1.

2
Ultrastructure
of cells
 At the end of this presentation…
• Homework, lots of homework!
• Unit test
• Project
 Understandings

• Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without

compartmentalization.
• Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure.
• Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light
microscopes.
 Applications and skills
• Applications:
– Structure and function of organelles within exocrine
gland cells of the pancreas and within palisade
mesophyll cells of the leaf.
– Prokaryotes divide by binary fission.
• Skill:
– Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells
based on electron micrographs.
– Drawing of the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells based
on electron micrographs.
– Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify
organelles and deduce the function of specialized
cells.
 Essential idea: Eukaryotes have a much more complex cell structure
than prokaryotes

Left: Highly magnified view (2000x) of human pus

showing white blood cells (called neutrophils) with
deeply-lobed purple nuclei. The minute paired dots
(red arrow) are diplococcus gonorrhea bacteria
(Neisseria gonorrhoeae). Each dot (coccus bacterium)
is only about 0.5 micrometers in diameter. Some of
the neutrophils have ingested the bacteria through
phagocytosis. Right: A culture of rod-shaped anthrax
bacteria (Bacillus anthracis). Some of the bacteria
have divided by binary fission (red arrow).

https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/lmexer1.htm
At the end of this presentation, you will
have to present an edible model of an
organelle….

• A scale model of any of these:

– A mitochondrion
– A chloroplast
– A nucleus

• See the rubrics in Google

Classroom
https://microbe.net/simple-guides/fact-sheet-rrna-in-evolutionary-studies-and-environmental-sampling/
 Cells

Eukaryotic Prokaryotic
cells cells

Animal Plant
Acheans Bacteria
cells cells
Prokaryotes

Image: Hospital-associated MRSA by NIAID on Flickr http://flic.kr/p/a4RLq5

 Bacteria
• Bacterial cells are very small, about 1-2µm
in diameter and 10 µm long.
• Prokaryotic cells feature three major
shapes: rod shaped, spherical, and spiral.
• Its reproduction is very simple
 Achaea
• Are organisms that share some characteristics with bacteria and others with
eukaryotes,
• Genetic studies have indicated that Achaea are more closely related
to eukaryotes than to bacteria
• The Achaea may be aquatic or terrestrial microorganisms.
• They exhibit a diversity of shapes, including spherical, rod like, and spiral forms.
• Can survive in various extreme conditions, including very hot or salty
environments.
• Some Achaea require oxygen, whereas others do not.

Basic Archaeal Shapes :

• At far left, a coccus form with
numerous flagella attached to
one side.
• At left center, a lobed coccus
form lacking flagella.
• At right center, a
short bacillus form without
flagella.
• At far right, an elongate bacillus
form.

https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/archaea/archaeamm.html
Taken from the Campbell and Reece Biology, p. 566
 Achaean were first found in extreme environments,
such as volcanic hot springs.
Pictured here is Grand Prismatic Spring of Yellowstone
National Park.
 What is the difference between these
two houses?

https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivo:Choza_de_cachanilla_2.jpg https://www.loveproperty.com/gallerylist/77728/the-biggest-mansions-in-
america-will-make-your-head-spin
Prokaryotes
“Before nucleus:” evolutionary precursors to eukaryotes.

Escherichia coli (E. coli) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli

Prokaryotic Cell Parts
mesosome

cell wall
plasma membrane

pili
cytoplasm

nucleoid

ribosomes

flagella

Prokaryotic cell parts are not generally

membrane-bound, so we don’t refer to
them as organelles.
Cell structures animation:
http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/cell_structure/cell_structure.swf
 Prokaryotic Cell Parts
Mesosome: permeable boundary that allows entry and exit of
nutrients and waste
cell wall: protective protein-based coating (Gram + / Gram -)
plasma membrane: selectively permeable, controls entry & exit of
materials to and from the cell.
pili: attach to other bacteria for DNA transfer

cytoplasm: contains enzymes for metabolic reactions

nucleoid: closed-loop of bacterial DNA in a condensed area

ribosomes: protein synthesis (transcription & translation)

flagella: whiplash-like motion causes movement

Cell structures animation:

http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/cell_structure/cell_structure.swf
Past-paper question: E. coli TEM image

Identify these structures: Calculate the magnification of the image.

