GENERAL CHEMISTRY

By: Jewel Kate R. Garcia

Chapter 1: Matter, Change, and Measurement

Lesson 1 – Matter and Its Properties
Lesson 1.1: Particle Nature of Matter

Kinetic Particle Theory

● Matter is particulate in nature. Made up of tiny particles with empty spaces between them.
● Particles are atoms in constant random motion and attractive forces exist between them.

Primary Particles
- Protons, neutrons, and electrons

Subatomic Particles
- Quarks and bosons

Matter
● Major component/ physical and tangible stuff of the universe
● Anything that occupies space and has mass

Lesson 1.2: States of Matter

1. Solid
● Definite shape and volume; Particles are arranged properly
● Not easily compressible; no free spaces
● Rigid particles locked into place

2. Liquid
● Definite volume, changeable shape ; BUT volume can be changed with pressure
● Assumes the shape of the container and retain their volume
● Not easily compressible; little free space
● Flows easily; Particles move and past one another

3. Gas
● Changeable shape and volume; Assumes the shape of the container and its volume
● Compressible; no spaces
● Flows easily; Rigid particles move past one another
 4. Plasma
● Contains enormous amount of energy; Gaseous mixture of positive ions and electrons
● Common state of matter in the universe
● Excited and energized that some electrons break free from, but travel with their nucleus
● Examples:
○ Lighting
○ Fusion and Fission Reaction of Stars = Solar Flares
○ Auroras - atmospheric disturbance caused by presence of low density plasma
■ Aurora Borealis (northern lights); Aurora Australis (southern lights)
Gas to Plasma
● By ionization with enormous amount of energy
○ Neutral atoms convert to charge particles (ions)

● Magnetic Field - Interacts with the gasses in the atmosphere and heat of the sun

5. Bose-Einstein Condensates
● Predicted by Satyendra Bose and Albert Einstein (1920)
● Cornell and Weiman; created the condensate (1995)
● Condensate: Gas molecules come together and condense (liquid)
● Molecules get denser or packed close together
● An atom that are super unexcited and super cold atoms; opposite of Plasma
● Examples:
○ Superconductors - allows flow of current without resistance
○ Superfluid - Flows without friction (Helium)

Lesson 1.3: Properties of Matter

Based on the identity of the substance

1. Physical Properties
● Properties that no substance is added
● Without changing the identity and composition of the matter/substance

a. Extensive Physical Property

● Depends on the amount of the matter/substance
1. Mass - The amount of molecules of matter in an object
2. Volume - cubic meter; space that a substance occupies
3. Length - longest dimension of an object
4. Shape
5. Area - amount of two dimensional surface in a plane
6. Weight - How heavy an object is; Force in relation with the gravity; Newton
 b. Intensive Physical Property
● Consistent; The same regardless of the amount of matter/substance
1. Density - mass over volume
2. Color - pigment or shade
3. Conductivity -electricity to flow through the substance
Silver - excellent conductor of electricity
4. Malleability - if the substance can be flattened
Metallic
5. Brittleness - tendency to break under stress
6. Ductility
Can be drawn into wires without breaking
7. Hardness - how resistant a solid matter to external force
8. Melting Point - solid to liquid
9. Boiling Point - liquid to gas
10. Freezing Point - liquid to solid
11. Luster - light interacts with the surface of crystal, mineral, or rock
12. Specific heat - Heat capacity per unit mass of a material

2. Chemical Properties
● Another substance is added
● Potential to undergo some chemical change or reaction of the identity of a substance

a. Reactivity - ability of matter to chemically combine with another chemical

1. Air
2. Acid
3. Base
4. Water
5. Other chemicals

b. Flammability - ability of a chemical to burn or ignite, causing fire or combustion

Elements:
1. Fuel - hydrocarbon
2. Oxygen
3. Heat
Lesson 1.4: Changes in Matter

1. Physical Change
● Same types of compounds or elements
● No bonds are broken or formed
1. Change in state
1. Evaporation - liquid to gas
2. Condensation - gas to liquid
3. Deposition - gas to solid (snow)
4. Sublimation - solid to gas
2. Separation of a mixture
3. Physical deformation - cutting, denting, stretching
4. Making solutions - special kinds of mixtures

