narayangad 2872 Khodadgaon Pune Plantation
Cultural Heritage
Dhakoba/ 4148/
High Low Durg 3855 Palu Pune Forest
Giant
Sacred Groves Size Squirrel
Biodiversity
High Low
Plateau
Sacred Groves Number Gorakhgad 2137 Dehari Thane Eucalyptus
Cave
>10 10-8 7-5 4-2 1
Siddhagad 3223 Narivali Thane Cave
Escarpments Forest
Rockface
1800- 1500- 1200- 900- 600-
1500 1200 900 600
300-0 Bhimashan-
300
kar 3296 Khandas Pune Forest
Each Taluka was given weights for elevation as Padar 2002 Padarwadi Pune Plateau
follows based on percentage coverage. Forest
Rockface
Forts
Cave
Presence Absence Peth/Koth- Ambivali/
ligad 1550 Jambrukh Raigad Grassy
The following is a partial list of forts in and Bushes
around the Northern Western Ghats. Plateau
Ambivali/
Name Height Base Village District Highlights
Tungi 2019 Jambrukh Raigad Cave
Ratangad 4255 Ratanwadi Ahmednagar Pond
Dhak 2320 Sandshi Raigad Plateau
Rockface
Under-
Cave growth
Karvi Forest
Nedhe Cave
Lake Rockface
Forest Bhimgad 803 Vadap Raigad
Harishchan- Under-
dragad 4671 Khireshwar Ahmednager Cave Rajmachi 2710 Kondivde Pune growth
Karvi Plateau
Rockface Forest
Jivdhan 3754 Ghatghar Pune Forest Pond
Rockface Lohgad 3412 Malawali Pune Cave
Chavand/ Pond
Prasannagad 3495 Chavand Pune Grassy
Visapur 3567 Patangaon Pune Cave
Reptiles
Plateau
Reserve
Rockface
Shivneri 3342 Junnar Pune Forest
Forest
Cave
Tikona 3580 Tikona Peth Pune Cave
Rockface
Rockface
Bhairavgad 2835 Durgwadi Satara Forest
Tung 3526 Tungwadi Pune
Sanctuary
Peth-Shah-
Cave
Korigad 3049 pur Pune Cave

92
 Name Height Base Village District Highlights Name Height Base Village District Highlights
Lake Mangalgad/ Dudhanewa-
Rockface Kangori 2465 di Raigad Grassy
Pond Pratapgad 3556 Satara Forest
Telbaila 3322 Telbaila Pune Rockface Animals
Ghangad 2565 Ekole Raigad Cave Makharand-
gad 4064 Hatlot Satara Forest
Rockface
Vasota 3614 Met Indavali Satara Forest
Plateau
Lake
Forest
Rockface
Sudhagad/
Borapgad 2030 Dhondase Raigad Plateau Karvi
Lake Grassy
Sparse Veg- Cave
etation Chakdev 3230 Chakdev Satara
Sarasgad 1433 Pali Raigad Rockface Rasalgad 1769 Rasalwadi Satara
Cave Sumargad/ 2801/
Grassy Mahipatgad 3090 Dahivali Ratnagiri Forest
Bushes Karvi
Kurdugad 2021 Jite Raigad Rockface Pond
Forest
Cave Habitats of Threatened Species
Sinhagad 4320 Kondhana Pune Cave
Forest For our purposes of managing ESAs, a relatively
Tourist simple prioritization that can achieve sustainability
Pressure trends should have the aim of providing shelter to
Rockface all rare species. A rare species with low abundance
Rajgad Vajeghar Pune Plateau may be known from a single or only a couple of lo-
Lake cations. Such a location must be put on a high pri-
Cave
ority listing and any pressures must be minimized
Torna 4604 Velhe Pune Nedhe
such as grazing or fire and no new pressures should
Rockface
be permitted such as urbanization or road building.
Lingana 2979 Paane Raigad Rockface
Raigad 2829 Pachad Raigad Cave Rare species may be highly endemic, endangered
Lake or threatened. IUCNs categorization may be used
Purandar/ 4560/ for prioritization in such a situation. In the West-
Vajragad 4422 Narayanpur Pune ern Ghats there is a gap in knowledge as there are
Malhargar 3166 Sonori Pune Plantation
species listings based only on floras where exact
Deforesta-
Rohida 3661 Bazarwadi Pune tion
locations are unknown or only occasionally docu-
Raireshwar/ 4589/
mented. This makes prioritization imminently im-
Kenjalgad 4269 Korle Pune Plateau possible. Here the “precautionary principle” and
Lake the possibility of other rare taxa being present in
Rockface the same location must be currently applied. Sev-
Kamalgad 4522 Tupewadi Satara Rockface eral rare taxa may in all probability coexist as the
Forest area possibly offers the necessary unique habitat
Cave requirements of a large number of rare and highly
Grassy endemic species from multiple taxa of flora and
Lake
dependant or even functionally closely linked spe-
Chandragad 2257 Dhavle Raigad Forest
cies within the area.
Animals
Cave Using data from secondary published sources
the number of critically endangered, endangered,
93
vulnerable and no threatened species (IUCN cat- fying accurate weights based on their shape, land
egories) were calculated for every Taluka and cover, etc.
weights assigned as follows. As the number of spe-
High (10) Low (0)
cies in each Taluka could not be accurately ascer-
Corridor Potential
tained, the weights were assigned to the presence
of the following category of species. This could High Low
be further refined if accurate number of species of Corridor Shape
the following categories are available. As there has
been no way to assess abundance, the presence or Narrow Narrow
Broad Short Broad Long
Short Long
absence of species of the above categories has been
given weights irrespective of the number of sight- Corridor Type
ings/population size. If this can be quantified, the Ecorestora- Fallow/Ag-
Natural Plantation
weights can be revised to include abundance. Habi- tion riculture
tats of threatened species can be prioritized based
on the following parameters.
High (10) Low (0)
IDENTIFYING THREAT VALUES
Species Richness The threat map for every Taluka has been gener-
ated using the following criteria and weights.
Very High High Medium Low
The disturbance map created by IIRS has been
Presence of Threatened Species used here. The Disturbance Index has been com-
More than 3 to 5 1 to 3 puted by IIRS by adopting a linear combination of
1 species
5 species species species the defined parameters on the basis of probabilistic
Level of Species Threat weightages.

Critically Near Disturbance Index (DI):{(fragmentation, po-

Endangered Vulnerable
Endangered Threatened rosity, interspersion, proximity from disturbance
sources) settlements, roads, etc.) and juxtaposition}
This map has classified disturbance into four
Corridors classes, i.e.: high disturbance, moderate distur-
Corridoring for seasonal changes are important bance, low disturbance and no disturbance areas.
for the recent northward spread of elephants for These categories were extracted for every Taluka
example. This will in all probability become a ma- and weights given based on their percentage cover-
jor concern in prioritizing ESAs in some parts of age within a Taluka.
the southernmost extent of the northern sector of
High (10) Low (0)
the Western Ghats. This should ensure that those
Disturbance Level
wandering elephants are given an opportunity to
go back to their original habitat in Karnataka. High Medium Low None

Broader and shorter corridors are obviously bet- Mines

ter than narrow long corridors. Broad short cor-
ridors are the best, narrow long corridors are the As there have been no studies available on the
worst. Unfortunately for some highly prioritized impact of specific mines on specific ecological re-
species only the last may be feasible as a last ditch gions of the Western Ghats, this weight has been
stand. given on a presence/absence basis.

Corridors were drawn visually between PAs and High (10) Low (0)
PA surrounds. For this study weights were then as- Presence Absence
signed to the presence or absence of this corridor.
Detailed studies on corridors can help in identi-
94
95
96
 Industrial Areas Protected Areas Surrounds (ESA) Threats
In the absence of data on specific industries near Along with a biodiversity weight a threat weight
forest patches in each Taluka, the presence of in- that considered percentage of settlements, agricul-
dustrial plots belonging to the Maharashtra Indus- ture, fallow/barren land was also developed. Settle-
trial Development Corporation (MIDC) has been ments within ESAs of PAs have a great impact as
taken as an indicator of indutrial areas. This is they are most susceptible to future landuse change
however an indication of urbanization in the Ta- that will seriously impact biodiversity values of the
luka. This weight has been given on a presence/ PAs and disrupt potential corridors. The param-
absence basis. The weights could be changed and eters for the PA threat map are given below.
made higher if specific data is available.
High (10) Low (0)
Some of the MIDCs in and around the Northern Fallow/Barren
Settlements Agriculture
Western Ghats are at Satpur, Musalgaon, Ambad, Land
Dindori, Malegaon, Ratnagiri, Zadgaon, Mahad, GRADING THE ESAS
Taloja, Islampur, Roha, Patalganga, Ranjangaon,
Kharadi, Kurkumbh, Palus, Baramati, Bhosari, From the above methodology two raster maps
Chakan, Jejuri, Hinjewadi, Chiplun, Dapoli, Lote of ecologically important areas and threats were
Parshuram, Shirgaon, Miraj and Kadegaon. developed respectively. The Ecologically Impor-
tant Area map was reclassified into critically im-
High (10) Low (0)
portant, high importance, moderate importance,
Presence Absence low importance and least importance areas. The
threat map was reclassified into high threat, mod-
Catchment Area Threats
erate threat and low threat areas. To identify the
Settlements within the catchments have a greater ecosensitive areas the ecologically important area
impact than catchments that have RF within them map was overlaid with the threat map and based
and settlements outside. A threat map was devel- on the scores the final output has been reclassified
oped using the weights as given above. as Fragile Areas, Highly Sensitive Areas and Sensi-
High (10) Low (0)
tive Areas. (See final map of Ecologically Sensitive
Areas)
Fallow/Barren
Settlements Agriculture
Land

Protected Areas
PA Surrounds
Forest Cover (IIRS)
Pre-processing and Weight
Ecologically Important
Catchments Assignment to Individual
Areas (Taluka-wise)
Criterion
Elevation
Sacred Groves Ecologically Sensitive Areas
Species Fragile

Raster Processing Highly Sensitive

Disturbance Map (IIRS) Sensitive

Mines
Pre-processing and Weight
Threat Levels
MIDCs Assignment to Individual
(Taluka-wise)
Criterion
Threat to PA Surrounds
Threat to Catchments
Methodology used for Prioritisation of ESAs based on Talukas
97
98
99
 ANALYSIS OF TALUKAS FROM NORTH TO SOUTH
BASED ON ESA CATEGORY AND THREAT LEVEL
Sector 1
TALUKA: AHWA, NAVAPUR, SONAGADH
ESA Category Features
Category
Category Key Features
Number
Purna WLS
1 Protected Area
Bansda NP
Purna WLS Surrounds
Existing ESAs Protected Area Surrounds Bansda NP Surrounds
2
(ESAs) Consist of overlapping large patches of Reserve and
Protected Forest
3 Hill Stations Nil
A Ecosystem Based
4 Forests outside PAs Large patches of Dry and Moist Deciduous Forest
Watershed areas of west flowing rivers, Gira, Purna,
5 Water Bodies Khapri and Ambika
No major dam catchment present
Proposed ESAs
6 Others Nil
B Species Based
7 Threatened Species High
8 Important Bird Areas Nil

Threat Features
Threat Category Key Threats

Industry Illegal logging during forest insurgency in 1990s, Commercial timber extraction

Mines
Roads SH 13, 21, 26, 27
Agriculture Rab agriculture
Settlement
Tourism

Potential Corridor
Potential corridor present between Protected Areas

100
 Sector 2
TALUKA: SAKRI, SATANA, KALVAN, DINDORI, PEINT, DHARAMPUR, SURGANA,
NASIK, IGATPURI, MOKHADA, JAWAHAR
ESA Category Features
Category
Category Key Features
Number
1 Protected Area Nil
Protected Area Surrounds Bansda NP Surrounds
Existing ESAs 2
(ESAs) Tansa WLS Surrounds
3 Hill Stations Potential ESA Hill-station at Saputara
A Ecosystem Based
Small severely fragmented patches of Dry Deciduous
4 Forests outside PAs and Moist Deciduous forest, better in Western aspect of
Jawahar
Catchments of three dams in Dindori, two dams in
5 Water Bodies
Nasik
Proposed ESAs
Small tribal sacred sites, Saler Fort, Nasik has high
6 Others
elevation areas
B Species Based
7 Threatened Species High in Anjaneri Hills in Nasik
8 Important Bird Areas Nil

Threats
Threat Category Key Threat
Industry
Mines
Roads Present (SH 44, 46, NH 222)
Agriculture Present
Settlement Present
Tourism

Potential Corridor
Long narrow corridor requires ecorestoration and ecodevelopment

101
 Sector 3
TALUKAS: VASAI, GREATER MUMBAI, THANE, BHIWANDI, VADA, SHAHAPUR,
MOKHADA, AKOLA, JUNNAR, AMBEGAON, KHED, KARJAT, MURBAD
ESA Category Features
Category Category
Number
Existing ESAs 1 Protected Area
2 Protected Area Surrounds
(ESAs)
3 Hill Stations
Proposed ESAs A Ecosystem Based
4 Forests outside PAs
5 Water Bodies
6 Others
B Species Based
7 Threatened Species
8 Important Bird Areas
Key Features
Sanjay Gandhi NP
Tansa WLS
Kalsubai Harishchandragadh WLS
Bhimashankar WLS
Tansa WLS Surrounds
Sanjay Gandhi NP Surrounds: City of Mumbai
Kalsubai Harishchandragadh WLS
Bhimashankar WLS
Matheran, outlying range of the main ridge of the
Western Ghats
Patches of Moist Deciduous, Dry Deciduous, Semi
Evergreen, Evergreen forest present. Northernmost
intact evergreen patches, semi evergreen canopy for
giant squirrel in patches in Bhimashankar.
Tulsi, Vihar, Powai, Tansa, Chaskman Dams
Kanheri Caves, temples, Harishchandragadh Peak,
Bhimashankar escarpments, about ten forts, several
sacred groves in Junnar, Bhimashankar
High number of threatened species in areas of Har-
ishchandragadh, Bhimashankar, Matheran, Junnar,
Ambegaon, Karjat, Murbad, Khed and all the PAs,
important Giant Squirrel habitat
Bhimashankar WLS, Tansa WLS, Sanjay Gandhi NP

Threats
Threat Category Key Threat
Industry SGNP and Tansa are highly industrialised
Mines
Roads Many roads, NH 3 near SGNP, Ghadegaon-Bhimashankar, Khed-Bhimashankar
Agriculture Intense in PA surrounds, grass collection, fires, baling
Settlement SGNP consists of slums and massive urbanisation, other PAs have smaller agricultural settlements
Tourism Severe impact, Kanheri caves, temples in SGNP, Kalsubai and Bhimashankar due to pilgrimage

Potential Corridor
Very good potential east west corridor, however, practically extremely difficult These are natural bot-
tlenecks in the Western Ghats where they narrow in width West to East corridors which consist of dif-
ferent forest types, Moist Deciduous Coastal Forest of SGNP, Dry Deciduous Forest of Tansa, Moist
Deciduous, Semi Evergreen and Evergreen forest of Kalsubai and Semi Evergreen and Evergreen forest
of Bhimashankar, are of great importance for future climate change mitigation
102
 Sector 4
TALUKA: KHALAPUR, MAVAL
ESA Category Features
Category Category Key Features
Number
Existing ESAs 1 Protected Area Proposed Sanctuary at Father Santapau Valley,
Khandala
2 Protected Area Surrounds
(ESAs)
3 Hill Stations Khandala, Lonavala
Proposed ESAs A Ecosystem Based
4 Forests outside PAs Semi Evergreen, few Evergreen, highly fragmented
and isolated forest
5 Water Bodies Thokarwadi (Andhra), Uksan, Shirota, Valvan Dams
6 Others Escarpments, Karla Caves, about three forts
B Species Based
7 Threatened Species High in Khandala, Bhimashankar, INS Shivaji
Lonavala,
8 Important Bird Areas INS Shivaji-Lonavala

Threat Features
Threat Category Key Threats
Industry
Mines
Roads Ghodegaon-Bhimashankar, Khed-Bhimashankar, Mumbai Pune expressway
Agriculture
Neo Townships Aamby Valley Township, Lonavala township, Land sale for farmhouses
Tourism High impact from neighbouring Mumbai Pune cities

Potential Corridor
Very high north south potential. Corridoring is possible locally between catchments and along the
crestline. However, the Aamby Valley township narrows the potential corridor. This creates a serious
impediment to corridoring possibilities and has already disrupted connectivity that has an adverse effect
on wildlife populations. The expressway and NH 4 together forms a large disruption in the potential
corridor which would require major management interventions to create underpasses and overpasses for
wildlife. The creation of two protected areas, north and south of the expressway of 100 square kilometres
each would greatly facilitate corridoring in spite of the presence of the existing gap.