I.
II.
III.
IV.

Image from IB Biology QuestionBank CDRom – get a copy here: https://store.ibo.org/biology

Past-paper question: E. coli TEM image

Identify these structures: Calculate the magnification of the image.

I. Plasma membrane
II. Cell wall / pili
III. Nucleoid
IV. Cytoplasm / ribosomes
1. Measure the scale bar in mm.
2. Multiply x 1000 to convert to μm.
That is the magnification.
How long is the bacterium?

Image from IB Biology QuestionBank

PROKARYOTES
E
through
P
R
O binary fission
D two-parts splitting
U
C
E
PROKARYOTES
E through
P
binary fission
R
O The closed-loop DNA of the
bacterium makes copies
D through DNA replication.

U New plasmids are pulled to opposing

poles by the spindle fibers.

C
E The bacterium divides in two.
Prokaryotes divide by binary fission.

Life cycle of E. coli from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli

Picture taken from:
https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=3&brch=73&sim=208&cnt=1
Eukaryotes
Life with a nucleus

Image: Hela Cell nuclei via http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HeLa_cells_stained_with_Hoechst_33258.jpg

 Endosymbiotic theory
Homework

Research time!
Research and answer the following questions:
Don’t forget MLA
1. What is the Endosymbiotic theory?
2. Who was the first scientist to mention it? citations in your
3. When did she do it? research:
4. How did she discover this theory? Both, works cited and in-text
citations!
5. How can endosymbiosis be proven?
 Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic
cells have:
• Genetic information stored in the
form of DNA
• Cell membrane
• Ribosomes
• Cytoplasm

ribosomes
 Prokaryotic cell structure
• Capsule - Found in some bacterial cells, this additional outer covering
protects the cell when it is engulfed by other organisms, assists in
retaining moisture, and helps the cell adhere to surfaces and nutrients.
•
Cell Wall - Outer covering of most cells that protects the bacterial cell
and gives it shape.
•
Cytoplasm - A gel-like substance composed mainly of water that also
contains enzymes, salts, cell components, and various organic
molecules.
•
Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane - Surrounds the cell's cytoplasm
and regulates the flow of substances in and out of the cell.
•
Pili - Hair-like structures on the surface of the cell that attach to other
bacterial cells. Shorter pili help bacteria attach to surfaces.
•
Flagella - Long, whip-like protrusion that aids in cellular locomotion.
•
Ribosomes - Cell structures responsible for protein production.
 An e-coli bacteria

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O4H0tH7oBtY
 Bacteria
• Bacterial cells are very small, about 1-2µm
in diameter and 10 µm long.
• Prokaryotic cells feature three major
shapes: rod shaped, spherical, and spiral.
• Its reproduction is very simple

Simulator:
http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/bactc
ell_js.htm
 70S, 80S RIBOSOMES
Sedimentation describes how quickly particles settle
down when a force, such as a centrifuge or gravity,
acts on them. Thus, sedimentation is a way of
describing small particles, so they used this quality
to differentiate between ribosomes.

The names of these particles derives from their

sedimentation rates when a solution containing
ribosomes was layered over a sucrose concentration
gradient and subjected to centrifugation

The S stands for Svedberg unit. The Svedberg unit is

technically a measure of time, it is defined as exactly
10-13 seconds . Basically, 70S and 80S ribosomes
have different sedimentation coefficients meaning it
takes a different amount of time to form a pellet
when centrifuged.