2. Chemical Change
● Bonds are broken and/or formed between molecules or atoms
● Harder to reverse

1. Exothermic Process - Release heat of your system

2. Endothermic Processes - Absorbs heat

1. Law of conservation of energy

○ Any physical or chemical process, energy is neither created nor destroyed
○ Entire energy in the universe is observed
○ Reactive and reactant are equal
2. System
○ Specific portion of matter that is being studied during an experimentation
3. Surroundings
○ Everything in the universe that is not part of the system; vicinity within a room
Lesson 2 – Classification of Matter
Lesson 2.1: Pure Substance

1. Pure Substance
● Substance that contains only one kind of matter, fixed and definite set of properties
● Can be either single element or single compound
● Cannot be separated by physical means

a. Elements
● Composed of one type and single kind atom
● Simplest form of matter; Found in periodic table of elements
○ 118 known elements (92 are naturally occurring)
● Classified into metals, non-metals, and metalloids

b. Compounds
● Contains two or more types of atoms in whole
● Substances made from atoms of different elements joined by chemical bonds
● Water, Salt, Nitrogen Gas
Lesson 2.2: Mixture
1. Mixture
● When you combine two or more materials
● Does not produce a chemical reaction
● Can be separated by physical means

a. Homogeneous
● Appear uniform to the eye; Single phase
● Solutions: Salt water and atmospheric Air
● Gas mixtures, solutions, alloy

b. Heterogeneous
● Not uniform; don't have identical composition
● More than one phase of matter
● Uses a mechanical method to separate
● Dispersed particles can be separated from a dispersed medium
 1. Suspensions
○ Some particles settle out of the mixture upon standing; Larger particles
○ Separation and layering because of their density
○ Will not remain uniformly distributed if they are not actively being mixed

2. Colloid
● Dispersed particles are intermediate in size; Between a solution and suspension
● Particles are spread evenly throughout a dispersion medium which can be solid, liquid, or
gas
● Average gap of density; Not large particles; Don't settle
○ Sol
○ Aerosol
○ Emulsion
○ Foam

3. Coarse Mixture
● Particles can be separated mechanically
● Salads and food preparations

Lesson 2.2: Methods of Separating Mixtures

Heterogenous Mixture
1. Filtration
● Suspension; Filter Paper
● Filtrate (liquid) passes the paper; Residue (solid) left

2. Decantation
● Pour the liquid and the solid stays at the bottom

3. Flotation
● Removal of suspended particles either by sedimentation or coagulation

4. Magnetic Separation
● Magnet is used to separate a magnetic substance from a non-magnetic substance

5. Centrifugation
● Centrifuge is the instrument used
● Separate solids from liquids or two immiscible liquids on the basis of density

6. Mechanical Separation
● Substances in a mixture is separated by picking them out
● Use of hands or thong
Homogeneous Mixture
1. Evaporation
● Separate dissolved solid from a liquid.
● Dissolved liquid must be heat-stable

2. Chromatography
● Separates components of mixture based on ability of each component to be drawn across the
surface of another material
● Check if it is toxic to kids

3. Simple distillation
● Separating two miscible liquid without decomposition and have sufficient difference in their boiling
points

4. Fractional Distillation
● Separation of a mixture of two or more miscible liquids for which the difference in boiling points is
less than 25K.
● Fractional column is fitted in between the distillation flask and condenser

5. Crystallization
● To obtain or formation of pure solid particles (crystals)
● Evaporation then residue will be filtered and the filtrate will form crystallizations

6. Fractional Crystallization
● Lowering the temperature of solutions so that more metal components crystallize out first.
● Solid is filtered out and the same process is repeated until no more solid crystallizes.
Lesson 3 – Scientific Measurements

Lesson 3.1: Measurements

Quantity
● An amount of something and consists of a number and a unit
● Number: How many or how much
● Unit: Scale of measurement

1. SI Units (System International d'Unites)

● International System of Units is widely used all over the world
● Modern form of the Metric System based number 10 for convenience
● Prefixes indicate whether the unit is a multiple or a fraction of the base 10

Mass - the amount of matter in an object (SI - kilograms ; Chemistry - grams)

Weight of an object is equal to the force of gravity on the object.
Temperature - hotness or coldness of an object
 2. Imperial System
● The British Imperial - ruled from 16th to 19th century
● American government kept this type of measurement

Derived Units
- Combination of the seven fundamental SI units.
- Example
- Speed = distance divided by time
- Density = mass over volume
- Specific Gravity - ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference
substance

Devices for Measuring volumes of Liquid

- Graduated cylinder, syringe, dropper, burette, beaker, pipette, volumetric flask
Lesson 3.2: Precision and Accuracy

The degree of error depends on the measuring instrument and the person who takes the measurement.