103
 Sector 5
TALUKA: MAVAL, MULSHI, VELHE, PURANDAR, BHOR, WAI, MAHABALESHWAR,
MEDHA, SATARA, PATAN, SAWANTWADI, SHIRALA, SHAHUWADI, PANHALA, BAW-
DA, RADHANAGARI, GARGOTI, KUDAL, AJRA, DODAMARG, CHANDGADH, KAGAL,
VAIBHAVWADI, POLADPUR
ESA Category Features
Category Category
Number
Existing ESAs 1 Protected Area
2 Protected Area Surrounds
(ESAs)
3 Hill Stations
Proposed ESAs A Ecosystem Based
4 Forests outside PAs
5 Water Bodies
6 Others
B Species Based
7 Threatened Species
8 Important Bird Areas
Key Features
Proposed Mulshi PA as compensation for Mumbai Pune
expressway
Koyna WLS
Chandoli WLS
Radhanagari WLS
Koyna WLS
Chandoli WLS
Radhanagari WLS
Mahabaleshwar, Panhala, Panchgani
Semi Evergreen, Evergreen patches, Important tracts of
intact canopy as a narrow strip near Tamhini and Mulshi,
Good evergreen forest from Mahabaleshwar (Stunted) to
Koyna and Chandoli (Tall) in the valley to Radhanagari
(Stunted) in the crestline. Large semi evergreen forest
with high biodiversity value unprotected in Chandgad
and Sawantwadi
Several catchments, such as Pavana, Mulshi, Temghar,
Chapet, Bhatgar, Varasgaon, Dhom, Kanher, Shivaji
Sagar (Koyna), Varna (Chandoli), Doodhgangasagar
(Radhanagari) and eight others
Several sacred groves present ranging from 1 to 8 hect-
ares in size, Mulshi Taluka has 22 groves, about 23 forts,
Presence of prominent escarpments especially in Maha-
baleshwar, Kas Plateau and other important hotspecks
in the Koyna belt, waterfalls, Arthurs seat escarpment,
benchmark of old grown forest,
High in all the PAs
High in Mulshi, Tamhini, Mahabaleshwar (sightings of
major mammals), Bhor, Raireshwar Fort, Kas Plateau,
Patan, Possible tiger and elephant movements to the
north from the south (Chandoli)
Koyna WLS
Radhanagari WLS

Threat Features
Threat Category Key Threats
Industry Windmills have unknown possible impact
Mines Major impact in Sawantwadi, Dodamarg, Radhanagari, Shahuwadi, Chandgad. Several mines
are present in the Radhanagari WLS.

104
 Roads Enhanced road traffic, new road from Pune to Coast. Roads have high traffic density and have
been widened, cutting though forest and passing several important sacred groves. Also leading to
landslides and erosion.
Agriculture
Neo Townships Lavasa Township, Land sales in Mulshi, Tamhini, Potential township of New Mahabaleshwar
near Kas, Panchgani, High future urbanization
Tourism Tourism in Tamhini, Mahabaleshwar- Panchgani, Kas Plateau
Other Human Elephant Conflict reported from Sawantwadi, Dodamarg and Chandgad

Potential Corridor:
Corridoring to Chandoli through natural forest is possible Bhor Mahad will require ecorestoration
Very important corridor connecting protected areas, require scientific restoration and prevention of
any form of intrusion of development, high corridoring possibility from Mahabaleshwar to Koyna
Good potential of PA surrounds through ecorestoration Bavda, Vaibhavwadi and Kagal is an impor-
tant potential corridor between Chandoli and Radhanagari WLS

105
 Sector 6
ALUKA: ALIBAG, PEN, PALI, ROHA, MURUD, MANGAON, SRIVARDHAN, MHASALA,
MAHAD, MADANGARH, DAPOLI, GUHAGARH, CHIPLUN, DEVRUKH, RATNAGIRI,
LANJA
ESA Category Features
Category Category Key Features
Number
Existing ESAs 1 Protected Area Phansad WLS
2 Protected Area Surrounds Phansad WLS
(ESAs)
3 Hill Stations Nil
Proposed ESAs A Ecosystem Based
4 Forests outside PAs Forests at Alibag, Pen, Pali, Chiplun consist of
evergreen forest remnants which are at a higher
elevation compared to the rest of the coastline
5 Water Bodies Multiple short rivers and estuaries
6 Others Some forts, many sacred groves along the entire
length, important sacred grove belt, larger than in
the Western Ghats
B Species Based
7 Threatened Species Alibag, Roha, Chiplun High
8 Important Bird Areas Nil

Threat Features
Threat Category Key Threats
Industry Large industrial belt stretching from Roha, Mahad and south, proposed coal based power plants
Mines Mining licenses granted in Sindhudurg
Roads Wildlife underpasses and overpasses are required for the coastal highway and railway passing
through the evergreen forest patches
Agriculture Intensive prawn farming along the coast
Settlement Present everywhere
Tourism Five star tourism in Alibag

Potential Corridor
No potential corridor

106
 Sector 7
TALUKA: VALPOY, SANGUEM, QUEPEM, CHAURI
ESA Category Features
Category Category Key Features
Number
Existing 1 Protected Area Mhadei WLS
ESAs Bhagwan Mahavir WLS
Mollem WLS
Cotigaon WLS
2 Protected Area Surrounds Mhadei WLS
(ESAs) Bhagwan Mahavir WLS
Mollem WLS
Cotigaon WLS
3 Hill Stations Nil
Proposed A Ecosystem Based
ESAs
4 Forests outside PAs Continuous evergreen forest patches throughout, honey-
combed by mines even in the protected areas
5 Water Bodies One major catchment in Sanguem
6 Others Several sacred groves,
B Species Based
7 Threatened Species High in all PAs
8 Important Bird Areas Bhagwan Mahavir WLS
Cotigaon WLS
Mhadei WLS
Carambolim Lake

Threat Features
Threat Category Key Threats
Industry Mining related industries
Mines Extremely high mining threats within the sanctuaries and their surrounds
Roads State highways exist throughout the protected areas, important to build underpasses and over-
passes
Agriculture
Settlement
Tourism High pressure in coastal areas affect the forest area

Potential Corridor
The protected areas and surrounds form a natural corridor to the southern Western Ghats. This entire
belt from Valpoy through Chauri consists of continuous evergreen patches and forms an excellent cor-
ridor to the southern Western Ghats. However, mining within the sanctuaries and surrounds is a major
threat.

107
 PLANNING FOR CORRIDORS apeeth’s campus in Dhankawadi in Pune in 2000.
Elephants have strayed repeatedly into southern
The Need for Corridors
Maharashtra from Karnataka in recent years. All
Corridors are particularly important in the north- these animals appear to have been attempting to
ern Western Ghats as they allow movement of ani- unsuccessfully look for more suitable habitats. This
mals from one forested patch to another. Seasonal could indicate a loss of optimal habitat conditions,
movements enlarge the animal’s range and habitat or an overabundance in the existing habitat, or
preferences, which help to increase their genetic di- both.
versity and health. This indicates that corridors are
Straying into a distant location also indicates
extremely important for the survival of a healthy
the presence of some level of corridoring which
population of species (Bharucha 2000).
is sufficient to permit these stray animals to move
In the Western Ghats corridors between PAs is of into an alternate area. However the new location
great importance as the N-S orientation of the hill may not be an appropriate and safer habitat, as the
range would permit floral and faunal elements to above incidents have shown.
migrate in response to climate change. Elsewhere
The long – term value of corridors is highly de-
where corridors lie in other directions they may
pendent on the health of the adjacent landscape
be less amenable to future shifts of species. This
and presence of large patches of natural vegetation.
great potential for species to migrate northwards
This applies to our current critical situation in the
in response to a rise in temperature will be possible
Western Ghats. Even with the existence of forest
in the Western Ghats forests only if the corridor
corridors, several local species will be lost unless
forests are kept reasonably intact between the PAs.
the larger islands of relatively intact vegetation are
There is thus an opportunity for judiciously man-
protected. Thus ESAs that will be managed with a
aging corridors to adapt to the ill effects of climate
view to protect / enhance natural biodiversity will
change. The corridors require not only an adequate
be a key to a successful integrated landscape plan
width, but should include quality habitat condi-
through a chain of relatively large patches linked
tions that would permit several different species to
by viable corridors. The meta populations of large
migrate through them. This would mean reducing
species such as tiger, gaur, and sambar are more
pressures from neighbouring landscape elements.
likely to survive in the long-term if this strategy is
The corridors will enhance the carrying capacity
developed at the landscape level, as the forest is
of the PA network for maintaining heterozygos-
already severely fragmented. In these major overt
ity within species. The integrity of natural and
indicator species, which prefer to use forest interi-
even semi natural ecosystems can be maintained
ors and cannot survive at forest edges, the reduced
through ecorestoration only if sufficiently large
size of patches and increased isolation has already
and optimal habitats are protected for its species.
led to local extinctions. This eventually annihilates
Thus corridoring is an essential component for
these species in the region. It is evident that the
managing genetic, species and ecosystem diversity
smaller the forest fragments the lower the popu-
of the northern Western Ghats.
lation of forest interior species. In contrast edge
Corridors are equally important for local people species such as the more adaptable ones would in-
as once they are disrupted both predators and her- crease in abundance due to the multiplication of
bivores are forced into their agricultural lands and the fragments with a concomitant increase in the
their settlements. This leads to serious people – extent of edges even though fragments become
wildlife conflicts. Currently several leopards have smaller.
been moving out of their forest patches around
Landuse Within Existing Corridors
Bhimashankar into the sugarcane fields at Junnar.
A stray tiger was known to move around villages Currently the existing corridors between PAs in-
near Tamhini Ghats in Mulshi Taluka in 2004. A clude patches of Reserve Forest, Protected Forest
Gaur was found to infiltrate into the Bharati Vidy- and ‘Malki forest areas’. They include forests of
various levels of intactness from over 80% canopy,
108
to those between 40-80%, and degraded areas of It is the first type that is of great value and must
shrubland. The latter are primarily village grazing be protected as bridges for species to move between
lands, which have been frequently dubbed ‘waste- PAs. Plantations though usable by certain species
land’. These “blank” areas are frequently commu- may not be used by the more ecologically discern-
nity owned pastures used by local agro-pastoral ing species (National Resources Conservation Ser-
people. Fires are lit on these hill slopes in February vice).
and March to get a quick flush of palatable grass There are several specialized ecosystems within
for the large number of free ranging village cattle. the Western Ghats that must be included in a spe-
Another landscape element that is present in cial corridor ESA category. Forest patches that are
these corridors are the patches of shifting agricul- significantly different in composition and structure
ture on the hill slopes where hill rice, nagli, varai and include unique features must be adequately
etc. are grown by lopping the forest, to use as a connected. There are also the plateau tops with
wood ash fertilizer. Fire is a component of the lo- a lateritic crust on which floral elements of great
cal management regime. biological diversity grow only during the monsoon.
The precipitous Western slopes are of interest as
The potential areas that are selected to develop
they have waterfalls and cascades which are the
corridors must include a strategy for ESAs that
specialized ‘niche’ of a variety of plants, amphib-
must consider the existing land use and define lo-
ians, crustacean and molluscs. Nalla courses with
cale specific management practices for them. This
both perennial and monsoonal flows are rich in
depends on the varied needs of animal species that
aquatic and semi aquatic floral elements that are
are expected to use these corridors. As the land
fairly specific and form aggregations of species rich
tenure differs from site to site there will have to be
micro habitats. All these must be identified and in-
a set of specific norms and rules for utilization of
cluded in a special category of protected corridor
these potential corridors. A complete ban on their
that connects such patches in the Western Ghats.
use by local people would create serious conflict
Thus a variety of natural landscape elements must
issues. What must be done is preventing new forms
be included in the formation of ESA corridors be-
of development of these potential corridors.
tween PAs.
Types of Corridors
Establishing Corridors in the Northern
Corridors in the Western Ghats are of two types: Western Ghats
Natural Relict Corridors for Biologically Impor- Existing corridors in the Western Ghats can-
tant Patches not be simply viewed on a satellite image. This is
The most important ESAs are already seques- only the first step. This must be followed by ground
trated in the PAs. However the corridors are small truthing to appreciate if the width is adequate, the
and inadequately buffered from surrounding lan- connectivity between patches is relatively intact,
duse pressures. Ecorestoration in buffer areas and and the structure of the protected vegetation is in a
dam catchments is a key to maintaining the integ- stage of recovery towards ‘naturalness’. Corridors
rity of biodiversity of the Western Ghats through a seen on the satellite image may appear intact but
system of existing relict forest corridors. on the ground consist of tiny isolated fragments
as seen in areas overgrazed by cattle. Such areas
Potential and Restored Corridors
have multiple small patches of grassy open gaps
These are blank or degraded patches which are surrounded initially by a matrix of forest. In more
not connected by natural vegetation. These degrad- severely grazed areas the openings form the matrix
ed areas lie between significantly large patches of and the forests appear as islands with no interior
forest or those that are created by plantation for- habitat and largely consist of edge habitats. The fi-
estry for a variety of purposes. Such areas would nal stage of such degradation is formation of shru-
require extensive ecorestorative efforts in the West- bland.
ern Ghats.
Little is known about the effects of weed infesta-
109
tion in the Northern Western Ghats. For example thus be incorporated into a wider network of con-
Lantana spreading along forest edges and even servation areas. Such areas would undoubtedly
infiltrating forest interiors may affect the popula- be capable of linking at least some of the ‘better’
tion of some species but favour others. For exam- patches of forests.
ple leopards and even tigers appear to appreciate After restoring a corridor through a series of ini-
thickets of Lantana for their shade and seclusion tiatives it is important to assess whether the newly
in degraded areas. Birds in the Western Ghats such created corridor is capable of performing the de-
as Red Vented Bulbul and Red Whiskered Bulbuls sired ecological functions. It is also important to
feed on Lantana berries. Butterflies feed on Lanta- study the structure and existing ecological status
na flower nectar. What remains enigmatic is what of the recipient habitat patches. Inferior ecological
happens with species such as the Black Bulbul and status of recipient habitat patches may have an ad-
Yellow Browed Bulbul which are associated with verse effect on the target species as well as on the
intact forests. A list of butterflies if any, which have corridor. Corridors may act as sinks if patches that
been able to adapt to Lantana for laying eggs on are linked are not appropriately conserved. While
which their caterpillars can feed successfully, needs evaluating corridor functions it is important that
to be acquired through detailed studies. Thus ef- the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, habitats,
fects of infestation by exotic plants may have a species, and natural features of the landscape are
much greater impact on forest biodiversity in the taken into account.
Western Ghats than is generally believed. A sto-
chastic or cyclic event such as flowering of bam- Potential Corridors within the Northern
boo or Strobilanthus could lead to a rapid spread Western Ghats
of an invasive species. Such an event could virtu- Purna Wildlife Sanctuary to Vansda National
ally destroy habitat quality of an ESA. The species Park
composition and density of a faunal community is
PA: Vansda National Park – Too small but of
thus dependant on weed infestation which is a phe-
good biological value with mixed and Nature Dry
nomenon which remains essentially unexplored in
Deciduous and Moist Deciduous Teak with herds
the Ghats. Weed infestation is linked closely to cor-
of cheetal in a single pocket, leopard, Felix chaus,
ridor effectiveness in the Ghats.
Jackal, accessioned sightings of Rusty spotted cat.
In the Western Ghats the streams are impor-
PA: Purna Wildlife Sanctuary – Disturbed by
tant natural riparian corridors. For example nal-
agriculture in PF – Natural teak plantations and
las are frequented by species such as the Malabar
some mixed forests. Good habitat for birdlife.
Whistling thrush. Surrounding deforestation al-
ters stream flow converting perennial or long flow PA: ESAS surrounding the PAs overlap and in-
duration streams, into short flow duration, or dry clude a viable corridor of dry deciduous forest.
stream beds immediately after the rains. In such Forest: Has good quality old Teak trees in Dry
situations the corridor effect of riparian vegetation
Deciduous forests across most of the Reserve For-
is severally compromised. est patches but fragmented by Protected Forest
Old growth ‘deorais’ can act as stepping stones with extensive agriculture.
for birds such as the Great Pied hornbill. Forest: Fragmented by traditional ‘rab’ agricul-
The efficiency of the habitat to support a com- ture which has escalated during the last 20 years
plete compliment of plant and animal species Forest: Connectivity possible through riverine
is thus a cumulative effect of a vast combination tracts of important rivers.
of factors operating at the landscape level in the
Ghats ecosystem. Fauna : Few endangered endemic mammals –
Rusty Spotted Cat, Leopard
According to a study conducted by Das et al
several of the prioritized unprotected areas in the Fauna: Important Bird Area
Western Ghats are under Reserve Forests and can Forest corridoring: Forest patches large to mod-
110
erate size but convoluted edges and some corridor- Andhra, Valwan, Shirowata and Mulshi lakes.
ing possible. Corridor: Priority patch for corridor to Bhi-
Corridor: Importance of riverine tracts as corri- mashankar-WLS.
dors which will require ecorestoration. Corridor: Important existing corridor of natu-
Corridor : Natural forest corridoring present be- ral forest (between Bhimashankar and Koyna), but
tween some patches of Reserve Forest parts of it broken by Expressway between Mumbai
– Pune in addition to the National Highway and
Corridor: Corridoring possible through ecores-
railway tracks.
toration especially for forest patches, but difficult
in Protected Forest areas. Corridor : Important lateral westward offshoot
corridors to Tansa, Borivali (Sanjay Gandhi Na-
Impact : Traditional agriculture by rab, some
tional Park) and Bhimashankar, Alcota Matheran
evidence of hunting for food
(ESA)
Impact: By roads especially along single main
Corridor : Important for corridoring southward
tract from Nasik via Saputara to Balsar and Billi-
to Koyna
moria.
Impact – Mumbai – Pune Expressway with high
Vansda National Park to Sanjay Gandhi National
traffic density, air pollution, landslides, forest deg-
Park
radation, and road kills of wildlife. (Requires WL
Long narrow corridor through Surgana, Peint, passages)
Nashik, Igatpuri
Impact –Urbanization of Lonavala – Khandala
Forest: Fragmented expansion
Corridor: Will require ecorestoration Impact – New township and access road to Sa-
Impact: Roads, agriculture, settlements hara which is a large unbridgeable gap.