Prokaryotes have a 70S ribosome, made up of a 30S

ribosomal subunit and a 50S ribosomal subunit.
Eukaryotes have an 80S ribosome, made up of a 40S
ribosomal subunit and a 60S ribosomal subunit.
 Eukaryotic cells

Eukaryotic
cells

Animal Plants Protists Fungi

Basic structures
• The cytosol or intra
cellular fluid (ICF)
or cytoplasmic
matrix is the liquid
found inside cells.
• The contents of
a eukaryotic
cell within the cell
membrane, and the
cell nucleus and
other organelles are
referred to as the
cytoplasm.
 Extracellular material
• Tissues are not made up solely of
cells. A substantial part of their
volume is extracellular space, which
is largely filled by an intricate
network of macromolecules
constituting the extracellular matrix
• This matrix is composed of a variety
of proteins and polysaccharides that
are secreted locally and assembled
into an organized meshwork in close
association with the surface of the
cell that produced them.
 Organelles (little organs)

• Very small (Microscopic)

• Perform various functions for a cell
• Found in the cytoplasm
• May or may not be membrane-bound

50
Animal Cell Organelles
Plant Cell Organelles
 Cell Membrane in Plants
Cell membrane
• Lies immediately
against the cell wall
in plant cells
• Pushes out against
the cell wall to
maintain cell shape

57
 Cell Wall Cell wall

• Nonliving layer
• Found in plants, fungi, &
bacteria
• Made of cellulose in
plants

58
 Cell Wall
• Supports and protects
cell
• Found outside of the cell
membrane

59
 Cytoplasm of a Cell
cytoplasm
• It is the space between the
cell membrane and the
nuclear membrane
• Contains a jelly-like substance
enclosed by cell membrane
• Provides a medium for
chemical reactions to take
place
• Contains organelles to carry
out specific jobs
• Found in ALL cells
60
The Control Organelle - Nucleus
• Controls the normal
activities of the cell
• Contains the DNA in
chromosomes
• Bounded by a
nuclear envelope
(membrane) with pores
• Usually the largest
organelle
61
 More on the Nucleus
Nucleus

• Each cell has fixed

number of
chromosomes that
carry genes
• Genes control cell
characteristics
62
 Nuclear Envelope
• Double membrane surrounding
nucleus
• Also called nuclear membrane
• Contains nuclear pores for
materials to enter & leave nucleus
• Connected to the rough ER

Nuclear
pores

63
 Inside the Nucleus -
The genetic material (DNA) is found

DNA is spread out DNA is condensed & wrapped

And appears as around proteins forming
CHROMATIN THE CHROMOSOMES
in non-dividing cells in dividing cells

64
Nucleolus

• It is the site of
ribosome
assembly
• A nucleus
contains at least
one nucleolus
(plural nucleoli)
 Centrioles
• Found only in animal cells
• Paired structures near
nucleus
• Made of bundle of
microtubules
• Appear during cell division
forming mitotic spindle
• Help to pull chromosome
pairs apart to opposite
ends of the cell

• Plants do not have these structures because

they do not need them
• They have a microtubule system that does
the job

66
 Centrosomes and centrioles
• In animal cells, microtubes grow out from a centrosome near
the nucleus
• In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles, each
with nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring
 Centrioles and centrosomes
• The green cylinders in the left-most image are individually
called centrioles, and initially they are connected by a
short linker (dotted line) in early G1.
• Each of these centrioles can undergo duplication, that is, a
new daughter centriole can form at the base of the older
(mother centriole) in late G1/early S-phase, and the
daughter centrioles go on to elongate by G2.
 The chromosome

http://biology.tutorvista.com/cell/chromosomes.html
 Centromeres and kinetochores
• A centromere is part of the
region on the chromosome that
links the two sister chromatids
together. This consists of the
total DNA in that region and
various proteins associated
with that region, including
the kinetochore.
• The kinetochore is a large
protein complex that forms on
centromeric DNA. This complex
is essential for attaching to the
spindle fibers that originate
from the centrosomes.
 Kinetochore