Two ways of checking errors.

a. Accuracy - how close the observed value is to the "true value"

b. Precision - spread in values obtained from measurements; Reproducibility of values

Lesson 3.3: Significant Figures

● Method used to express Accuracy and Precision
● Certain digits are whole numbers; Uncertain digits are decimal numbers
● Number of significant digits is independent of the decimal point

Rules in Determining the Number of Significant Figures

1. All non-zero digits are significant
● 127 m, 8.35 m, 0.467 m
2. Captive Zeros are significant
● Zeros between nonzero digits
● 1005 cm, 20.35 cm, 3.807 cm
3. Leading zeros are not significant
● Indicates the position of the decimal point (placeholder)
● Write in scientific notation to get rid of the zeros
4. Trailing Zeros are significant if decimal
● Zeros at the end of a number to the right of the decimal point
5. Trailing Zeros are not significant for whole number
● Serves as placeholder to show magnitude of the number

Numbers and Significant Figures

Calculated values: no. of significant figures should be consistent with the data used in calculation
1. Multiplication and Division
● Factor with the fewest significant figures will be the same with the answer.
2. Addition and Subtraction
● Answers must be expressed with the same number of decimal places as the number with the
least number of decimal places.

Lesson 1.3.4: Scientific Notation

● Method to express really big or small numbers
● Can be used to clearly express significant figures

Rules:
1. Larger than 1 - positive; move to the right
2. Smaller than 1 - negative ; move to the left
Chapter 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Compounds
Lesson 1 – Atomic Theory and Subatomic Particles

Lesson 2.1.1: Search for Atoms

Atom
- Literal meaning “indivisible”

Leucippus
- Conceived and developed the idea of atom

Democritus
- Student of Leucippus
- Atoms were indivisible, indestructible, and the smallest particle of matter.
- Atoms differ in shape, size, weight, sequence, and position
- Refuted the idea of Empodocles that the world is composed of air, earth, fire, and water

Isaac Newton
- Revived the study of atoms; Seventh Century
- Conceived that light is made up of “corpuscles” but a theory that light is waves later

Lesson 2.1.2 Dalton's Atomic Theory

● John Dalton (1766-1844); English Chemist and Physicist
● Theory based on 150 yrs investigation: Robert Boyle, Joseph Priestley, and Anton Lavoisier

Four Hypotheses or Postulates

1. Matter is composed of tiny, indivisible spheres called atoms
2. Atoms of the same element are identical but atoms of one element are different from those of all other
elements
3. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number ratios to form compounds
4. Atoms cannot be created nor destroyed during a chemical change. Atoms of one element cannot be
changed into atoms of different elements

Lesson 2.1.3 Law of Conservation of Mass

● States that the total mass in any chemical or physical change does not change.
● Number of substance and property may change but total amount of matter remains constant
● Same number in reactant and product
Lesson 2.1.4 Law of Definite Composition
● Formulated by Joseph Proust; French chemist
● When elements combine to form compounds in definite proportion (fractions) by mass
● Mass fraction = dividing the mass of the element by the total mass of the compound
● Percent mass is the mass fraction expressed as a percentage

Molecular Mass
1. Atomic mass (periodic table whole number)
2. Number of atoms

Lesson 2.1.5 Law of Multiple Proportion

● States that if two elements (A and B) combine to form different compounds, different masses of
one element (B) that combine with fixed mass of another element (A) can be expressed as a ratio
of small whole numbers such 1:2, 3:4 and so on.

Lesson 2.1.6 Cathode Rays and Electrons

● Relationship between matter and electric charges; Static electricity (discovery of electrons)
● Application of atomic theory
○ Glasses rubbed with silk/ plastic with wool forms positive and negative charges
○ Alessandro Volta, Humphrey Davey, Michael Faraday

Electrolysis - decomposition of charges or breakdown of charges

William Crookes (1832-1919)

● English chemist
● Used a power vacuum pump to nearly evacuated glass tubes fitted with metal electrodes, then it was
connected to an external source of electricity. He noticed a flash of light or "ray" coming from negative
electrode (cathode) and moving to the positive electrode (anode)

Joseph John Thomson

● And other scientists suggested the existence of negatively charged particles which were later called
electrons

George Stoney
● Used the term electron to describe the charge of a single unit of electricity (1874)