Sanjay Gandhi National Park through Tansa Impact - PA to have been developed as a com-
Wildlife Sanctuary and Kalsubai Harishchan- pensation for mitigating impact of Mumbai – Pune
dragadh Wildlife Sanctuary to Bhimashankar Expressway which has NOT been implemented.
Wildlife Sanctuary Impact: Religious tourism, solid waste overbur-
PA : Potential PA of Father Santapeau Sanctu- den, water pollution and over utilization of forest
ary not notified as suggested by Rodger and Pan- resources in Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary.
war (1988) Hills Stations HS: Priority patch for corridor to
Forest : Excellent but fragmented forest patches Matheran notified ESA for hill station.
of moderate size around Bhimashankar Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary to Koyna
Forest : Moderate size of patches, isolation of Wildlife Sanctuary
patches of natural forest in and around Bhimashan- PA: Potential PA as suggested but not notified in
kar Mahabaleshwar. (Rodger and Panwar (1988))
Water bodies (Catchment): Valwan and Shi- PA: Koyna WLS, backwaters of great biodiver-
rowata are high priority catchments without any sity conservation value
villages and low pressures from outside the catch-
PA: Excellent tall semi evergreen forest – Koyna
ment. All other catchments with villages and ag-
backwaters and – West bank of lake
ricultural land (Rab) with relatively high pressure
Forest : Moderate size patches of intact RF
Fauna : Important Bird Area recorded at INS
Shivaji by BNHS Forest : Northern most well preserved RF patch-
es of evergreen and semi evergreen vegetation
Fauna: Important ex situ breeding facility for
around Mahabaleshwar seen at a high elevation in
Mahseer fish which have been introduced into
111
a high rainfall belt Wildlife Sanctuary
Forest : Good patches of natural forest – Tam- PA: Chandoli is one of the most important PA
hini – Dongarwadi - Adarwadi in Maharashtra for WG typical evergreen and semi
evergreen formations.
Forest : Fragmentation – moderate
Fauna: Presence of largest population density of
Forest : Isolation – minimal
Gaur, possibly tiger, leopard, and sambar popula-
Forest : Excellent stunted semi-evergreen Mem- tions.
ecylon forests at ridge
Fauna : To be developed into only Tiger Reserve
Forest Ecosystem: Panchgani and Kas plateaus in northern Western Ghats
of great importance for endemic and endangered
Fauna : Recognized IBA
monsoonal flora. Several similar laterite plateaus
of value have been identified Impact: Large feral buffalo population.
Fauna : Giant squirrel present in patches, also Impact: Mining operations within 10 Km ESA
tiger, leopard, sambar, gaur surround with no buffer area.
Fauna : IBA recognized internationally – BNHS PA: Radhanagari is an important PA of Western
Ghats – Large size, good patches of intact forest
Corridor: Relatively intact natural forest corri-
and large plateau.
dor in patches between Bhimashankar WLS and
Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary to be protected through Forest: Intact continuous evergreen and semi ev-
an important ESA through a corridor system de- ergreen forest.
veloped by ecorestoration of catchment areas. Forest: Continuous Forest canopy in ESA sur-
Corridor: Important off shoot corridor to Kar- round.
nala WLS. Forest: Very low fragmentation, no isolation of
Impact : Lonavala complex – heavily urbanized fragments.
Impact : Major break in corridor due to Mumbai Fauna: Best specimens of Gaur in northern
– Pune Expressway and highway Western Ghats with high population density. Also
has Sambar, Barking deer, Wild boar, excellent
Impact : Widened Road between Pune and Ma-
population of forest birds, thrushes, babblers, war-
had
blers, and flycatchers.
Impact : Gaps at Sahara and Lavasa townships
Fauna : Important Bird Area recognized by
Impact: Unauthorized Construction in Maha- BNHS
baleshwar – Panchgani and intervening tracts.
Corridor : Viable natural forest corridors both to
Impact : Moderate amount of ‘rab’ cultivation the North towards Chandoli and South wants to
Sacred groves: Nearly 40 odd sacred groves of Protected Areas of Goa
Mulshi and Mawal. Some well preserved and an- Impact : Impacts – initial urbanization
cient patches, mostly from 0-4 ha in size.
Impact: Impact of mining is a severe on-going
Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary to Chandoli Wildlife threat.
Sanctuary
Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary to all Goa Sanc-
Forest: Intact evergreen and semi evergreen tuaries
Forest: Existing corridor for wildlife PA: The Protected Areas include 3 or 4 of the
Corridor: Well developed natural, short, wide contiguous areas with overlapping ESA surrounds
corridor exists thus requiring no special corridor.

Chandoli Wildlife Sanctuary to Radhanagari Forest: Continuous tall evergreen forest forma-

112
tion.
Forest: High level of fragmentation in certain
sectors due to mining
Fauna: Gaur, Sambar, Leopard, Lesser cats.
Corridor: Good possibilities for corridoring,
short and wide existing corridor.
Impact: Mining is a major impact on the con-
servation potential of the region and damages the
corridor.
CONCLUSION
There are some important parameters for priori-
tisation. An area that is intimately connected with
an adjacent ESA of the same category is better as
the floral and faunal community would be similar,
thus permitting and promoting movement and ge-
netic heterozygosity within each of its component
species. If represented by a gap or some other cat-
egory of ESA the specialist species are likely to be
different. Thus even though apparently linked to
an adjacent ESA the different category of the ESA
may constitute a gap for a particular habitat spe-
cific species.
In each category the relative importance of each
ESA must carefully be rated. The Pranob Sen Com-
mittee in 2000 (Sen 2000) stated that ‘the technical
expertise available to the Government at present for
evaluating ecological sensitivity or fragility and de-
marcating the area concerned is extremely limited’
….. ‘Each (agency) has a very specific focus and
none at present are focused on mapping of ESAs.
During the last decade the use of geoinformatics
has grown considerably. Large areas have been
worked on. For example in Maharashtra a large
exercise has been done to produce maps and data
to redefine the boundaries and reduce the size of
the GIB grassland Sanctuary in Maharashtra from
8000 Sq. Km. of grassland in Reserve Forest to
1200 Sq. km. Similar studies to look at corridoring
and other wildlife parameters using GIS have been
done at Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environ-
ment Education and Research. Several other stud-
ies in different regions have been conducted even
in the Western Ghats (Bharucha 2000). Thus while
the capacity has grown in the field of ecological
mapping the parameter and assessment criteria to
113
establish a rating scale has remained elusive. This
is now increasingly essential.
In the Western Ghats a particular area can be con-
sidered an ESA on one or more than one ground.
Thus it may include various categories each being
given a different rating based on both quantitative
objective measurable parameters and qualitative
value judgments. This gives a more precise rating
based on parameters such as biological values and
extent of threat. This provides a balanced scoring
tool that may give rise to a better outcome. For ex-
ample National Parks would have a greater rating
than Sanctuaries. Unique areas and micro – eco-
systems or niches would be given higher scores.
Large continuous forests belts have greater scores
than small patches within an area. Areas with en-
dangered or endemic species as well as common
species at an optimal level of the carrying capacity
of an area have higher ratings for species. Small
relict natural formations such as plateau tops must
be given a high rating for their number of endemic
flora.
In terms of species and rating their abundance
or rarity as well as importance has been attempted
by several studies. Species with a low tolerance to
habitat destruction have limited ecological am-
plitude. The level of threat (risk) of extinction in-
creases from rare species to vulnerable in the mid-
term, to endangered where extinction may result in
the wild in a short period of time. This is a strong
criterion for placing an ESA within an ecologically
important category at the top of the rating scale.
An endangered species in all likelihood could lose
50% of its individuals within the next three genera-
tion of the species (IUCN Category of Endangered
Species).
The tool for evaluating the importance of a
patch of forest as a valuable landscape element
within a wider landscape that includes natural as
well as man-modified patterns forming a complex
mosaic must be rated depending on the local situ-
ation. Here no quantified values are possible and
a qualitative but carefully judged rating based on
ecological functions, naturalness, uniqueness and
other qualitative judgments are at times even more
accurate than quantified notional values based on
numerical values alone.
 Evergreen forests in the Northern Western Ghats
are as important as the ‘sholas’. They have a low
resilience and once their canopy is disrupted are
rapidly recolonized by a range of species which are
not from the local evergreen plant community.
On the slopes – both, the western escarpment
and parts of the eastern aspect the gradient and to-
pography are important factors to suggest relative
importance within this category which is often seen
in catchment areas of dams. The steeper the slope
the greater its ecological sensitivity as erosion land-
slides and siltation levels creates serious impacts on
the longevity of the dams. Slopes that are steeper
than 20 are considered moderately steep and form
a dividing line for the level of ecological sensitive-
ness (Sen 2000).
Several experts with whom this project has been
discussed feel that this is the last time that an effort
can be made to preserve the biological values of
the Western Ghats. The planning exercise would
have to consider various views of a wide range of
stakeholders and bring about a consensus before
any steps are taken to implement new ESAs.
The major concerns include a review of the
existing data on ecosystem and species diversity.
There should be in place plans to collect data on
gaps in knowledge and to increase appreciation
of the various impacts on the environment. An
understanding of the management needs of each
ESA category. Geoinformatics and ground surveys
for planning corridors should be used. Finally the
complex exercise of prioritization in terms of fu-
ture landuse should be attempted.

114
 CHAPTER 6: IMPLEMENTATION
AND MANAGEMENT
I
n several situations the implementation of
conservation has not occurred in India due
to inadequate planning, lack of political will,
or poor monitoring and evaluation. Knight et al
(2006) stress the need to use well-tested tools such
as area selection algorithms and principles that in-
clude representation and complementarity which
have to be used during implementation of a locale
specific conservation plan (Knight, Cowling, and
Campbell 2006). In the Western Ghats the ESA
must be based on these concerns. The current
MEE – Management Effective Evaluation being
implemented by MOEF through the WII for PAs
and Tiger Reserves shows that the gaps in imple-
mentation are related to issues such as inadequate-
ly trained manpower, delays in funding etc. These
issues will have to be considered in managing the
functions of the ESAs. We may know how to plan
but do not know how to implement and achieve the
objectives of the ESAs. Once initiated the Western
Ghats Authority must be endowed with autonomy
115
which enables its functionaries and its selected ex-
pert professional institutions to implement conser-
vation action. This will require a broad consensus
on which different line agencies in Government at
Centre and State level should be empowered to act
and to select stake holders who can effectively play
a significant role through PPP to implement the
objectives of ESAs. People support is said to be the
most important strategy to create the approximate
milieu for conservation.
Once initiated a regular review of activities
through conservation assessment techniques
would have to be put into place. Planning the in-
dividual activities that can lead to successful man-
agement of ESAs goes beyond prioritization based
on appropriate site selection, capacity building, in
situ conservation, corridoring etc. It will require
a number of individuals who are trained and em-
powered to put the ESAs management in an ac-
tion oriented mode. It implies not only an under-
standing of biological needs of the ESAs but the
social and economic background in which they are developed through an Action Plan.
situated. (Knight, Cowling, and Campbell 2006) The ESAs are currently multiple – use areas with
propose clear components for ‘doing’ conservation primarily an agro pastoral traditional based land
planning. use management. This is less damaging than more
The ESAs prioritized in the different categories intensive farming, urbanization, road building,
will require an implementation strategy, capacity dam construction of the adjacent valleys etc. There
building of executives and front line staff and col- is no need to curtail the activities of traditional
laborative and participative management. A sys- farming except to reduce the frequency of hill slope
tematic conservation assessment tool will have to cultivation, free uncontrolled grazing, prevent an-
be put into place which is followed by operational nual lighting of fires, and continual extraction of
models and evaluation of the success of manage- fuel wood and NTFP collection for sale.
ment. This means that an alternate income generation
Don Faber–Langendoen (2007) demonstrates model has to be developed for these local people
how Ecological Integrity Assessments assists in especially so that there is no temptation for selling
ecological classification through remote sensing, their lands to other types of land users such as farm
rapid assessment, intensive assessment and metrics houses, roadside, small time or large hoteliers, busi-
documentation. The tool uses key ecological attri- ness and small scale industries that can together
butes and indicators for ranking biotic attributes, constitute a major cumulative threat.
abiotic conditions, and area and landscape contest. Any tourism activity must be based on the prin-
An EIA score card is used to rank a particular area ciples of real ‘ecotourism’ which means that the
providing an ecological integrity rank. strategy and activities must minimize its impacts
There is a need to study the tree, shrub, climber on ecology and that the income generated must
and ground flora in each of the ESAs to be able go to local people as a means towards alternate
to monitor the effectiveness of conservation before income generation and low impact form of home
and periodically after implementation in the ESA stay tourism rather than five star tourist complexes
by the Western Ghats Authority. This can be done where the income generated goes to big business.
by a periodic evaluation of woody and non- woody The financial returns must go to local people as an
herbivorous vegetation. alternate income generation strategy that reduces
their impacts on the land and its resources. Low
There cannot be a single strategy to adequately
impact forms of home stays rather than five-star
protect the different ESA categories. As PAs, ESA
tourism (where the income generated actually acts
of 10 kms around PAs, RF areas, and the three
as a draw for builders, hoteliers, land grabbers etc.
ESA – Hill stations already have their own protec-
has to become a part of an ecodevelopment initia-
tion strategies these can continue to be governed by
tive.)
their existing acts, norms, rules and Court Orders.
While demands for more water will trigger more
It is other areas outside these relatively protected
dams it is more appropriate to enhance the survival
categories that require sustainable governance on a
of existing impoundments by eliminating soil ero-
category-wise set of conditions that require urgent
sion, ecosensitive afforestation by using local tree
attention and a time – bound Rapid Action Plan.
species, especially focusing on those that have key
This includes a complete cessation by Regional
stone properties, are rare or endemic to the West-
and Town Planners for permitting or creating new
ern Ghats.
townships, new hill stations, further construction
in other existing hill stations, such as Panhala or Traditionally managed “deorai’s” should be
urbanizing of areas such as the plateau tops, such managed through “as is where is” strategies with
as Kas. clear moratoriums on building temples within
them, or expanding existing tribal shrines to ac-
A few guidelines on what can, may or not be
commodate gods other than the existing forest
done in each of these landuse elements need to be
116
deity. An education awareness drive in the local
language and by local experts such as ecologists,
anthropologists, social scientists, naturalists and
NGOs should be used to advise local pujaris on the
need to use the groves only for local people rather
than opening them up to external religious tourism
from adjacent towns except perhaps once a year.
This will prevent problems such as trampling of
seedlings, water pollution of stream courses, exces-
sive garbage especially of plastic bags and bottles
etc. within the site.
While road transport needs will continue to grow
the demands to widen roads must be strategically
denied by more stringent monitoring of EIAs. Bet-
ter traffic control and policing, preventing double
laneing due to overtaking, installing camera traps,
traffic education are alternatives to unnecessary
road widening plans. New alignments except to ac-
cess villages that have remained unconnected will
have to be permanently stalled.
All mining activities which destabilize soil and
degrade forest cover will have to be prevented in
areas designated as ESAs.
Outside ESAs these activities must follow very
stringently the ecorestoration norms with an over-
riding plan to use only local tree species, recreate
the shrub layer and climbers and encourage the
reformation of locally relevant ground flora espe-
cially of important species such as endemic and
endangered ground flora.
A major concern is the conservation of outlying
hill ranges to the east of the main ridge and the out-
crops and low plateaus or isolated hills adjacent to
the Western Ghats in the Deccan to the east and on
the coastal plain in the West. Such hills and elevat-
ed areas can have immense bioresources with en-
demic and endangered ground flora and their fau-
nal inhabitants such as amphibian, reptiles, birds
and mammals. Some of these may be more vital
and / or threatened than similar populations in the
Ghats themselves. This would have to be dealt with
on a case to case basis as they would be outside the
Western Ghats.
MANAGEMENT AND INSTITUTION-
AL ARRANGEMENTS
The management for ESA’s of the Western Ghats
cannot consist of a single strategy as their conser-
vation values, impacts and needs vary in different
ESA categories and locations along the range.
Thus there is a need to group these varied eco-
logically sensitive sites into specific categories and
develop a strategy using specific management cri-
teria for each ESAs type. The categories suggested
are based on their specific objectives which are re-
lated to a combination of factors that include eco-
nomic development, local societal requirements,
and most importantly for maintaining their ecolog-
ical integrity. The last includes preserving genetic
species and ecosystem diversity.
Some of these ecologically sensitive sites may
already have institutionalized protective strategies
such as NPs or WL Sanctuaries; Reserved For-
ests, or preserved as traditionally protected sacred
groves. Others may not have any protection at all
and thus require a new set of legal provisions as
ESAs, with new relevant rules and institutional ar-
rangements for their protection. In some instances
the sites may be so small that only locally relevant
strategies can be used to protect them as ESAs.
All these different sites would fall under one or
more categories within the umbrella of a network
of ESAs in the Western Ghats.
The categories constituted as ESAs from a man-
agement perspective are linked closely to land ten-
ure and impacts from development. While some of
the sites have great conservation significance they
may also suffer from high levels of biotic pressures.
Their conservation values may be depleted unless
protective measures are rapidly instituted. Others
may have lower conservation value but have low
biotic pressures and may thus remain stable. How-
ever their status could be enhanced by ecorestor-
ative strategies. A high biodiversity value and a low
biotic pressure would constitute the most impor-
tant ESAs. In such situation long term preserva-
tion through an ESA would lead to the most posi-
tive results. Preventing unsustainable development
from extending into such ESAs is the key strategy
to be instituted in these sites.
Low conservation status areas with existing high
impacts may be worthless and the costs of revers-
ing degradation trends may be too high to be of
any significant value. ied functions into a unified perception related to
the concerns of ESAs in the Ghats is a major issue
The framework for the strategy to be used at a
for the proposed Western Ghats Authority.
site can be developed by using a template as giv-
en below. This can be filled for each Taluka in the The principles of management for ESAs should
Western Ghats. include the following:
Type (ESA Conservation Impact 1. Maintaining large continuous patch sizes
category) Value-Status level Strategy rather than small multiple fragments
2. Creating well connected corridor between
fragments is better than improving isolated
Once a conservation strategy based on locale patches
specific conditions is evolved for a Taluka, it is es- 3. Closely contiguous patches are better than
sential to identify the implementing agency – For- isolated patches
est Department, Revenue Department, Private
agencies, NGOs, local people. A set of Rules and 4. Widest possible natural corridors are better
Regulations to manage each category must be for- than restored ones
mulated. These can be based on a modification of 5. Sensitive management of Protected Area
Rules used in the Wildlife Protection Act (1972); surrounds for local use with a reduction in
Forest Conservation Act (1980); Water Act (1974); conflict is the key to conservation
Environment Protection Act (1986) etc. Relevant
There are two processes that will have to be used
Rules that can be effectively modified for ESAs
in implementing ESAs. They are ecorestoration
from these Acts are given in the section on Judicial
and ecodevelopment. Both have linkages to sus-
Concerns.
tainable development. However, they are different
Planning and designing an appropriate conser- approaches with certain parallel and even diver-
vation development program for the future of the gent objectives. These will require developing new
Western Ghats is now an urgent need. This stems management strategies with new structures and lo-
from the enormous pressures on landuse based on cal capacity development.
the need for a rapid economic growth without any
This review has demonstrated the complexity of
thought for its long-term sustainability.
creating a management strategy for the future well-
The landscape in the Ghats currently consists of being of the ecology the biological diversity and
a patchwork of forests, narrowed degraded shrub the economic development of local people of the
land corridors, dam catchments etc. in a matrix of Western Ghats. To plan a sustainable development
agriculture and degraded areas that constitute gaps package that is suitable for an ecologically sensitive
between existing PAs. The PAs are nodes in the region of global and national importance for pres-
Western Ghats landscape that have significant pop- ervation of its biological assets will require a great
ulations of wild species of flora and fauna (Noss deal of locale specific planning taking into account
and Harris 1986). the local people’s needs.
The status and landuse pattern of these nodes While the whole region is ecologically sensitive
and the existence of functional corridoring is a key it is related to the different landscape elements that
conservation concern. Cores, buffers and bridges constitute a mosaic of different categories. Thus the
between forested patches must constitute a homog- region as a whole is not equally suitable for differ-
enous management entity. In the Ghats this will ent forms of development. Within each landscape
require a conceptual framework, a review of the element the level of sensitiveness differs. This rang-
existing situation and a highly locality and species es from extremely fragile, highly sensitive, less sen-
specific strategy. The complexity in management sitive. All activities would have some impact on the
stems primarily from the multiple agencies in- biodiversity at either genetic, species or ecosystem
volved in land management. Integrating their var- levels. However as the level of sensitivity differs
118
 Terms used for Appreciating Ecosensitivity

Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs): KBAs are an overlapping subset of the existing and potential PAs (Lang-
hammer et al. 2007).

Irreplaceability and Vulnerability are the most important aspects of conservation planning. Irreplaceability
is related to uniqueness. Vulnerability deals with irreplaceability if threats continue unabated. High irreplace-
ability and high vulnerability requires heightened levels of urgent actions.

significantly with the different categories it would Ecodevelopment as defined by the UN is a form
be essential to define the types of activity that may of development at regional and local levels consis-
be permitted in certain areas within strong mitiga- tent with the potentials of the area involved, with
tion and monitoring measures laid down for each attention given to the adequate and rational use of
category. This would range from hands off areas to natural resources, technological styles and organi-
those that would be least threatening to the existing sational forms that respect natural ecosystems and
status of biological diversity. local social and cultural patterns (United Nations,
New York, 1997).
In fact the objective of the Management Plan for
the region should be able to enhance the security Agroforestry in the Western Ghats of peninsu-
of regional biodiversity by two types of strategies. lar India and the satoyama landscapes of Japan:
The first is to prevent further degradation. The sec- a comparison of two sustainable land use sys-
ond is to enhance ‘naturalness’. tems- Agroforestry in the Western Ghats (WG)
of peninsular India and Satoyama in rural Japan
As within each landuse category the level of sen-
are traditional land-use systems with similar evo-
sitivity differs the pattern of sustainable develop-
lutionary trajectories. Some of their relevance was
ment differs. This is extremely relevant where the
lost by the middle of the twentieth century, when
area is irreplaceable due to the presence of a spe-
modern agricultural technologies and urbanisation
cies or a group of species that are pocketed into a
engineered shifts in emphasis towards maximising
tiny fragment.
crop production. There has been, however, a re-
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT surgence of interest in traditional land-use systems
Several concerns related to ecological sensitiv- recently, in view of their ability to provide ecosys-
ity of the Western Ghats are issues linked to a tem services. Both agroforestry and satoyama are
sustainable development strategy for the region. thought to be harbingers of biological diversity
Traditional land management systems which were and have the potential to serve as “carbon forests.”
thought to be damaging now appear insignificant Carbon (C) stock estimates of the sampled home
when compared to recent impacts due to landuse gardens in WG ranged from 16 to 36 Mg/ha. Sa-
change. toyama woodlands owing to variations in tree
stocking and management conditions indicated
Ecodevelopment is primarily concerned with
widely varying C stocks (2–279 Mg/ha). Agrofor-
an ecologically sensitive human development pro-
estry and satoyama also differ in nature, complex-
gram aimed at improving the quality of life of local
ity, and objectives. While agroforestry involves key
people of the Western Ghats. Its primary pillars in-
productive and protective functions, and adopts
clude sustainable economic growth, health, nutri-
‘intensive management’, the satoyama woodlands
tion, housing, energy needs without compromising
are extensively managed; understory production
in any way the health of the ecosystem and its bio-
is seldom a consideration. Differences in canopy
logical diversity. The needs of the program would
architecture (multi-tiered structure of agroforestry
obviously centre around agro-pastoral and fishing
vs. the more or less unitary canopy of satoyama)
communities.
119
120
and land ownership pattern (privately owned/ attempts to return an ecosystem to its historical tra-
managed agroforestry holdings vs. community or jectory (Clewell, Aronson, and Winterhalder 2004)
local government or privately owned and mostly Habitat improvement strategies in the Western
abandoned satoyamas) pose other challenges in Ghats would require local people’s initiatives. It
the transfer and application of knowledge gained would also be supported by an increasing num-
in one system to the other. Nonetheless, lessons ber of conservationists – nature watchers, birders,
learnt from satoyama conservation may be suitable wildlife photographers as well as the ‘recreation-
for common pool resource management elsewhere ists’ who want to experience what ‘nature’ is for
in Asia, and aspects relating to understory produc- its own sake. The latter are conservation conscious
tion in agroforestry may be relevant for satoyama individuals who believe in the intrinsic ‘good’ of
under certain scenarios. the wilderness. They believe in the existence value
In the Western Ghats the old settlements were of natural ecosystems and wish that the wilderness
most frequently a string of small hamlets at the foot must be preserved for its aesthetic appeal. While
of the mountain range. The local agro pastoralists the importance of protecting all species and in-
of the northern Western Ghats were Marathas, dividuals that are alive, that is based on Hindu,
and tribal communities such as the Bhils and the Buddhists, and Jain philosophers, these concepts
Koknas. In the Dangs they are frequently Bhil have not been used to support the cause of biodi-
tribal folk and the Koknas who evidently migrat- versity conservation. This societal value, such as
ed northwards from the Konkan to take over Bhil preservation of sacred groves by tribal folk in the
lands. This altered the primarily hunting gathering Ghats has been essentially left out of our modern
Bhils who lived off the forest produce towards an conservation philosophy. The ESAs must rely or
agro pastoral system of rab (Worah 1991). This these locally important philosophies of life. Re-
type of fragmented forest is seen in the rest of the storing natural vegetation as attempted by the
Sahyadris. Newer trends in farming are more inten- Tata Power Company in Mawal Taluka was initi-
sive but may be less dependent on forest biomass. ated by setting up nurseries for over 40 species of
The most recent trends however in the Dangs is to trees found in the less disturbed patches of forest
sell the teak illegally. In Maharashtra, in some ar- in their catchment areas. Concomitantly soil and
eas, the rising price of land has led to one time sale water conservation measures were taken up in the
at a high price to urban land sharks, who take over degraded parts of the catchments of the dams. Old
lands purely for speculation. Agricultural lands Eucalyptus and Acacia auriculoformis plantations
thus remain fallow till urbanisation, electrification were interplanted with local species of trees grown
and water supply catch up with the speculators. to a height of 1 to 1.5 meters in large sacks in the
nursery for 3 to 4 years. The overall effect on biodi-
ECORESTORATION
versity was dramatic in restored areas after around
Ecologically oriented restoration of land de- 10 years. It showed an increase in abundance of
pends on what one wishes to achieve at the end forest canopy bird species, as well as birds such as
of the program. The question is restored to what grey jungle fowl and spur fowl in the regenerating
state? Before human intervention? Pre history? ground cover. The area acted as a training facility
Historical times? A century ago? W. A. Rodgers for environmental education and nature awareness
often put this question in perspective when he was for visitors, trekkers and for guided school visits
teaching at the Wildlife Institute of India. Current- by BVIEER. Teacher educators of BVIEER were
ly in the Western Ghats one would wish to restore able to use the facility to train a large number of lo-
ecosystems so that all its biological diversity can be cal school teachers on the use of field studies. The
retained in the long term. fringe benefits of this program thus elicited large
The Society for Ecological Restoration Inter- social and educational outcomes. School students
national defines ecorestoration as the process of exposed to the facility imbibed concepts such as
assisting in the recover of an ecosystem that has ecosystems, food chains and food webs not only
been degraded, damaged or destroyed. Restoration through a greater degree of understanding but with
121
122
the excitement of personally experiencing the joy 6. Village surrounds – Panchayats, Forest Pro-
of discovering nature. A respect for nature was an tection Committees
obvious outcome of this action oriented environ- 7. Urban fringes – Regional and Town Planners
ment education program.
8. New Townships – Regional Planners
Local residents around the catchment benefited
from better and longer stream flows after the mon- Each of these landscape element managers are
soon. involved with their own land tenure concerns in
the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats Authority
In Lonavala large groups of monsoon trekkers, would have to be empowered to use its ability to
stream and waterfall picnickers have grown to bring in a consensus and finality to a participatory
unsustainable limits where the fun and games ap- sustainable development paradigm with a view to
proach exceeds the number of real nature enthu- conserving the all important biological diversity of
siasts who require peace and tranquillity. This ex- this globally recognized hot spot.
pands the role of ecorestoration in these ESAs so
that the needs of both groups can be accommodat- ECOTOURISM
ed at sustainable levels. Large scale irresponsible The ecotourism potential of the Ghats can bring
tourism would negate the effects of ecorestoration about an alternate income generation source for
of ESAs beyond a threshold of their carrying ca- local people without compromising on the ecosys-
pacity. Such activities would drive off wildlife from tem or altering its landscape features. The detailing
even adequately restored habitats. The ESAs can has to be done on a village to village basis and re-
be used by local people to gain a self-controlled quires capacity building in hygiene, water manage-
sustainable access to NTFP, consumptive use of ment and interpretation facilities. The major pre-
fuel wood and grazing. Better quality and access determining aspect is to study the tourism carrying
to water sources would be a definite social benefit. capacity of the ecotourism site before the program
Ecotourism could bring home to local people on is implemented.
alternate source of income. Education can be sup-
IMPLEMENTATION OF CORRIDORS
ported through field visits for school students in the
ESA to demonstrate changes in the ecosystem de- This appears to be one of the most critical as-
veloped through ecorestoration. Briefly, this strate- pects of the program of ESA management. The
gy towards sustainable ecorestorative development selection of the sites and development of locale
would bring about a better quality of life for local specific managerial skills is crucial to long term
inhabitants. success of managing a complex network of ESAs.
The first step to planning at the landscape level NEED FOR EDUCATION AND
is to document a series of ecologically distinctive AWARENESS
types. These must be categorized into those that This will require a multitude of strategies begin-
have similar management regimes under different ning with school teachers and students, communi-
landscape managers. ties, Government officials and Policy makers. Thus
This includes: must be a precursor to any local programs and im-
plemented by professional environment educators
1. Revenue lands – Revenue Department
with a special interest in Education for Sustainable
2. Forest lands – Foresters Development. Community participation in conser-
3. Soil and water conservation - Forest Depart- vation awareness programs and development of lo-
ment cale specific educational material is a key to a suc-
cessful ecodevelopment initiative for ecosensitive
4. Agriculture, traditional / Irrigated – Agricul-
locations in the northern Western Ghats.
ture Department
5. Dam catchments – Irrigation Department

123
CHAPTER 7: JUDICIAL CONCERNS

I
mplementation of the ESAs cannot be car- lined sections are of greater relevance in formulat-
ried out without a formal legal instrument ing policies administrative and legal instruments
that supports the Authority with the powers to for the ESAs. The comments are provided for
execute programs and limit alterations in landuse emphasizing how there existing provisions can be
that would destroy the Ghats’ biological diversity. used or modified to protect ESAs.
A large number of Acts, Rules and Regulations al-
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
ready exist which can be utilized for this purpose.
ACT, 1986
A brief review of such laws and rules has been
quoted here where individual sections are of rele- Implementation of Ecologically Sensitive Areas
vance for management of ESAs. However, a single in the Western Ghat
Comprehensive Act of Parliament would undoubt- The Ecologically Sensitive Areas will require
edly be a better option in the long term. that the Western Ghat Authority has powers to
The comments on the legislators need to be de- frame policy, create rules for its implementation at
bated with expert environmental lawyers to bring Central, State and Local levels; and develop a le-
about a Comprehensive Act. gal instrument that is specifically developed for the
Western Ghats. This will require setting up a Di-
All laws have been taken from the Website of the
rectorate for the Western Ghat in the MOEF and
Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government
Executive Officers in the five related states.
of India. These annexures are of relevance to op-
erationalzing the protection required for ecologi- Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au-
cally sensitive areas in Western Ghats. They are to thority:
be used in constituting guidelines and Rules that The Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 can
would be utilized by a statutory Authority in the be suitably modified for Ecologically Sensitive Ar-
Western Ghats in each of the states. The under- eas. Several of its clauses can be used to regulate
125
Ecologically Sensitive Areas. The EPA Rules de- be caused by an industry, process or operation pro-
fines ‘sensitive areas’ as area whose ecological bal- posed to be prohibited or restricted.
ance is prone to be easily disturbed. (viii) Proximity to a protected area under the
Ministry of Environment and Forests Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and
(Department of Environment, Forest and Wildlife) Remains Act, 1958 or a sanctuary, National Park,
game reserve or closed area notified as such un-
Notification
der the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 or places
New Delhi, the 19th November, 1986 protected under any treaty, agreement or conven-
The EPA Rules defines ‘sensitive areas’ as an tion with any other country or countries or in pur-
area whose ecological balance is prone to be easily suance of any decision made in any international
disturbed. conference association or other body.

Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- (ix) Proximity to human settlements.

thority: (x) Any other factors as may be considered by
These sites in the Western Ghats need to be se- the Central Government to be relevant to the pro-
lected and categorized to make this an effective set tection of the environment in an area.
of norms. The implementing agency will have to Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au-
be authorized and empowered to make decisions thority:
as land tenure varies throughout the Ghats. This
The pressure on Ecologically Sensitive Areas de-
includes Revenue lands, Forest, Irrigation and Pan-
clared by the Western Ghat Authority will require
chayati lands.
a similar set of provisions. This could be done by
Quote: using the EPA itself or creating similar rules for
5. Prohibitions and restrictions on the location ESAs by the Western Ghat Authority. Implemen-
of industries and the carrying out processes and tation will require state level agencies for effective
operations in different areas management.