http://study.com/academy/lesson/kinetochore-definition-structure.html
 Kinetochore structure

http://study.com/academy/lesson/kinetochore-definition-structure.html
https://www.thoughtco.com/kinetochore-definition-373543
• Telomeres are the
caps at the end of Telomeres
each strand of DNA
that protect our
chromosomes, like the
plastic tips at the
end of shoelaces.
• Without the coating,
shoelaces become
frayed until they can
no longer do their job,
just as without
telomeres, DNA
strands become
damaged and our cells
can’t do their job
https://www.tasciences.com/what-is-a-telomere/
 Mitochondrion
(plural = mitochondria)
• “Powerhouse” of the cell
• Generate cellular energy (ATP)
• More active cells like muscle
cells have MORE mitochondria
• Both plants & animal cells have
mitochondria
• Site of CELLULAR RESPIRATION
(burning glucose)

76
Mitochondrion

• Very characteristic
shape
• Double membrane
• Shows cristae
 Endoplasmic Reticulum - ER
• Endo means within the cytoplasm, reticulum means a
network
• Network of hollow (empty) membrane tubules called the
cisternae
• Connects to nuclear envelope & cell membrane
• Functions in Synthesis of cell products & Transport

Two kinds of ER ---ROUGH & SMOOTH 78

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)

• Has ribosomes on its

surface
• Proteins are made by
ribosomes on ER surface
• They are then threaded
into the interior of the
Rough ER to be modified
and transported
• Has also the function of
producing phospholipids
and cell membrane
79
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Smooth ER lacks
ribosomes on its surface
• Is attached to the ends
of rough ER
• Makes cell products that
are USED INSIDE the cell
• Has a function of
detoxification in the cell

80
The endoplasmic reticulum

https://vimeo.com/152402057
 Ribosomes

• Made of PROTEINS and rRNA

• “Protein factories” for cell
• Join amino acids to make proteins
• Process called protein synthesis

→
85
Where are the Ribosomes?
Can be attached to
Rough ER

Unattached in the
cytoplasm OR

Also can be at the

nucleus, reading the OR
DNA code

In the nucleolus
OR
where they are
synthesized 86
 Golgi Bodies/apparatus
Look like a stack of pancakes

Modify, sort, & package

molecules synthesized in
the ER or in any other
part of the cell for
storage OR transport out
of cell
87
Golgi Animation

Materials are transported from Rough ER

to Golgi to the cell membrane by VESICLES88
 Lysosomes
• Contain digestive enzymes
• Break down food, bacteria,
and worn out cell parts for
cells
• Programmed for cell death
(AUTOLYSIS)
• Lyse (break open) &
release enzymes to break
down & recycle cell parts)
89
 Lysosome Digestion

• Cells take in
food by
phagocytosis
• Lysosomes
digest the food
& get rid of
wastes

90
 Cilia & Flagella
• Made of protein tubes
called microtubules
• Function in moving cells,
in moving fluids, or in
small particles across the
cell surface

91
 Cilia & Flagella

• Cilia are shorter

and more
numerous on
cells
• Flagella are
longer and fewer
(usually 1-3) on
cells

92
Cell Movement with Cilia &
Flagella

93
 Vacuoles
• Fluid filled sacks
for storage
• Small or absent
in animal cells
• Plant cells have a
large Central
Vacuole
• No vacuoles in
bacterial cells

94
 Tonoplast
• A tonoplast is the membrane that surrounds the
large vacuole in a mature plant cell.
• We get the name 'tonoplast' from Greek, which
translated looks something like 'tone, tension,
stretching, and molded.
• It gives the “tone” to the vacuole because it presses
the vacuole against the cell membrane, giving
structure to the cell
 Contractile Vacuole
• Found in unicellular
protists like paramecia
• Regulate water intake by
pumping out excess
(homeostasis)
• Keeps the cell from lysing
(bursting)