Properties of Cathode Rays

1. Cathode rays travel from negative to positive electrodes in straight lines
2. Rays are deflected by magnetic and electric fields
3. Rays possess kinetic energy.Objects placed along its path cast a shadow
4. Nature of the rays does not change regardless of the kind of metal wires, and the materials used to
produce current. Thomson concluded that electrons are part of all atoms
Oil Drop Experiment
● Robert Millikan Experiment (1908-1917)
● Allowed him to determine the charge of a single electron

Thomson's Plum Pudding Model

● Electrons is enclosed in a positively charged matter

Lesson 2.1.7 Radioactivity

X-rays
● In 1895, Wilhelm Rontgen discovered a highly energetic rays that could penetrate matter
● Could not be deflected by a magnet and did not consist of charged particles like cathode ray

Henri Becquerel
● In 1896, a French physicist
● Associated x rays with fluorescent materials (uranium ore)

Marie Curie & Pierre Curie

● Coined the term "Radioactivity"
● Isolate the radioactive components of uranium, rhodium, and polonium
○ Any material that continuously emits radiation is said to be radioactive

Ernest Rutherford
● Identified the different types of radiation
a. Alpha rays - positive charge of +2
b. Beta rays - negative charge and attracted
to positive charged plate

Paul Villard
c. Gamma rays - electromagnetic radiation
of extremely high penetrating properties

Note: Chemical properties of a radioactive element change as it undergoes radioactive decay

Lesson 2.1.8 The Nucleus

- Ernest Rutherford explained that the few positively charged alpha particles that bounced back at large
angles collided with very tiny but concentrated mass of positive charge
- Protons must be concentrated in a small region called the nucleus and electrons are
distributed in the space outside the nucleus of the atom.
- Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden (students of Rutherford)

James Chadwick
- Neutron (uncharged particle) that mass is equal to a proton
- Revised Rutherford’s model and proposed that the nucleus contains protons and neutrons
Lesson 2.1.9 Atomic Numbers and Mass Numbers
Atomic Number
● Number of protons in an atom
● Protons and electrons the same number

Atomic mass
● Number of protons and the number of neutrons

Lesson 2.1.10 Isotopes

● Forms of the same atom that differ only in their number of neutrons
● Have the same atomic number (protons) but different mass number (protons and neutrons)
● They are naturally occurring isotopes and artificially produced

Lesson 2.1.11 Molecules and Ions

Molecules
● Neutral particles made of two or more atoms bonded together
○ Monoatomic (1 atom)
○ Diatomic (2 atoms)
○ Polyatomic (3+ atoms)

Ion
● An atom or molecule with a positively or negatively charge
○ Cation - positively charge (loses electrons); Metals
○ Anion - negatively charge (gains electrons); Non-metals

Lesson 2 - Chemical Names and Formulas

Compounds
● Pure substances composed of two or more atoms

1. Ionic Compound
● Ionic Bond
○ Complete transfer of electron from one ion to another to achieve stability of the molecules

2. Molecular Compound (Covalent Compound)

● Covalent Bond
○ Sharing of electrons
a. Polar - Unequal sharing
b. Non-Polar - Equal sharing
Lesson 2.2.1 Chemical Names and Formulas

Chemical Formula
● Representation of the atoms of elements of molecular and ionic compound
● Includes:
1. Type of Atoms (Symbol of Elements)
2. Number of Atoms (Molecular Formula)
3. Ratio of Atoms (Empirical Formula)
4. Arrangement of Atoms (Structural Formula)

1. Molecular Formula
● Shows the kinds and exact number of atoms present in a molecule of a compound
○ Subscripts indicate the number of atoms

2. Empirical Formula
● Lowest whole-number ratio of the element in a compound
● Chemists use this to determine an unknown compound

3. Structural Formula
● Gives us information about the way atoms are connected to one another;
● 2 Dimensional Arrangement

Visual representations of a molecule or compound (Models)

1. Ball-and-Stick Model
● 3D Arrangement of atoms and bonds between them

2. Space-Filling Model
● 3D spheres of the atoms held together
● Emphasizes the force and Overlapping of atoms

Determining Empirical Formula

Rounding Off Final Ratios for Empirical Formula

● If you get 0.01, 0.001, or 0.99 of anything, round up to the nearest whole number

● If it’s a recognizable decimal such as 0.33, 0.66, 0.5, 0.25 etc. Find a number you could multiply
to the ratio to be whole number

● Complete transfer of electron from one ion to another to achieve stability of the molecules
Rules in Determining Empirical Formula

1. Evaluate if the given is in Percentage Composition or Grams

2. Assume a 100 gram sample.

○ Percentage Composition multiply to 100.