(1) The Central Government may take into con-

sideration the following factors while prohibiting WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT,
or restricting the location of industries and carrying AMENDED 1993
on of processes and operations in different areas:-
There are several clauses in the Wildlife Protec-
(i) Standards for quality of environment in its tion Act, the Indian Forest Act and the Forest Con-
various aspects laid down for an area. servation Act which must be used to provide pro-
(ii) The maximum allowable limits of concentra- tection for make the Ecologically Sensitive Areas.
tion of various environment pollutants (including A few of these clauses could be effectively modi-
noise) for an area. fied to be used by the Western Ghat Authority in
managing Ecologically Sensitive Areas.
(iii) The likely emissions or discharge of envi-
ronmental pollution from an industry, process or Wildlife Protection Act amended in 1993
operation proposed to be prohibited or restricted, Sanctuaries:
(iv) The topography and climatic features of an 24. Acquisition of rights. – (1) In the case of a
area claim to a right in or over any land referred to in
(v) The biological diversity of the area which, in Sec.19, the Collector shall pass an order admitting
the opinion of the Central Government needs to be or rejecting the same in whole or in part.
preserved. (2) If such claim is admitted in whole or in part,
(vi) Environmentally compatible land use. the Collector may either
(vii) Net adverse environmental impact likely to (a) exclude such land from the limits of the pro-

126
posed sanctuary, or
(b) proceed to acquire such land or rights, except
where by an agreement between the owner of such
land or the holder of rights and the Government
the owner or holder of such rights has agreed to
surrender his rights to the Government, in or over
such land, and payment of such compensation, as
is provided in the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 (1
of 1894) [4(c) allow, in consultation with the Chief
Wildlife Warden, the continuance of any right of
any person in, or over any land within the limits of
the sanctuary.]
Comment/Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au-
thority:
thority:
A similar notification substituting the word
‘sanctuary’ by ‘Ecologically Sensitive Area’ should
be issued to provide a legal framework for Ecologi-
cally Sensitive Areas under the Western Ghats Au-
thority whereby ESAs can be legally declared.
28. Grant of permit. – (1) The Chief Wildlife
Warden may, on application, grant to any person
a permit to enter or reside in a sanctuary for all or
any of the following purposes, namely:
(a) investigation or study of wildlife and purpos-
es ancillary or incidental thereto;
(b) photography;

In the Ecologically Sensitive Areas a similar pro- (c) scientific research;

cedure for setting of rights in corridor areas and (d) tourism;
areas of special ecological value would have to be
(e) transaction of lawful business with any per-
passed by the Western Ghats Authority. Without
son residing in the sanctuary.
similar provisions effective management would not
be possible. A major concern is that this cannot (2) A permit to enter or reside in a sanctuary
be done without eliciting the cooperation of local shall be issued subject to such conditions and on
people. payment of such fee as may be prescribed.

[5(26A) Declaration of area as Sanctuary. –(1) Comment/Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au-
When – thority:

(a) a notification has been issued under sec.18 A similar notification would have to be created
and the period for preferring claim has elapsed, for Ecologically Sensitive Areas. This would pro-
and all claims, if any, made in relation to any land vide rules for specific utilization of the Ecologi-
in an area intended to be declared as a sanctuary, cally Sensitive Area, so that people at large begin
have been disposed of by the State Government; to value the area. The level of tourism should be
or (b) any area comprised within any reserve forest controlled below the carrying capacity of the area
or any part of the territorial waters, which is con- based on clearly defined parameters.
sidered by the State Government to be of adequate [8(29) Destruction, etc., in a sanctuary prohib-
ecological, faunal, geomorphological, natural or ited without a permit. – No person shall destroy,
zoological significance for the purpose of protect-exploit or remove any wildlife from a sanctuary or
ing, propagating or developing wildlife or its envi-
destroy or damage the habitat of any wild animal or
ronment, is to be included in a sanctuary, the State
deprive any wild animal or its habitat within such
Government shall issue a notification specifying sanctuary except under and in accordance with a
the limits of the area which shall be comprised permit granted by the Chief Wildlife Warden and
within the sanctuary and declare that the said areano such permit shall be granted unless the State
shall be sanctuary on and from such date as may be Government being satisfied that such destruction,
specified in the notification exploitation or removal of wildlife from the sanc-
(3) No alteration of the boundaries of a sanctu- tuary is necessary for the improvement and better
ary shall be made except on a resolution management of wildlife herein authorises the is-
sue of such permit. Explanation: For the purposes
passed by the Legislation of the State.]
of this section, grazing or movement of livestock
Comment/Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au- permitted under clause (d) of Sec.33 shall not be
127
deemed to be an act prohibited under this section.] poses of such sanctuary;
Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat (b) shall take such steps as will ensure the secu-
Authority rity of wild animals in the sanctuary and
A similar notification should be developed for the preservation of the sanctuary and wild ani-
Ecologically Sensitive Areas to permit the desig- mals, therein;
nated authority to deny or permit certain activities (c) may take such measures, in the interests of
within Ecologically Sensitive Areas. This would wildlife, as he may consider necessary for
include prohibiting power lines, gas lines, water
pipes, roads, townships etc. the improvement of any habitat.

30. Causing fire prohibited. – No person shall set (d) may regulate, control or prohibit, in keeping
fire to a sanctuary, or kindle any fire, or leave any with the interests of wildlife, the grazing or move-
fire burning, in a sanctuary, in such manner as to ment of [livestock].
endanger such sanctuary. (e) [omitted 19911
Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat Comment/ Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au-
Authority: thority:
A similar clause will have to be created for Eco- Control of the Ecologically Sensitive Areas will
logically Sensitive Areas. be managed by the Western Ghat Authority. How-
31 Prohibition of entry into sanctuary with ever this would require a complete infrastructure
weapon. – No person shall enter a sanctuary with and manpower at the state level. The alternative
any weapon except with the previous permission would be as follows.
in writing of the Chief Wildlife Warden or the au- The question here will be to decide who will act
thorised officer. as the controlling authority for Ecologically Sensi-
Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat tive Areas under different land tenures.
Authority: In case of RF or PF which are to be included in
A similar clause will have to be created for Eco- Ecologically Sensitive Areas it could be the local
logically Sensitive Areas. Territorial Forest Officer, or Wildlife Conservator
of the Area.
32. Ban on use of injurious substances. – No per-
son shall use in a sanctuary, chemicals, explosives For areas under Revenue Department, Ecologi-
or any other substances which may cause injury to, cally Sensitive Areas outside the Forest Depart-
or endanger, any wildlife in such sanctuary. mental lands, the District Collector shall have to
control local issues within the Ecologically Sensi-
Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat tive Area.
Authority:
In the case of Catchments of dams and river
A similar clause will have to be created for Eco- courses-This would be controlled through the Ir-
logically Sensitive Areas. As these are multiple use rigation Department.
areas there concerns are of greater importance and
will require clearly defined regulations. The possibility of using Village Panchayats to
manage these Ecologically Sensitive Areas, as done
33. Control of sanctuaries. – The Chief Wildlife for village forests that are looked after by Village
Warden shall be the authority who shall control, Ecodevelopment Committees could be an alterna-
manage and maintain all sanctuaries and for that tive controlling authority for some ESAs.
purpose, within the limits of any sanctuary,
Interactions between these various line agencies
(a) may construct such roads, bridges, buildings, and the Western Ghat’s Authority have to be given
fences or barrier gates, and carry out such other clarity so that implementation is possible at the
works as he may consider necessary for the pur- ground level.

128
 any wild animal or its habitat within such National
Park except under and in accordance with a permit
National Parks
granted by the Chief Wildlife Warden and no such
35. Declaration of National Parks. – (1) Whenev- permit shall be granted unless the State Govern-
er it appears to the State Government that an area, ment, being satisfied that such destruction, exploi-
whether within a sanctuary or not, is, by reason tation, or removal of wildlife from the National
of its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, Park is necessary for the improvement and better
or zoological association or importance, needed to management of wildlife therein, authorises the is-
be constituted as a National Park for the purpose sue of such permit.
of protecting & propagating or developing wildlife
(7) No grazing of any [livestock13] shall be per-
therein or its environment, it may, by notification,
mitted in a National Park and no livestock shall be
declare its intention to constitute such area as a Na-
allowed to enter except where such [livestock] is
tional Park.
used as a vehicle by a person authorized to enter
(2) The notification referred to in sub-section (1) such National Park.
shall define the limits of the area which
(8) The provisions of secs. 27 and 28, secs.30
is intended to be declared as a National Park. to 32 (both inclusive), and CIS, (a), (b) and (c) of
(3) Where any area is intended to be declared [Sec.33, 33A14] and sec.34 shall, as far as may be,
as a National Park, the provisions of Sec. [1219 to apply in realtion to a National Park as they apply
26-A (both inclusive except clause (c) of sub-section in relation to a sanctuary.
(2) of section 24)] shall, as far as may be, apply to Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au-
the investigation and determination of claims and thority:
extinguishment of rights, in relation to any land in
Ecologically Sensitive Areas of very high bio-
such area as they apply to the said matters in rela-
logical value may require a set of similar regula-
tion to any land in a sanctuary.
tory mechanisms. As these areas should in effect be
(4) When the following events have occurred, notified as PAs, which has not occurred for various
namely political reasons, this would constitute an alterna-
(a) the period for preferring claims has elapsed, tive for conserving the highly endangered species
and all claims, if any, made in relation to and their ecosystem without an alteration in their
tenures.
any land in an area intended to be declared as a
National Park, have been disposed of by the State Sanctuaries or National Park declared by Cen-
Government, and tral Govt.

(b) all rights in respect of lands proposed to be 38. Power of Central Government to declare ar-
included in the National Park have become vested eas as Sanctuaries or National Park,
in the State Government the State Government (1) Where the State Government leases or other-
shall publish a notification specifying the limits of
wise transfers any area under its control, not being
the area which shall be comprised within the Na- an area within a Sanctuary, to the Central Govern-
tional Park and declare that the said area shall be ment the Central Government may, if it is satisfied
a National Park on and from such date as may be that the conditions specified in sec.18 are fulfilled
specified in the notification. in relation to the area so transferred to it, declare
(5) No alteration of the boundaries of a National such area, by notification, to be a sanctuary and
Park shall be made except on a resolution passed the provisions of [sec 18 to 35 (both inclusive) 16],
by the Legislature of the State. 54 and 55 shall apply in relation to such sanctuary
as they apply in relation to a sanctuary declared by
(6) No person shall, destroy, exploit, or remove
the State Government.
any wildlife from a National Park or destroy or
damage the habitat or any wild animal or deprive Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au-
129
thority: includes any land owned by the Central Govern-
ment, its prior concurrence shall be obtained be-
Similar powers should be provided for the West-
fore making such declaration.
ern Ghats Authority which should be with the
Central Government as the Ecologically Sensitive Comment/ Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au-
Areas are in five states. Each state would also have thority:
to setup its own State level authority as has been The declaration is for the same purpose as an
suggested for implementation of the Biodiversity Ecologically Sensitive Area. However, few if any
Act such corridor areas have been created as it is un-
likely to get support from local communities unless
they are given just and fair compensation for creat-
WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT,
ing an Ecologically Sensitive Area.
AMENDMENT 2002
(2) The provisions of sub-section (2) of section
18A. (1) When the State Government declares
18, sub-sections (2), (3) and (4) of section 27, sec-
its intention under sub-section of section 18 to con-
tions 30, 32 and clauses (b) and (c) of section 33
stitute any area, not comprised within any reserve
shall, as far as may be, apply in relation to a conser-
forest or territorial waters under that sub-section,
vation reserve as they apply in relation to a sanctu-
as a sanctuary, the-provisions of sections 27 to 33A
ary
(both inclusive) shall come into effect forthwith.
Conservation Reserve Management Committee
Comment/ Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au-
thority: 36B. (1) The State Government shall constitute
a conservation reserve management committee to
A similar clause will have to be used when a
advise the Chief Wild Life Warden to conserve,
Western Ghat Authority decides to notify an area
manage and maintain the conservation reserve.
as an Ecologically Sensitive Area.
Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au-
(2) Till such time as the rights of affected per-
thority:
sons are finally settled under sections 19 to 24 (both
inclusive), the State Government shall make alter- A local Ecologically Sensitive Area management
native arrangements required for making available committee under the Western Ghat Authority may
fuel, fodder and other forest produce to the persons act as the outreach controlling mechanism at a lo-
affected in terms of their rights as per the Govern- cal or regional leve; within the Western Ghat.
ment records. (2) The committee shall consist of a representa-
Comment/ Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au- tive of the forest or Wild Life Department, who
thority: shall be the Member-Secretary of the Commit-
tee, one representative of each Village Panchayat
A similar clause will have to be developed for
in whose jurisdiction the reserve is located, three
Ecologically Sensitive Areas.
representatives of non-governmental organisations
Declaration and Management of a Conserva- working in the field of wild life conservation and
tion Reserve one representative each from the Department of
“36A. (1) The State Government may, after Agriculture and Animal Husbandry.
having consultations with the local communities, (3) The Committee shall regulate its own proce-
declare any area owned by the Government, par- dure including the quorum.
ticularly the areas adjacent to National Parks and
Comment/ Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au-
sanctuaries and those areas which link one protect-
thority:
ed area with another, as a conservation reserve for
protecting landscapes, seascapes, flora and fauna This has so far not been successfully ensured and
and their habitat: the Ecologically Sensitive Areas must have a regu-
lation in place where existing activities are limited
Provided that where the conservation reserve
130
and new activities that could place undue pressures 3. Power to reserve forests.–The State Govern-
on the Ecologically Sensitive Areas are not initiat- ment may constitute any forest-land or waste-land
ed. This includes the development of roads, dams, which is the property of Government, or over
townships etc. which the Government has proprietary rights, or
to the whole or any part of the forest-produce of
Declaration and Management of Community
which the Government is entitled, a reserved forest
Reserve
in the manner hereinafter provided.
36C. (1) The State Government may, where the
Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat
community or an individual has volunteered to
Authority:
conserve wild life and its habitat, declare any pri-
vate or community land not comprised within a Power to create Ecologically Sensitive Areas
National Park, sanctuary or a conservation reserve, should rest with the Western Ghat Authority with
as a community reserve, for protecting fauna, flora a mandate to limit any further pressures on Eco-
and traditional or cultural conservation values and logically Sensitive Areas of the Western Ghat.
practices. 4. Notification by State Government.-(1) When-
(2) The provisions of sub-section (2) of section ever it has been decided to constitute any land a
18, sub-sections (2), (3) and (4) of section 27, sec- reserved forest, the State Government shall issue a
tions 30, 32 and clauses (b) and (c) of section 33 notification in the Official Gazette–
shall, as far as may be, apply in relation to a com- (a) declaring that it has been decided to consti-
munity reserve as they apply in relation to a sanctu- tute such land a reserved forest;
ary.
(b) specifying, as nearly as possible, the situation
(3) After the issue of notification under sub-sec- and limits of such land; and
tion (1), no change in the land use pattern shall be
made within the community reserve, except in ac- (c) appointing an officer (hereinafter called “the
cordance with a resolution passed by the manage- Forest Settlement-officer”) to inquire into and de-
ment, committee and approval of the same by the termine the existence, nature and extent of any
State Government. rights alleged to exist in favour of any person in or
over any land comprised within such limits or in or
Comment/ Suggestion for the Western Ghat Au- over any forest-produce, and to deal with the same
thority: as provided in this Chapter.
Selected Ecologically Sensitive Areas could be Explanation.–For the purpose of clause (b), it
managed in the same way as suggested for Com- shall be sufficient to describe the limits of the for-
munity Reserves. However, in the Western Ghat est by roads, rivers, ridges or other well-known or
this has not been successfully implemented at pres- readily intelligible boundaries.
ent.
(2) The officer appointed under clause (c) of sub-
section (1) shall ordinarily be a person not holding
INDIAN FOREST ACT 1927 any forest-office except that of Forest Settlement-
officer.
The Indian Forest Act, 1927 has several claus-
es that can be suitably modified for regulating (3) Nothing in this section shall prevent the State
resource use in Ecologically Sensitive Areas. De- Government from appointing any number of of-
pending on the conservation value and threat levels ficers not exceeding three, not more than one of
a set of principles would have to be developed and whom shall be a person holding any forest-office
judicial powers given to the Western Ghat Author- except as aforesaid, to perform the duties of a For-
ity to use these provisions in a legal sense. est Settlement-officer under this Act.
THE INDIAN FOREST ACT, 1927 ON RE- Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat
SERVED FORESTS Authority:

131
 A similar regulatory function will be required if section 20 is published, the person claiming them
Ecologically Sensitive Areas have to be successfully satisfies the Forest Settlement-officer that he had
implemented at State level. The limits of ESAs can sufficient cause for not preferring such claim with-
be decided using Geoinformatics to study vegeta- in the period fixed under section 6.
tion, slope, hydrology etc. Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat
5. Bar of accrual of forest-rights.–After the is- Authority:
sue of a notification under section 4, no right shall A similar clause will have to be developed for
be acquired in or over the land comprised in such Ecologically Sensitive Areas.
notification, except by succession or under a grant
or contract in writing made or entered into by or 10. Treatment of claims relating to practice of
on behalf of the Government or some person in shifting cultivation.—(1) In the case of a claim
whom such right was vested when the notification relating to the practice of shifting cultivation, the
was issued; and no fresh clearings for cultivation or Forest Settlement-officer shall record a statement
for any other purpose shall be made in such land setting forth the particulars of the claim and of any
except in accordance with such rules as may be local rule or order under which the practice is al-
made by the State Government in this behalf. lowed or regulated, and submit the statement to the
State Government, together with his opinion as to
Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat whether the practice should be permitted or pro-
Authority: hibited wholly or in part.
Similar clause for Ecologically Sensitive Areas (2) On receipt of the statement and opinion, the
will have to be created. State Government may make an order permitting
6. Proclamation by Forest Settlement-officer.– or prohibiting the practice wholly or in part.
When a notification has been issued under section (3) If such practice is permitted wholly or in
4, the Forest Settlement-officer shall publish in the part, the Forest Settlement-officer may arrange for
local vernacular in every town and village in the its exercise
neighbourhood of the land comprised therein, a
proclamation (a) by altering the limits of the land under settle-
ment so as to exclude land of sufficient extent, of
(a) specifying, as nearly as possible, the situation a suitable kind, and in a locality reasonably conve-
and limits of the proposed forest; nient for the purposes of the claimants, or
(b) explaining the consequences which, as here- (b) by causing certain portions of the land under
inafter provided, will ensue on the reservation of settlement to be separately demarcated, and giving
such forest; and permission to the claimants to practice shifting cul-
(c) fixing a period of not less than three months tivation therein under such conditions as he may
from the date of such proclamation, and requir- prescribe.
ing every person claiming any right mentioned in (4) All arrangements made under sub-section
section 4 or section, 5 within such period either (3) shall be subject to the previous sanction of the
to present to the Forest Settlement-officer a writ- State Government.
ten notice specifying or to appear before him and
state, the nature of such right and the amount and (5) The practice of shifting cultivation shall in
particulars of the compensation (if any) claimed in all cases be deemed a privilege subject to control,
respect thereof. restriction and abolition by the State Government.