Contractile vacuole animation

96
 Transport vesicles

◎ Transport vesicles
are little sacs that
bud off one
organelle
compartment and
fuse with another.
◎ Transport vesicles
move molecules
between locations
inside the cell for
example, proteins
from the rough
endoplasmic
reticulum to the
Golgi apparatus.
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1CkJBLOXF6oKAgJxCjUc4BSABrw6cmcEg
/view
 Chloroplasts
• Found only in producers
(organisms containing chlorophyll)
• Use energy from sunlight to make
own food (glucose)
• Energy from sun stored in the
Chemical Bonds of Sugars

98
Chloroplast

Look for the

structures that
give the shape
and the
function to the
chloroplast
 Cytoskeleton
• A web of proteins in the cell
• Work like our skeleton keeping the cell together and
letting it move
• It can be made out of structures that have different
shapes, filaments or microtubules for example

Worksheet 3 and 4 due for signature now!

 Video on the plant cell

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rmgf0VDDlH8&feature=emb_logo
 Complete this table by explaining what each organelle is.
At least 16 organelles should be in your table

Name of the organelle Function Animal or plant? In prokaryotes or eukaryotes? Membrane bound?
Video on Models, before you do your
models…..

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gn26g5RFXpQ&list=SPllVwaZQkS2rtZ
G_L7ho89oFsaYL3kUWq&index=3
Animal
Cells
Identify the labeled structures in this liver cell TEM image.

Calculate:
• The magnification of the image
• The maximum diameter of the nucleus HOMEWORK
Print it and label it
Source: http://www.udel.edu/biology/Wags/histopage/empage/empage.htm
Plant
Cells
 Drawing of a liver cell

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QS7g7RMeCvU
Similarities and differences between
animal and plant cell
• Any graphic organizer to illustrate the
differences and similarities

Plant Animal
cell cell
 CELL TURGIDITY
The state of being swollen, especially due to high fluid content (water).

Turgidity is essential in plant cells to make them keep standing upright. Plant cells
that lose much water have less turgor pressure and tend to become flaccid.
http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Turgidity

• A flaccid cell has no

turgidity
• Turgor pressure causes
the plasma membrane
to press against the cell
wall
 Extracellular material

• Material found outside the cell

• Provides support for the cells,
both biochemically and
structurally
• Contains minerals and water
• In animal cells (extracellular
matrix)
• Gel like substance secreted by
the cell
• Proteins
• Glycoproteins
• In plant cells http://apbiocellorganelles.weebly.com/ecm.html

• Cell wall mainly

 Plasmids

• A plasmid is a small DNA molecule within a cell that is physically

separated from a chromosomal DNA and can replicate
independently.
• They are most commonly found in bacteria as small, circular,
double-stranded DNA molecules.
• In nature, plasmids often carry genes that may benefit the
survival of the organism, for example antibiotic resistance.
• While the chromosomes are big and contain all the essential
information for living, plasmids usually are very small and
contain only additional information.
• Artificial plasmids are widely used as vectors in molecular
cloning, serving to drive the replication of recombinant (new)
DNA sequences within host organisms.
The Universality of the genetic code
 Plasmids and the production of insulin
Bacteria producing human
insulin

• A vector is a DNA molecule that is used as a vehicle to carry

the gene of interest into a foreign cell
• Bacterial plasmids are commonly used as vectors because
they are capable of autonomous self-replication and
expression

This is possible due to the

universality of the genetic code Picture taken from:
 NAKED DNA
Naked DNA is histone-free DNA
• Endocrine cells produce (synthesize)
substances that go to the blood
stream (mainly hormones)
• Exocrine cells synthesize substances
that do not go to the blood stream
 Glycogen granules
Glycogen is a polymer of glucose that serves as a form of energy
storage in some cells, can be found in the form of granules in the
cytosol of some cells, especially in muscle, liver, and other organs
that need to store energy for later use, they are also found in the
adipose tissue.
WORKS CITED