3. Number of Moles
○ Use the molar mass components
○ 1 mole = Mass in periodic table

4. Ratio of Moles
○ Use the lowest number obtained to divide to the other moles
○ Follow the rules in rounding off final ratios

5. Empirical Formula
○ Formulate the Empirical Formula

Determining Molecular Formula

Rules in Determining Molecular Formula

1. Determine the Empirical Formula and Mass of Empirical Formula

○ Given
2. Divide the Mass of the Molecular Formula by the Mass of Empirical Formula to get the
Formula Units
○ Compute individual masses (Mass x Number of atoms) then find the sum.

3. Multiply the Formula Units by the Empirical Formula

Lesson 2.2.2 Charged Particles

Naming Molecular Compounds

(Binary)
1. Use prefixes for both elements to indicate the number of atoms for each element present.
○ If there is only 1 atom in the first element, drop the prefix "mono-"
2. Add suffix "-ide" to the root name of the second elements
3. When two vowels appear next to each other such as "oo" and "ao", the vowel from the
prefix is dropped
○ Pentaoxide = Pentoxide
Naming Ionic Compounds

Chapter 3: Chemical Stoichiometry

Lesson 1 – The Mole
Lesson 3.1.1 Atomic Mass
● Sum of the number of protons and neutrons found in the Periodic Table
● Used to find average mass of elements and molecules
● To solve stoichiometry problems
● Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

Lesson 3.1.1 Formula Mass and Molecular Mass

1. Formula Mass
● Sum of the atomic masses of ionic compound
○ Mass of element x Number of atoms
● Chemical Formula have metallic element
● Atomic Mass Unit (amu)
 2. Molecular Mass
● Sum of the atomic masses of molecular or covalent compounds
○ Mass of element x Number of atoms
● Organic and Hydrocarbons (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen)
● Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

Lesson 3.1.3 The Mole

International Committee for Weights and Measures

● Group that defines the metric system's units of measurements
● One mole as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of Carbon-12
○ Avogardro's Number in honor of Amedeo Avogadro (19th Century)

Lesson 3.1.4 Molar Mass

1. Molar Mass
● Any substance in grams per mole
● Equal to the mass of substance expressed in amu
○ 38 g/mol = 38 amu

Lesson 3.1.5 Calculations Using the Mole Concept

Lesson 3.1.6 Percent Composition

Lesson 2 - Chemical Reactions
Lesson 3.2.1 Chemical Equations
- Short way of describing chemical reactions sing symbols of elements and formula of compounds
Reactant - Substance that undergoes chemical reaction
Product - Substance that is produced
● Reactants yields products

Chemical reaction rate

- Speed at which a chemical
Reaction occurs

Activation energy
- External energy that has to be
added in order for chemical
reaction to occur.

Catalyst
- Substance that helps a chemical
reaction to occur, but does not
participate in the reaction itself

Lesson 3.2.2 Balancing Chemical Equations

- Apply the law of conservation of mass
- Place an appropriate number (coefficient) before the symbol or formula of the substance

Guidelines
1. Write equations using correct formula for all reactants and products
2. Check that the number of each kind of atom on both sides of the equation is the same. Consider
a polyatomic ion as group of unchanged unit
3. Balance the equation one element at a time. Only the coefficients can be changed.
4. Check if all the coefficients are in whole numbers and lowest ratio.
a. If fractions, multiply all coefficients by the same number

Lesson 3.2.2 Types of Chemical Reaction

1. Combination reaction
● Synthesis reaction
● Two or more substances combine together to form a single new substance
● General Form: A + B -> AB
● Ex: Two elements combining to form a compound
○ 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2NaCl(s)
 2. Decomposition Reaction
● A compound breaks down into two or more simple substances; separate
● Requires an input of energy in the form of heat, light, or electricity
● General Form: AB -> A + B
● Ex: Binary compounds (simplest kind of decomposition)
○ Composed of just two elements and it decomposes into its elements
○ 2HgO(s) -> 2Hg(l) + O2(g)

3. Single Replacement Reaction

● One element replaces similar element in a compound
● General Form: A + BC -> AC +B
● Ex: When an element is more reactive (metal)
○ Mg(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq) -> Mg (NO3)2(aq) + Cu(s)