9. Extinction of rights.-Rights in respect of Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat

which no claim has been preferred under section Authority:
6, and of the existence of which no knowledge has Rabi cultivation occurs across the Western Ghats.
been acquired by inquiry under section 7, shall be Thus, a similar set of conditions would apply to
extinguished, unless before the notification under traditional agricultural areas across the length of
132
the Western Ghats. In the ESAs such land should Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat
not be converted to other forms of landuse in the Authority:
Western Ghats. Similar claims have to be decided on for grazing
11. Power to acquire land over which right is areas that will be considered Ecologically Sensi-
claimed.–(1) In the case of a claim to a right in or tive Area under the Western Ghats Authority. Lo-
over any land, other than a right of way or right cal communities are agropastoralists who use the
of pasture, or a right to forest produce or a water- “wastelands” as their pastures which frequently re-
course, the Forest Settlement-officer shall pass an sult in overgrazing beyond the carrying capacity of
order admitting or rejecting the same in whole or the pasture. Apart from the local community, in the
in part. Western Ghat of Maharashtra, the Dhangar com-
munity migrates annually from the Mann Plateau
(2) If such claim is admitted in whole or in part,
into the Kokan plains. Their linkage to the grazing
the Forest Settlement-officer shall either
land they use along the passes and hill slopes will
(i) exclude such land- from the limits of the pro- undoubtedly be obstructed by creating Ecological-
posed forest; or ly Sensitive Areas. This would form a new area of
(ii) come to an agreement with the owner there- conflict that will require mitigation.
of for the surrender of his rights; or 13. Record to be made by Forest Settlement-of-
(iii) proceed to acquire such land in the manner ficer.–The Forest Settlement officer, when passing
provided by the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 (1 of any order under section 12, shall record, so far as
1894). may be practicable,–

(3) For the purpose of so acquiring such land (a) the name, father’s name, caste, residence and
occupation of the person claiming the right; and
(a) the Forest Settlement-officer shall be deemed
to be a Collector proceeding under the Land Ac- (b) the designation, position and area of all fields
quisition Act, 1894 (1 of 1894); or groups fields (if any), and the designation and
position of all buildings (if any) in respect of which
(b) the claimant shall be deemed to be a person
the exercise of such rights is claimed.
interested and appearing before him in pursuance
of a notice given under section 9 of that Act; 14. Record where he admits claim.–If the Forest
Settlement-officer admits in whole or in part any
(c) the provisions of the preceding sections of
claim under section 12, he shall also record the ex-
that Act shall be deemed to have been complied
tent to which the claim is so admitted, specifying
with; and
the number and description of the cattle which the
(d) the Collector, with the consent of the claim- claimant is from time to time entitled to graze in
ant, or the Court, with the consent of both parties, the forest, the season during which such pasture is
may award compensation in land, or partly in land permitted, the quantity of timber and other forest
and partly in money. produce which he is from time to time authorised
Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat to take or receive, and such other particulars as the
Authority: case may require. He shall also record whether the
timber or other forest-produce obtained by the ex-
Issues related to rights and privileges will emerge ercise of the rights claimed may be sold or bartered.
once the Ecologically Sensitive Areas are declared,
requiring a similar set of procedures. Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat
Authority:
12. Order on claims to rights of pasture or to
forest-produce.–In the case of a claim to rights of This will require special attention if the Ecologi-
pasture or to forest-produce, the Forest Settlement- cally Sensitive Areas will have to reject certain ex-
officer shall pass an order admitting or rejecting the isting claims.
same in whole or in part. 15. Exercise of rights admitted.-(1) After mak-
133
ing such record the Forest Settlement officer shall, empowered by the State Government in this be-
to the best of his ability, having due regard to the half, may, within three months from the date of
maintenance of the reserved forest in respect of the order passed on such claim by the Forest Settle-
which the claim is made, pass such orders as will ment-officer under section 11, section 12, section
ensure the continued exercise of the rights so ad- 15 or section 16, present an appeal from such or-
mitted. der to such officer of the Revenue Department of
rank not lower than that of a Collector, as the State
(2) For this purpose the Forest Settlement-officer
Government may, by notification in the Official
may
Gazette, appoint to hear appeals from such orders:
(a) set out some other forest-tract of sufficient
Provided that the State Government may estab-
extent, and in a locality reasonably convenient, for
lish a Court (hereinafter called the Forest Court)
the purposes of such claimants, and record an or-
composed of three persons to be appointed by the
der conferring upon them a right of pasture or to
State Government, and when the Forest Court has
forest-produce (as the case may be) to the extent so
been so established, all such appeals shall be pre-
admitted; or
sented to it.
(b) so alter the limits of the proposed forest as
Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat
to exclude forest-land of sufficient extent, and in a
Authority:
locality reasonably convenient, for the purposes of
the claimants; or The Ecologically Sensitive Areas under the
Western Ghats Authority may also require judicial
(c) record an order, continuing to such claimants
capability for supporting Ecologically Sensitive Ar-
a right of pasture or to forest-overpage produce, as
eas.
the case may be, to the e tent so admitted, at such
seasons, within such portions of the proposed for- 18. Appeal under section 17.–(1) Every appeal
est, and under such rules, as may be made in this under section 17 shall be made by petition in writ-
behalf by the State Government. ing, and may be delivered to the Forest Settlement-
officer, who shall forward it without delay to the
16. Commutation of rights.–In case the Forest
authority competent to hear the same.
Settlement-officer finds it impossible having due
regard to the maintenance of the reserved forest, to (2) If the appeal be to an officer appointed un-
make such settlement under section 15 as shall en- der section 17, it shall be heard in the manner pre-
sure the continued exercise of the said rights to the scribed for the time being for the hearing of appeals
extent so admitted, he shall, subject to such rules in matters relating to land-revenue.
as the State Government may make in this behalf, (3) If the appeal be to the Forest Court, the
commute such rights, by the payment to such per- Court shall fix a day and a convenient place in the
sons of a sum of money in lieu thereof, or by the neighbourhood of the proposed forest for hearing
grant of land, or in such other manner as he thinks the appeal, and shall give notice thereof to the par-
fit. ties, and shall hear such appeal accordingly.
Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat (4) The order passed on the appeal by such offi-
Authority: cer or Court, or by the majority of the members of
Such problems created by Ecologically Sensi- such Court, as the case may be, shall, subject only
tive Areas may have to be dealt with by providing to revision by the State Government, be final.
a fund for this purpose. It may be possible to ear 19. Pleaders.–The State Government, or any
mark CAMPA funds for such purposes. person who has made a claim under this Act, may
17. Appeal from order passed under section 11, appoint any person to appear, plead and act on its
section 12, section 15 or section 16.–Any person or his behalf before the Forest Settlement-officer,
who has made a claim under this Act, or any For- or the appellate officer or Court, in the course of
est-officer or other person generally or specially any inquiry or appeal under this Act.
134
 25. Power to stop ways and water-courses in catches elephants in contravention of any rules so
reserved forests.–The Forest-officer may, with the made, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a
previous sanction of the State Government or of term which may extend to six months, or with fine
any officer duly authorised by it in this behalf, which may extend to five hundred rupees, or with
stop any public or private way or water-course in both, in addition to such compensation for dam-
a reserved forest, provided that a substitute for the age done to the forest as the convicting Court may
way or water-course so stopped, which the State direct to be paid.
Government deems to be reasonably convenient, Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat
already exists, or has been provided or constructed Authority:
by the Forest-officer in lieu thereof.
These conditions all apply to ESAs and require
Comment/Suggestions for the Western Ghat sensitive management to prevent conflicts with lo-
Authority: cal people. Similar rules will have to apply to Eco-
Similar issues would emerge from the notifica- logically Sensitive Areas that are not in Reserve
tion of Ecologically Sensitive Areas. Forest or Protected Forest, but are in malkilands.
This could create severe conflict issues which will
26. Acts prohibited in such forests.–(1) Any per-
have to be addressed if these areas are to be effec-
son who–
tively managed as Ecologically Sensitive Areas.
(a) makes any fresh clearing prohibited by sec- Compensation will require setting up a fund to be
tion 5, or distributed where local landowners will be affected
(b) sets fire to a reserved forest, or, in contraven- by creating ESAs.
tion of any rules made by the State Government in (2) Nothing in this section shall be deemed to
this behalf, kindles any fire, or leaves any fire burn- prohibit
ing, in such manner as to endanger such a forest;
(a) any act done by permission in writing of the
or who, in a reserved forest– Forest-officer, or under any rule made by the state
(c) kindles, keeps or carries any fire except at Government; or
such seasons as the Forest-officer may notify in this (b) the exercise of any right continued under
behalf, clause (c) of sub-section (2) of section 15, or cre-
(d) trespasses or pastures cattle, or permits cattle ated by grant or contract in writing made by or on
to trespass; behalf of the Government under section 23.

(e) causes any damage by negligence in felling (3) Whenever fire is caused wilfully or by gross
any tree or cutting or dragging any timber; negligence in a reserved forest, the State Govern-
ment may (notwithstanding that any penalty has
(f) fells, girdles, lops, or bums any tree or strips
been inflicted under this section) direct that in such
off the bark or leaves from, or otherwise damages,
forest or any portion there of the exercise of all
the same;
rights of pasture or to forest produce shall be sus-
(g) quarries stone, bums lime or charcoal, or col- pended for such period as it thinks fit.
lects, subjects to any manufacturing process, or re-
moves, any forest-produce;
FOREST CONSERVATION ACT, 1980
(h) clears or breaks up any land for cultivation or
WITH 1988 AMENDMENTS
any other purpose;
2. Restriction on the dereservation of forests or
(i) in contravention of any rules made in this be-
use of forest land for non-forest purpose.
half by the State Government hunts, shoots, fishes,
poisons water or sets traps or snares; or Notwithstanding anything contained in any
other law for the time being in force in a State, no
(j) in any area in which the Elephants’ Preserva-
State Government or other authority shall make,
tion Act, 1879 (6 of 1879), is not in force, kills or
135
except with the prior approval of the Central Gov- New Delhi, the 10th January, 2003
ernment, any order directing-
G.S.R.23(E):- In exercise of the powers conferred
(i) that any reserved forest (within the meaning by sub-section (1) of section 4 of the Forest (Con-
of the expression “reserved forest” in any law for servation) Act, 1980 (69 of 1980), and in superses-
the time being in force in that State) or any portion sion of the Forest (Conservation) Rules, 1981, ex-
thereof, shall cease to be reserved; cept as respects things done or omitted to be done
(ii) that any forest land or any portion thereof before such supersession, the Central Government
may be used for any non-forest purpose; hereby makes the following rules, namely:-

(iii) that any forest land or any portion thereof 6. Submission of the proposals seeking approval
may be assigned by way of lease or otherwise to of the Central Government under section 2 of the
any private person or to any authority, corporation, Act.-
agency or any other organisation not owned, man- (1) Every user agency, who wants to use any for-
aged or controlled by Government; est land for non-forest purposes shall make his pro-
(iv) that any forest land or any portion thereof posal in the appropriate Form appended to these
may be cleared of trees which have grown natural- rules, i.e. Form ‘A’ for proposals seeking first time
ly in that land or portion, for the purpose of using approval under the Act and Form ‘B’ for propos-
it for reafforestation. als seeking renewal of leases where approval of the
Central Government under the Act had already
Explanation - For the purpose of this section, been obtained earlier, to the concerned nodal of-
“non-forest purpose” means the breaking up or ficer authorized in this behalf by the State Govern-
clearing of any forest land or portion thereof for- ment, alongwith requisite information and docu-
(a) the cultivation of tea, coffee, spices, rubber, ments, complete in all respects, well in advance of
palms, oil-bearing plants, horticultural crops or taking up any non-forest activity on the forest land.
medicinal plants; Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
(b) any purpose other than reafforestation; thority:
but does not include any work relating or ancil- A similar clause will have to be developed for the
lary to conservation, development and management Ecologically Sensitive Areas in the Western Ghat.
of forests and wildlife, namely, the establishment (2) Every State Government or other authority,
of check-posts, fire lines, wireless communications after having received the proposal under sub-rule
and construction of fencing, bridges and culverts, (1) and after being satisfied that the proposal re-
dams, waterholes, trench marks, boundary marks, quires prior approval under section 2 of the Act,
pipelines or other like purposes. shall send the proposal to the Central Government
Comments and Suggestions for Western Ghats in the appropriate forms, within ninety days of the
Authority: receipt of the proposal from the user agency for
proposals seeking first time approval under the Act
This section of the Forest Conservation Act must
and within sixty days for proposals seeking renewal
be suitably modified and used for protecting ESAs
of leases where approval of the Central Govern-
from further degradation. It should not be possible
ment under the Act had already been obtained ear-
for State Governments to remove the Ecologically
lier:
Sensitive Area status once it has been created on
good scientific grounds. Provided that all proposals involving clearing
naturally grown trees in forest land or portion
thereof for the purpose of using it for reafforesta-
FOREST CONSERVATION ACT, 2003 tion shall be sent in the form of Working Plan or
Ministry of Environment and Forests Management Plan.

Notification (3) The proposal referred to in sub-rule (2) above,

136
involving forest land of more than forty hectare thority undertakes to provide at its cost for the ac-
shall be sent by the State Government to the Secre- quisition of land of an equivalent area and affores-
tary to the Government of India, Ministry of En- tation thereof.
vironment and Forests, Paryavaran Bhavan, CGO (3) While tendering the advice, the Committee
Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi-110 003, with a may also suggest any conditions or restrictions on
copy of the proposal (with complete enclosures) to the use of any forest land for any non-forest pur-
the concerned Regional Office. pose, which in its opinion, would minimise adverse
(4) The proposal referred to in sub-rule (2) above, environmental impact.
involving forest land up to forty hectare shall be Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
sent to the Chief Conservator of Forests or Conser- thority:
vator of Forests of the concerned Regional Office
of the Ministry of Environment and Forests. The Western Ghats Authority should receive a
specific mandate to study proposals and recom-
(5) The proposal referred to in sub-rule (2) above, mend necessary changes of landuse in the Western
involving clearing of naturally grown trees in for- Ghats
est land or portion thereof for the purpose of us-
ing it for reafforestation shall be sent to the Chief Action of the Central Government on the ad-
Conservator of Forests or Conservator of Forests vice of the Committee.– The Central Government
of the concerned Regional Office of the Ministry shall, after considering the advice of the Commit-
of Environment and Forests. tee tendered under rule 7 and after such further en-
quiry as it may consider necessary, grant approval
7. Committee to advice on proposals received to the proposal with or without conditions or reject
by the Central Government.-(1) The Central Gov- the same within sixty days of its receipt.
ernment shall refer every proposal, complete in all
respects, received by it under sub-rule (3) of rule 6 Proceedings against persons guilty of offences
including site inspection report, wherever required, under the Act.-
to the Committee for its advice thereon. (1) The Central Government may, by notifica-
(2) The Committee shall have due regard to all tion, authorize any officer not below the rank of
or any of the following matters while tendering its Conservator of Forests or the concerned forest of-
advice on the proposals referred to it under sub- ficer having territorial jurisdiction over the forest
rule (1), namely:- land in respect of which the said offence is said to
have been committed, to file complaints against
Whether the forests land proposed to be used for the person (s) prima-facie found guilty of offence
non-forest purpose forms part of a nature reserve, under the Act or the violation of the rules made
national park wildlife sanctuary, biosphere reserve there under, in the court having jurisdiction in the
or forms part of the habitat or any endangered or matter.
threatened species of flora and fauna or of an area
lying in severely eroded catchment; Provided that no complaint shall be filed in the
court, without giving the person (s) or officer (s) or
Whether the use of any forest land is for agricul- authority (s) against whom the allegations of of-
tural purposes or for the rehabilitation of persons fence exist, an opportunity to explain his or their
displaced from their residences by reason of any conduct and to show cause, by issuing a notice in
river valley or hydro-electric project ; writing of not less than sixty days, as to why a com-
Whether the State Government or the other au- plaint should not be filed in the court against him
thority has certified that it has considered all other or them for alleged offences.
alternatives and that no other alternatives in the (2) The officer authorised by the Central Gov-
circumstances are feasible and that the required ernment in sub-rule (1) may require any State Gov-
area is the minimum needed for the purpose; and ernment or its officer or any person or any other
Whether the State Government or the other au- authority to furnish to it within a specified period
137
any reports, documents, statistics and any other threatened by overuse, abuse or neglect, it shall is-
information related to contravention of the Act or sue directives to the concerned State Government
the rules made there under, considered necessary to take immediate ameliorative measures, offering
for making a complaint in any court of jurisdiction such State Government any technical and other as-
and every such State Government or officer or per- sistance that is possible to be provided or needed.
son or authority shall be bound to do so. Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- thority:
thority: The Western Ghat Authority will be responsible
Similar clauses to punish guilty individuals of for preventing threats affecting biological diversity
offences within the Ecologically Sensitive Areas within the Ecologically Sensitive Areas. Taking
will require to be formulated. these steps would require locale specific studies
and financial resources which should be provided
through the Planning Commission as a “Planned
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ACT, 2002 Budgetary Allocation for the Western Ghat”.
Several of the Ecologically Sensitive Areas are (3) The Central Government shall, as far as prac-
to be notified due to their high biodiversity values. ticable wherever it deems appropriate, integrate the
Relevant clauses of the Biological Diversity Act, conservation, promotion and sustainable use of
2002 would apply to the Ecologically Sensitive biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross
Areas. However, as these are applicable to specific sectoral plans, programmes and policies.
areas it may be essential to create modifications
4) The Central Government shall undertake
which may permit these to be used by the Western
measures,-
Ghat Authority in maintaining biological values of
the Ecologically Sensitive Areas. (i) wherever necessary, for assessment of envi-
ronmental impact of that project which is likely to
Biological Diversity Act- 2002
have adverse effect on biological diversity, with a
Duties of the Central and the State Governments view to avoid or minimize such effects and where
Central Government to develop National strate- appropriate provide for public participation in such
gies plans. etc., for conservation, etc., of biological assessment;
diversity Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
36.(1) The Central Government shall develop thority:
national strategies, plans, programmes for the con- Current EIAs give insufficient attention to bio-
servation and promotion and sustainable use of logical diversity values and possible threats. This
biological diversity including measures for identi- requires urgent attention in the Western Ghat-Eco-
fication and monitoring of areas rich in biological logically Sensitive Areas. The studies on biodiver-
resources, promotion of in situ, and ex situ, con- sity in the Ecologically Sensitive Areas for EIAs
servation of biological resources, incentives for re- must go beyond providing a list of species. Species
search, training and public education to increase richness, abundance studies on floral and faunal el-
awareness with respect to biodiversity. ements within and around the proposed project site
Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- must be include in EIAs that are to be conducted
thority in Ecologically Sensitive Areas. Once a proposed
project has been passed and implemented they
All these concerns are of great importance in the
must be regularly monitored for compliance by the
effective management of the Ecologically Sensitive
Western Ghats Authority.
Areas.
(ii) to regulate, manage or control the risks associ-
(2) Where the Central Government has reason
ated with the use and release of living modified or-
to believe that any area rich in biological diversi-
ganisms resulting from biotechnology likely to have
ty, biological resources and their habitats is being
138
adverse impact on the conservation and sustain- steps to rehabilitate and preserve those species.
able use of biological diversity and human health. Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
(5) The Central Government shall endeavor to re- thority:
spect and protect the knowledge of local people re-
lating to biological diversity, as recommended by The threatened endemic and rare species or those
the National Biodiversity Authority through such ESAs that have a limited range must be protected
measures, which may include registration of such under a similar legal clause. This will be one of the
knowledge at the local, State or national levels, and major activities under the Western Ghats Author-
other measures for protection, including sui generis ity.
system. Power of Central Government to designate re-
Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- positories
thority: 39.(1) The Central Government may, in consul-
A similar section must be developed for people tation with the National Biodiversity Authority,
living in and around the Ecologically Sensitive Ar- designate institutions as repositories under this Act
eas of the Western Ghat. for different categories of biological resources.

Biodiversity heritage sites (2) The repositories shall keep in safe custody
the biological material including voucher speci-
37.(1) Without prejudice to any other law for mens deposited with them.
the time being in force, the State Government may,
from time to time in consultation with the local (3) Any new taxon discovered by any person
bodies, notify in the Official Gazette, areas of bio- shall be notified to the repositories or any institu-
diversity importance as biodiversity heritage sites tion designated for this purpose and he shall de-
under this Act. posit the voucher specimens with such repository
or institution.
Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
thority: Comment/Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
thority:
The Ecologically Sensitive Areas would
benefit by using a similar clause as many of Similar consultation with the Western Ghats
the Western Ghat Ecologically Sensitive Ar- Authority should be used and State level research
eas will have areas of biological importance. organizations should be funded for biodiversity
(2) The State Government, in consultation with the conservation assessments by the Authority within
Central Government, may frame rules for the man- the selected ESAs. As the Western Ghats are po-
agement and conservation of all the heritage sites. tentially areas where new endemic species can be
(3) The State Government shall frame schemes for discovered, the Authority must have powers to de-
compensating or rehabilitating any person or sec- cide on activities related to the conservation of spe-
tion of people economically affected by such noti- cies both in situ and exsitu.
fication.
Power of Central Government to notify threat- MAHABALESHWAR AND PANCH-
ened species GANI ESA NOTIFICATION
38. Without prejudice to the provisions of any New Delhi 17th January, 2001
other law for the time being in force, the Central
S.O 52(E).– Whereas a notification under sub
Government, in consultation with the concerned
section (1) and clause (v) of sub section (2) of Sec-
State Government, may from time to time notify
tion 3 of the Environment Protection Act, 1986,
any species which is on the verge of extinction
inviting objection or suggestion against the notifi-
or likely to become extinct in the near future as a
cation notifying the Mahableshwar Panchgani as
threatened species and prohibit or regulate collec-
an Eco sensitive region and imposing restriction on
tion thereof for any purpose and take appropriate
industries, operations, processes and other devel-
139
opmental activities in the region which have detri- and other like places to non-green uses shall be per-
mental effect on the environment was published mitted in the Master Plan. The Master Plan shall
in S.O. No. 693(E) dated the 25th July, 2000; indicate measures and lay down stipulations for
regulating traffic, especially through traffic in the
And whereas all objections or/and sugges-
Eco sensitive zone.
tions received have been duly considered by the
Central Government The areas within and outside Mahableshwar
and Panchgani municipal areas shall have Sub-
Now, therefore, in exercise of the powers
Zonal Master Plans which may be prepared by the
conferred by clause (d) of sub-rule (3) of rule 5 of
State Government as a component of the Zonal
the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986, and all
Master Plan and concurrence of the Ministry of
other powers vesting in its behalf, the Central Gov-
Environment and Forests shall be obtained on
ernment hereby notify the Mahableshwar
this. This Sub-Zonal Master Plan shall include
Panchgani Region (as defined in the Government
building regulations for the gaothan areas.
of Maharashtra notification of 29th April, 1983
as an Eco Sensitive Zone. (Copy attached as An- Pending the preparation of and approval by the
nexure). The Region shall include the entire area Ministry of Environment and Forests to the Zonal
within the boundaries of the Mahableshwar Tehsil Master Plan and Sub-Zonal Master Plans referred
and the villages of Bondarwadi, Bhuteghar, Dan- to above, there shall be no increase in the existing
wali, Taloshi and Umbri of Jaoli Tehsil of the Sa- parameters of permissible Floor Area Ratio, per-
tara District in the Maharashtra state. missible height, permissible maximum number of
storeys and permissible ground coverage; and there
All activities in the forests (both within and out-
shall also be no reduction in the Forest Zone/
side municipal areas) shall be governed by the pro-
Green Zone/Agricultural Zone. Absolute height
visions of the Indian Forests Act, 1927 (16 of 1927)
of buildings shall not exceed 9 metres and number
and Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 (69 of 1980).
of storeys shall not exceed ground plus one.
All activities in the sanctuaries and national parks
shall be governed by the provisions of the Wildlife Industrial Units: -
(Protection) Act, 1972 (53 of 1972). Location of industries shall be only in the desig-
2.The following activities are proposed to be reg- nated industrial areas or estates and has to be as per
ulated in the Eco-Sensitive Zone. guidelines drawn up by the Government of Maha-
rashtra as well as the guidelines issued from time to
(a) Zonal Master Plan: -
time by the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
A Master plan for the entire Zone shall be pre- However this would not apply to all those units
pared by the State Government and approved by which have obtained Consent to establish and all
the Ministry of Environment and Forests in the other statutory permissions and have commenced
Government of India within a period of two years construction at site on or before the date of issue of
from the date of publication of this notification. this notification.
The Master Plan shall be published by following a
In future only non polluting non hazardous ser-
procedure similar to that prescribed under the Ma-
vice industries, units making footwear from pro-
harashtra Regional and Town Planning Act 1966.
cessed and ready made leather, floriculture, horti-
The Master Plan shall clearly indicate those limited
culture based or agro based industries producing
areas where industries may be permitted.
products from indigenous goods from the Eco Sen-
The said Master Plan shall clearly demarcate sitive Zone shall be permitted in this zone:
all the existing forests, green areas, horticultural
Provided that these do not result in polluting ef-
areas such as strawberry farms, raspberry farms,
fluent, emission or impact.
orchards, tribal areas, and other environmentally
sensitive areas. No change of land use from green Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au-
uses such as horticultural areas, agriculture, parks thority:

140
 This clause should be used for all ESAs in the Tourism :-Tourism activities shall be as per a
Western Ghats. Tourism Master Plan to be prepared by the De-
partment of Tourism of the State Government in
In the non municipal areas, the following shall
consultation with the Ministry of Tourism of Gov-
also be permitted:
ernment of India and approved by the Ministry
Larger dairy, poultry, mush-room-rearing and of Environment and Forests. The Tourism Mas-
other units in the nature of allied agricultural ac- ter Plan shall also form a component of the Zonal
tivities and structures connected therewith may be Master Plan.
allowed with the prior permission of the compe-
The Tourism Master Plan shall be based on a
tent authority subject to a maximum of 1/8th built
detailed Carrying Capacity Study of the Eco-Sen-
up area, relaxable by the Monitoring Committee.
sitive Zone, which may be carried out by the State
Structures connected with small agro-based in- Government and submitted to the Ministry of
dustries, activities related to the needs of the local Environment and Forests for approval within two
village economy, and processing or storage of local years of the date of this notification. All new tour-
agro-based products may be allowed subject to the ism activities, developments for tourism or expan-
usual “not agriculture” permission requirements sion of existing tourism activities shall be permit-
and a maximum built up area of 1/8th. ted only within the parameters of this tourism plan
Quarrying and Mining: - Quarrying and Min- or carrying capacity study. Till the Tourism Master
ing activities shall be banned in this area. No fresh Plan is submitted to Ministry of Environment and
mining lease shall be granted in the Eco Sensitive Forests for approval, new tourism activities and
Zone. However, the Monitoring Committee shall developments for tourism or expansion of existing
be the authority to give special permission for lim- tourism activities shall be permitted only after a de-
ited quarrying of materials required for the con- tailed analysis is carried out and approved by the
struction of local residential housing and tradition- Monitoring Committee subject to guidelines laid
al road maintenance work only; provided that such down by Ministry of Environment and Forests.
quarrying is not done on forestlands. Natural Heritage: - The sites of valuable natural
Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- heritage in the zone shall be identified, particularly
thority: rock formations, waterfalls, pools, gorges, groves,
caves, points, walks, rides etc. and plans for their
This is of great relevance to managing ESAs as
conservation in their natural setting shall be incor-
it constitutes a severe threat to large areas in the
porated in the Zonal Master Plan and Sub Zonal
Ghats in Maharashtra and Goa.
Master Plans. Strict guidelines shall be drawn up
Trees: -There shall be no felling of trees whether by the State Government to discourage construc-
on Forest, Government, Revenue or private lands tion activities at or near these sites including under
within the Eco-Sensitive Zone, without the prior the garb of providing tourist facilities. All the gene
permission of the State Government in case of for- pool reserve areas in the zone shall be preserved.
est land, and the respective District Collector in The State Government may draw up proper plans
case of Government, Revenue and private land, for their conservation or preservation within one
as per procedure which shall be prescribed by the year from the date of publication of this notifica-
State Government, provided that the District Col- tion. These plans shall form a part of the Zonal
lector shall not delegate this power to any subordi- Master Plan and Sub-Zonal Master Plans.
nate officer below the rank of Sub-Divisional Of-
Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au-
ficer.
thority:
Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au-
For all the ESAs a similar clause mentioning
thority:
the different categories of ESAs will be required to
A similar clause must apply to all ESAs in the minimize impacts on the ESAs.
Western Ghats.
141
 Man-made heritage: - Buildings, structures, ar-
tifacts, areas and precincts of historical, architec-
tural, aesthetical, and cultural significance shall
be identified and plans for their conservation, par-
ticularly their exteriors (and wherever deemed ap-
propriate their interiors also) shall be prepared and
incorporated in the Zonal Master Plan and Sub-
Zonal Master Plans within one year from the date
of publication of this notification. Guidelines may
be drawn up by the State Government to regulate
building and other activities in the Zone, particu-
larly in Mahableshwar and Panchgani municipal
limits and in Kshetre Mahableshwar, so that the
special character and distinct ambience of the
towns and the eco sensitive zone is maintained.
Development or construction activity at or
around heritage sites (both natural and man-made)
shall be regulated in accordance with the Draft
Model Regulations for Conservation of Natural
and Man-made Heritage formulated by the Minis-
try of Environment and Forests in 1995 as amended
from time to time and circulated to all State Gov-
ernments and Union territory Administrations.
Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au-
thority:
This is a very crucial set of Regulations that
should be reviewed , modified as necessary and
implemented so that natural heritage enrichment
within the ESAs are protected for posterity.
Ground Water: - Extraction of ground water
shall be permitted only for the bona fide agricul-
tural and domestic consumption of the occupier of
the plot. Extraction of ground water for private
industrial/commercial/residential estates/com-
plexes shall require prior permission from the State
Ground Water Board. No sale of ground water
shall be permitted except with prior approval of the
Monitoring Committee.
(j) Use of plastics: - The use of plastics within
the Eco Sensitive Zone shall be regulated by the
Monitoring Committee.
(k) Protection of Hill Slopes: - The Master Plan
shall indicate areas on hill slopes where construc-
tion shall not be permitted.
Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au-
142
thority:
Clearly spelled out rules in this regard must be
provided. The current method of using bull dozers
to show that the land was flat must be curtailed by
the strictly observing that no heavy machinery can
be used without proper authorisation in the ESAs.
(l) Discharge of effluents: - The discharge of any
untreated effluent is prohibited within the Eco Sen-
sitive Zone. No effluent, either treated or untreat-
ed, shall be permitted to be discharged into water
body/s and water source/s within the zone.
Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au-
thority:
This is of great relevance as new townships have
been permitted within the Western Ghats.
(m) Solid Wastes: - The local authorities shall
draw up plans for the segregation of solid wastes
into biodegradable and non-biodegradable compo-
nents. The biodegradable material may be recycled
preferably through composting or vermiculture;
the inorganic material may be disposed of at envi-
ronmentally acceptable locations. It is clarified that
the term solid wastes include domestic, industrial,
commercial and garden wastes.
3 (a)The Government of India shall constitute a
High Level Monitoring Committee to ensure com-
pliance with the provisions of this notification.
Besides the above provisions of the notification,
the monitoring committee shall have the powers
to regulate and control noise pollution within the
Eco sensitive zone. The monitoring committee
shall also have powers to regulate traffic especially
through traffic within the Eco sensitive zone; once
the Master Plan is approved by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests in Government of India
such regulation shall be in conformity with the pro-
visions of the Master Plan. The monitoring com-
mittee shall include representative(s) of the Minis-
try of Environment and Forests, Central pollution
Control Board and at least two representatives of
non-government organisations working in the field
of environment (including heritage conservation)
(to be nominated by the Ministry of Environment
and Forests, Government of India). The member-
ship of the committee including Chairman shall
not exceed ten.
 (b) It shall be the duty of the Monitoring Com- region for the purpose of the said Act to be named
mittee to file complaints under section 19 of the as the “ Mahableshwar Panchgani Region” which
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 if offences un- shall include the entire area within the boundaries
der the said Act come to its notice. of Mahableshwar Tehsil and villages of –
(c) The Committee or any officer or member (1) Bondarwadi
of the Monitoring Committee authorised by the (2) Bhuteghar
Committee shall be authorised to file complaints
under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. (3) Danwali

Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- (4) Taloshi

thority: (5) Umbri
Similar powers should be provided to the West- Of Jaoli Tehsil of Satara District in the
ern Ghats Authority to be able to transparently Maharashtra State. A Copy of the plan showing
protect the selected and prioritized ESAs boundaries of Mahableshwar Panchgani Region
4. In exercise of the powers conferred by sub- showing the area included as aforesaid is available
section (3) of section 3 of the Environment (Pro- for inspection at offices of the following officers
tection) Act, 1986, read with section 23 of the said namely:
Act, the Ministry of Environment and Forests, (1) The Director of Town Planning, Ma-
Government of India empowers the Urban Devel- harastra State, Pune
opment Department, Government of Maharash-
(2) The Collector of Satara
tra and the High Level Monitoring Committee to
discharge the functions specifically enumerated (3) The Tahasildars of Mahableshwar
in this notification and to do all things incidental and Jhaoli
thereto, (except the functions as are required to be (4) The Municipal Council, Mahablesh-
performed by the Central Government under the war
provisions of the Environment Impact Assessment
(5) The Municipal Council, Panchgani
notification of 27th January, 1994 as amended
from time to time). (6) The Assistant Director of Town Plan-
ning, Satara
Provided that in respect of functions delegated
under this notification, an appeal from any order By Order and in the Name of the Governor of
shall lie to the Ministry of Environment and For- Maharashtra
ests. Sd/-R.B. DONALD, Dy. Secy.
[File No. J-20011/7/98/IA-III] A. Area of Mahableshwar Panchgani Region
Dr. V. Rajagopalan, Jt. Secy. = 237.28sq. kms
Annexure B. Of the above
Urban Development Department (1) Mahableshwar Municipal Area
= 19.55 sq. kms
NOTIFICATION
(2) Panchgani Municipal Area
Bombay the 29th April 1983
= 6.16 sq. kms
Maharashtra Regional and Town Planning
(3) Gaothans outside Municipal limits
Act, 1966. -No. TPS. 1982/4507 (a)-UD 7: In ex-
= 0.95 sq. kms
cersise of powers conferred by sub-section (1) of
Section (3) of Maharashtra Regional and Town C. Residential Zone outside Municipal limits
Planning Act, 1966 (Maharashtra XXXVII of = 1.66 sq. kms
1966) (herinafter referred to as “the said act”), to D. Forest Zone
Government of Maharashtra, hereby establishes a
143
 = 123.96 sq. kms thority:
E. Green Zone The two townships at Sahara and Lavasa have
= 83.72 sq. kms tracts of forest even though they may not be noti-
fied as Reserve Forest. Any land having a signifi-
Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au-
cant tree cover and even degraded scrubland capa-
thority:
ble of being restored to a natural forest ecosystem
Each ESA category will require careful demar- aught to be treated as forest and township develop-
cation with a notification by the concerned State ment in such areas must be banned. Both the town-
Government. ships have been developed in the catchment areas
of dams.