4. Double Replacement Reaction

● Positive and negative ions of two ionic compounds exchange places to form two new compounds
● General form: AB + CD -> AD + CB
● Ex: A and C are cations while B and D are anions
○ Occur between aqueous solutions; one of the products is a solid precipitate, gas or
molecular compound (water)
○ 2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) -> 2KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)

5. Combustion Reaction
● A substance reacts with oxygen gas, releasing energy in a form of light and heat
● Must involve O2 as one reactant produces water vapor
● Occur with hydrocarbon, acts as a fuel (C3H8 - Propane: common in gas grills)
● Products are always carbon dioxide and water

Predicting the Product

● Don’t forget to balance the equation after predicting

1. Combustion Reaction
- Product will always be Oxygen and Water

2. Combination Reaction
- Recall ion charge and cross multiply. Don’t forget lowest term
a. Metal oxide + 𝐶𝑂2 → Metal carbonate
b. Metal oxide + H2O → Metal hydroxide

3. Decomposition Reaction
a. Metal carbonate (heat)→ CO2 + metal oxide
b. Metal hydroxide (heat) → H2O + metal oxide
 4. Single Replacement Reaction
a. Metal acids → Metal and Non metal + H2
5. Double Replacement
- Cation to Cation ; Anion to Anion

Lesson 3.3.1: Stoichiometry

- Greek for “measuring elements”
- Calculations of the quantities in chemical reactions, based on a balanced equation

Stoichiometric Relationships
a. Mass-Mole
b. Mole-Mass
c. Mass-Particle
d. Particle-Mass

● Molecular compounds made up of nonmetals molecules. (Diatomic elements)

● Ionic compounds made up of metal and nonmetal, made of formula units.

Mole Unit Factors

● 1 mol = 6.02 x1023 particles
● 1 mol = molar mass
● 1 mol = 22.4 L at STP for a gas

Lesson 3.3.2: Limiting Reagent

- The one you run out first
- Determines how much product you can make
- Makes the least amount of product

Excess reagent
- One you have left over
Lesson 3.3.3:Concept of Yield

Yield
- Amount of product made in a chemical reaction

Types of Yield
1. Actual Yield
- What you actually get in the lab when the chemicals are mixed

2. Theoretical Yield
- What the balanced equation tells should be made
- Always larger than actual yield due to
a. Impure reactants
b. Competing side reactions
c. Loss of product in filtering or transferring between containers
d. Measuring

3. Percent Yield
- Ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield as percent
- Measures the efficiency of the reaction
- Tells us how efficient a reaction is; Cannot be bigger that 100%
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑥 100

Chapter 5: Electronic Structure of Atoms

Lesson 1 – Revisiting the Atom
Lesson 3.1.1 Atomic Mass
● Properties of visible light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation led to the electronic
structure of atoms

Amplitude - Height
Frequency - How fast a wave completes a cycle upward and downward motion per second
Wavelength - Distance between two successive peaks of wave

Electromagnetic radiation
- Travels through a vacuum at the speed of light (2.998x108 m/s)
- Occurs in all frequencies

Max Planck
- Proposed that energy is absorbed and emitted in discrete aunts or individual packets called
quanta (quantum)
Albert Einstein
- Used Planck’s theory to explain the photoelectric effect.
- Proposed that light consists of quanta of energy which behave like tiny particles of light, he called
the energy quanta photons.

Line Spectrum
- Consist of discrete lines of color which can be used like fingerprints to identify the element

Niels Bohr
- Used the line spectra to explain specific energy within the atom

Louis de Broglie
- Discovered the wave nature of matter which initiated the development of a new mathematical
description of electron configuration.

Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

- Explained the impossibility of simultaneously measuring the momentum and location of an
electron

Erwin Schrodinger
- Devised the quantum mechanical model of an atom which described as electrons as waves exist
in quantized energy levels

Orbitals
- Regions in space around the nucleus where electrons are most likely to be found
- Have various shapes
- Labeled as: 𝑠, 𝑝, 𝑑, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓
- Each principal energy level or shell consist of these orbitals

Electron Configuration
- Manner in which electrons are arranged around the nucleus of an atom
a. Aufbau Principle
- Sequence in which orbitals are filled
b. Pauli Exclusion Principle
- A maximum of only two electrons can occupy an orbital
c. Hund’s Principle
- Explains that electrons pair up only after each orbital in a sublevel is occupied by a
single electron