MAHARASHTRA REGIONAL AND However on such notified townships no develop-

TOWN PLANNING ACT 1966 ment zone for such special township may include
private land under Hill tops and Hill slopes zones
The Government of Maharashtra has created a
in Pune Metropolitan Region as well as Hill tops
schedule for developing ‘Special townships’ in the
and hill slopes outside Pune Metropolitan Region,
area under Pune regional Plan. The proposal was
whether earmarked on Regional Plan or not and
first suggested in 2002. This was finalized in 2004.
afforestation zones.
The area requirements were as follows:
Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
Quote – thority:
Area Requirement: Any suitable area preferably Both Lavasa and Sahara include hill slopes which
vacant having sufficiently wide means of access were covered in natural vegetation and/or Kumri
not less than 18m wide can be identified for the cultivation before being converted into townships.
purpose of development as special township.
The area of lands in such Hill –Tops and hill
Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- slopes zones and afforestation zones shall be maxi-
thority: mum 40% of the gross area and such area shall be
There is no definition of the word suitable. Ar- included in part of 50% area to be kept permanent-
eas that contain high biological values and are eco- ly open where no development activity shall be per-
logically fragile are NOT suitable for township de- missible under such townships. The said areas shall
velopment. Thus most of the western ghats are not be thickly developed for tree plantation as per the
suitable for developing such townships. norms specified above. However, for the purpose
of calculation of PSI, such areas shall be excluded.
The area under the special township shall not
be less than 40 ha (100 acres0 at one place, which Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
shall not include the area under forest, water bod- thority:
ies. Like river, creek canal, reservoirs, lands falling Plantations are not a substitute for highly diverse
within the belt of 100 mt from the HFL of major natural vegetations which covers there fragile hill
lakes, dams and its surrounding areas, lands in the slopes. This has been destroyed during the develop-
command area of irrigation project, land falling ment of these townships.
within the belt of 200 mt from the historical monu-
1.4 Environment: The development contemplat-
ments and places of archeological importance,
ed in townships shall not cause damage to ecology,
Archeological monuments, Heritage precincts,
proposed industrial zone, gaothan areas or con- Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
gested areas, truck terminus specially earmarked thority:
on regional plan, wildlife corridors and biosphere The development has destroyed ecology of the
reserves. region without a shadow of doubt.
Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- Environmental clearance shall be obtained from
144
the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Gov- thority:
ernment of India as per directions issued by the The amount of relaxation provided for these
MOEF’s notification dated 7th July 2004. The townships to be developed in ecologically fragile
township shall provide at least 20% of the total lands having enormous biological importance has
area as park/ garden/ playground as mentioned in amounted to a violation of good principles of land
4(f) below , with proper landscaping and open uses management. The seven relaxations indicate that
designated in the Township shall be duly developed there is a vested interest in creating these townships
by owner/ developer. The amenity shall be open to with complete disregard for norms of good land
general public free of cost. use policies as set out in 1.1 of this document itself.
Eco-friendly amenities like solar water heating
for the township shall be mandatory.
NATIONAL WATER POLICY 2002
2. Special Concessions:
IN RELATION TO THE LAKES AND
(a) N.A. Permission: Non-agriculture permission CATCHMENTS
will be automatic. As soon as the scheme is noti-
Government of India
fied, lands notified under Special Township area as
per 1.2 will be deemed to have been converted into Ministry of Water Resources
non-agriculture and no separate permission is re- New Delhi
quired. Non-agricultural assessment however will
April, 2002
commence from the date of sanction of schemed
as per regulation no 6(c). Institutional Mechanism
(b) Stamp Duty: The stamp duty rates applicable 4.1 With a view to give effect to the planning,
in Notified Special Township area shall be 50% of development and management of the water re-
prevailing rates of the Mumbai Stamp Act. sources on a hydrological unit basis, along with a
multi-sectoral, multi-disciplinary and participatory
(c) Grant of Government Land: Any Govern-
approach as well as integrating quality, quantity
ment land failing under townships area shall be
and the environmental aspects, the existing insti-
leased out to the developer.
tutions at various levels under the water resources
(d) Relaxation from Mumbai Tenancy and Agri- sector will have to be appropriately reoriented /
culture Land Act: The condition that only the agri- reorganised and even created, wherever necessary.
culturist will be eligible to buy the agriculture land As maintenance of water resource schemes is un-
shall not be applicable in special township area. der non-plan budget, it is generally being neglected.
(e) Ceiling of agriculture land: There shall be no The institutional arrangements should be such that
ceiling limit for holding agriculture land to be pur- this vital aspect is given importance equal or even
chased by the owner/ developer for such project. more than that of new constructions.

(f) Exemption from Urban Land (Ceiling and Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
Regulation) Act, 1976: Special Township Projects thority:
will be exempted from the purview of Urban Lend The suggested institutional mechanism in the
( Ceiling and Regulation) Act , 1976. National Water Policy2002 has been consistently
(g) Scrutiny Fee: A Special Township Project disregarded in the Western Ghats by developing
shall be partially exempted from payment of scru- townships, roads etc.
tiny fee being levied by the Collector / Planning 4.2 Appropriate river basin organisations should
Authority for processing the development proposal be established for the planned development and
on certain terms and conditions as may be decided management of a river basin as a whole or sub-ba-
by the Collector/ Planning Authority. sin s, wherever necessary. Special multi-disciplin-
Comment/Suggestion for Western Ghats Au- ary units should be set up to prepare comprehen-
sive plans taking into account not only the needs of
145
irrigation but also harmonising various other water
uses, so that the available water resources are deter-
mined and put to optimum use having regard to ex-
isting agreements or awards of Tribunals under the
relevant laws. The scope and powers of the river
basin organisations shall be decided by the basin
states themselves.
Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
thority:
River basin management for tributaries of the
rivers in the Western Ghats has been neglected.
GUIDELINES FOR NATIONAL LAKE
CONSERVATION PLAN
May 2008
FOREWORD
Ministry of Environment and Forests has been
implementing the National Lake Conservation
Plan (NLCP) since 2001 for conservation and
management of polluted and degraded lakes in
urban and semi-urban areas. The major objectives
of NLCP include encouraging and assisting state
Governments for sustainable management and
conservation of lakes.
Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
thority:
The lakes and backwaters in the Western Ghats
have been seriously neglected. These are corridors
for preserving biological diversity and the defores-
tation due to housing development, urbanization,
and road construction has seriously impacted the
longterm viability. The National Lake Conserva-
tion Pan has NOT been adhered in the lakes of this
region.
Lakes being major sources of accessible fresh
water, require well planned, sustainable and scien-
tific efforts to prevent their degradation and ulti-
mate death.
NLCP has attempted to learn from its experi-
ence in the field for making improvements in the Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
existing system of project formulation and imple- thority:
mentation. This document attempts to help the
proponents in proper prioritization of lakes based impacted by developing roads and urban develop-
on scientific selection criteria. It lays down guide- ment.
lines for preparation of detailed project reports
and focuses upon the responsibilities of the State
Governments to work in close partnership with the
Government of India in protection, conservation
and sustainable management of lakes. It is hoped
that State Government will find the revised guide-
lines useful. Their committed implementation will
immensely improve the prospects for protection
and conservation of lakes.
The preparation of these guidelines is the result
of excellent team work. I would like to acknowl-
edge the contributions made by Dr. M. Sengupta,
Advisor, Dr. (Mrs.) R. Dalwani, Director and Shri
S. K. Srivastava, Deputy Director, NRCD (MoEF)
who have worked with great dedication and devo-
tion in preparation of this document.
(R.H.Khwaja)
Additional Secretary & Project Director
3.0 ACTIVITIES COVERED UNDER NLCP
Prevention of pollution from point sources by
intercepting, diverting and treating the pollution
loads entering the lake. The interception and diver-
sion works may include sewerage & sewage treat-
ment for the entire lake catchment area.
(i) In situ measures of lake cleaning such as de-
silting, de-weeding, bioremediation,
aeration, bio-manipulation, nutrient reduction,
withdrawal of anoxic hypolimnion, constructed
wetland approach or any other successfully tested
eco-technologies etc depending upon the site con-
ditions.
Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
thority:
The areas where townships have been developed
are unsuitable as they are potential impacts on the
ecological integrity of the lakes.
(ii) Catchment area treatment which may in-
clude afforestation, storm water drainage, silt traps
etc.
These are catchments which have been further
146
 (iii) Strengthening of bund, lake fencing, shore- Lakes of the Western Ghats must be categorized
line development etc. as being the first to be prioritized to maintain their
ecological integrity. Lakes under the TATA Power
1 Unique fresh water ecosystems shall cover
company have a large number of Mahaseer which
lakes that are unique entities of incomparable val-
is highly endangered.
ues and need to be preserved & conserved e.g. high
altitude lakes, Lonar lake Maharashtra etc. 4.2 In order to identify polluted and degraded
lakes across the country, a study was carried out
Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
by the Ministry at the instance of Planning Com-
thority:
mission, vide which 62 lakes were identified across
All the lakes and their catchments in the West- the country for conservation. This list was sent to
ern Ghats under this category of unique entities as all State Governments for amendment and finalisa-
the valleys have a variety of forest systems and en- tion keeping in view the state priority and the jus-
demic species. tification for their inclusion in the priority list. The
(iv) Lake front eco-development including pub- state priority and justification for such a selection
lic interface. needs to be a part of the proposal for consideration
under NLCP. In view of the prevailing dynamic
(v) Solid waste management & provision of dho-
situation, states may revise the priority list at an
bi ghats is generally not covered under NLCP.
interval of 5 years covering different geographic re-
(vi) Prevention of pollution from non-point gions of
sources by providing low cost sanitation.
7.0 LEGAL SUPPORT & POLICY FRAME-
(vii) Public awareness and public participation. WORK
Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- The Lakes & Wetlands are presently not covered
thority: by any specific legal statute but several legislations
No public awareness or participatory manage- enacted till date have relevance & provisions for
ment has been done. Instead there are sites which conservation of lakes. Some of these are:
are to be developed into urban settings without any The Forest Conservation Act, 1980, The Wild-
regard for the ecology of this series of lakes within life Act, 1972, The Water (Prevention & Control
the Ghats. of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Environment
(viii) Capacity building, training and research in (Protection) Act, 1986. Besides these, some of the
the area of Lake Conservation. States have individual State level legislations for
protection & conservation of their lakes & water
Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au- bodies. The National Environment Policy (NEP),
thority: 2006 also seeks for setting up of a legally enforce-
No such capacity building has been carried out. able regulatory mechanism for lakes & wetlands to
prevent their degradation and enhance their con-
(ix) Any other activity depending upon location
servation. Till any specific regulatory framework
specific requirements.
for lakes & wetlands is formulated, the Lake Con-
4.0 PRIORITIZATION OF LAKES servation may be covered under the provisions of
4.1 While the causes of degradation of lakes are existing Central and State Legislations (Box.2)
many, in view of the limited resources available, it Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
is not possible to take up all degraded lakes for con- thority:
servation under NLCP. It is, therefore, necessary to
Even though these legal provisions exist the
prioritize lakes along with the catchments, where
catchments of lakes in the Western Ghats have
conservation programmes need to be taken up first.
been persistently violated.
Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
Existing legal provisions
thority:
147
 1. The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollu- Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
tion) Act, 1974 as amended deals comprehensively thority:
with water issues. It empowers the Government Conversion for agriculture and more importantly
to maintain the wholesomeness of National Wa- human settlements (special townships) has serious
ter Bodies. The Act also provides for prohibition long-term implications and violates the provisions
on use of stream (includes inland water whether of the NEP(2006).
natural & artificial) or well for disposal of pollut-
ing matter etc. It enables the Government through
Central & State Pollution Control Boards to pre-
scribe standards and has provisions for monitoring
& compliance and penal provisions against the vio-
lators of the Act.
2. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
defines the power of the Central Government to
take measures to protect and improve environment
which includes water, air and land and the inter re-
lationship which exists among and between water,
air and land and human beings, other living crea-
tures, plants, micro organisms and property.
Comment/ Suggestions for Western Ghats Au-
thority:
The EPA has been violated in spirit by a series
of development activities within the catchments
of the Western Ghats. This includes provisions for
developing bridges across the ecologically sensitive
Mulshi Lake to facilitate more traffic to the new
township of Lavasa.
The National Environment Policy (NEP), 2006,
recognises the ecological services rendered by the
water bodies like lakes & wetlands. The NEP states
that wetlands including lakes are under threat from
drainage and conversion for agriculture & human
settlements besides pollution. The reduction in eco-
nomic value of their environmental services due to
pollution, as well as the health costs of the pollu-
tion itself, are not taken into account while using
them as a waste dump. The NEP identifies an Ac-
tion Plan for these water bodies which importantly
include formulation of conservation & prudent use
strategies, integration of wetland and lake conser-
vation into sectoral development plans for poverty
alleviation and livelihood improvement, formula-
tion of eco-tourism strategies prove multi stake-
holders partnership and above all setting up of a
legally enforceable regulatory mechanism for these
water bodies.

148
 CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION

T
he ESAs in the Western Ghat are expected ed by mining, roads, new townships, new tourists
to minimize further environmental degra- centers, etc., all of which add to a longterm loss in
dation, project ecological and biological as- their quality of life’. The cash they received for the
settes and preserve social justice. sale of their lands was frequently too small and has
been filtered away.
While permitting sustainable development
trends in the Ghats. This can only be achieved by The economic growth in the region has been
having different sets of norms for each ESA cate- through only a fraction of what has gone out
gory depending on a combination of their ecologi- through unsustainable development at the local
cal value, threat levels and conservation status. level.
The issues to be considered such as land use, bio- While the issues related to the unsustainability
diversity, water, forest which are all to be concerned of current regional development strategies in the
within the three pillars of unsustainable or sustain- Western Ghat is well known to ecologists and so-
able use under an umbrella of good governance. cial scientists as well as government line agencies
and business, it is not clear to local people. Few at-
One of the key concerns is the societal concerns
tempts have been made to bridge this gap in knowl-
where poverty has been a major factor in unsus-
edge. Examples include BVIEER school environ-
tainability of the region. Added to this is the stress
ment program in the Mawal and Mulshi Talukas
induced by an increase in inequity which deters
done a few years ago through funding from Tata
the quality of life of local citizens. They now see
Power Company. Several posters, CD ROMS, and
Lavasa and Sahara as a coveted way of life. They
other educational material have been developed by
have sold their land, been deprived of their tradi-
NGOs and Government agencies which have had
tional source of livelihood – their land, and now
a limited use in the region itself.
feel deprived. They see their forests lands degrad-
149
 Much more needs to be done for local pub-
lic awareness through local schools and colleges
on the ecology fragility and need for sustainable
knowledge based initiatives in the region which
should become a primary focus for the Western
Ghat Authority.

150
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