PHYS 122:

Electricity and Magnetism,

Vibrations and waves
Lecture 1
Current, Resistance, and Electromotive Force

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Lecture Outline
• Current
• Resistivity
• Resistance
• Electromotive force and circuits,
• Energy and power in electric circuits
• Theory of metallic conduction.

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Current
• Current is the rate at which charge flows through a cross-sectional area of a conductor.
• If ∆Q is the amount of charge that passes through this area (A) in a time interval ∆t, the average current 𝐼𝑎𝑣
is equal to the charge that passes through A per unit time:
∆Q
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = ……………………………………………….(1)
∆t
• If the rate at which charge flows varies in time, then the current varies in time; we
define the instantaneous current I as the differential limit of average current:
𝜕𝑄
𝐼≡ …………………………………………………………………………..(2)
𝜕𝑡
• The SI unit of current is the ampere (A)
1𝐶
1𝐴 =
1𝑠
That is, 1 A of current is equivalent to 1 C of charge passing through the surface
area in 1 s.

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Resistance and Ohm’s Law
• When a voltage (potential difference) ∆V is applied across the ends of a metallic conductor as in
Figure below, the current in the conductor is found to be proportional to the applied voltage; I α ∆V .
• If the proportionality holds, we can write ∆V = IR, where the proportionality constant R is called the
resistance of the conductor.
• Resistance of a conductor , R is the ratio of the voltage across the conductor to the current it carries.

∆𝑉
𝑅≡ ……………………….. Ohm’s Law
𝐼

• Resistance is measured in Ohms (Ω), named after Georg Simon

Ohm (1789–1854)
• Materials that obey Ohm’s law are said to be Ohmic while those that do not obey it are called Nonohmic.

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Ohm’s Law: Examples
Example 1. The plate on a certain steam iron states that the iron carries a current of 6.40 A when
connected to a source of 1.20 x 102 V. What is the resistance of the steam iron?

Solution
• Directly substitute into Ohm’s law as follows:

Example 2: The resistance of a hot plate is 48.0 Ω. How much current does the plate carry when connected to
a 1.20 x 102 V source?
Solution
∆𝑉 ∆𝑉 1.20 x 102 𝑉
From 𝑅 = , I = 𝑅 = 48.0Ω = 2.50 A
𝐼

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Resistivity 𝜌
• The resistance of an ohmic conductor increases with
length and decreases as cross-sectional area of a
conductor increases.
• Therefore the resistance of an ohmic material varies
directly proportional to length, l and inversely
proportional to cross-sectional area, A.
𝑙
i.e. 𝑅= 𝜌
𝐴
• Where the constant of proportionality, 𝜌, is called the
resistivity of the material.
• Resistivity has units of Ω.m.
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• Resistivity is a property of a material which describes its ability to
resist flow of charges.
• Every material has a characteristic resistivity that depends on its
electronic structure and on temperature.
• Resistivity is a property of the substance or the material used to make
that object. For instance copper has a specific resistivity while
different copper wires will have different resistance depending on
their length, cross-sectional area. Therefore resistance is a property of
the object.
• Good electric conductors have very low resistivities, and good
insulators have very high resistivities.

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Resistivity Values for some materials

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Resistivity and Ohm’s Law: Example
Question 1: Calculate the resistance per unit length of a 22-gauge Nichrome wire, which has a radius of
0.321 mm.
Solution:
The cross-section area of this wire is
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋(0.321 𝑥 10−3 𝑚)2 = 3.24 𝑥 10−7 𝑚2
The resistivity of Nichrome wire is 1.5 𝑥 10−6 Ω. 𝑚
𝑙
Therefore using the equation 𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐴 , we have resistance per unit area as;

𝑅 𝜌 1.5 𝑥 10−6 Ω. 𝑚
= = = 4.6 Ω/𝑚
𝑙 𝐴 3.24 𝑥 10−7 𝑚2

Question 2. If a potential difference of 10 V is maintained across a 1.0-m length of the Nichrome wire,
what is the current in the wire?
Solution
Because a 1.0-m length of this wire has a resistance of 4.6 Ω, the Ohms law equation becomes.
∆𝑉 10𝑉
𝐼= = = 2.2 𝐴
𝑅 4.6Ω
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Resistance and Temperature
• Over a limited temperature range, the resistivity of a conductor varies approximately linearly with
temperature according to the expression
• 𝜌 = 𝜌0 (1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0
• Where 𝛼 is the temperature coefficient of resistivity.
• 𝛼 has a value of
1 ∆𝜌
• 𝛼=𝜌
0 ∆𝑇

• Where ∆𝜌 = 𝜌 − 𝜌0 is the change in resistivity in the temperature interval ∆𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝑇0

• 𝛼 has the units of 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑠 −1 [(℃)^ − 1]
• Because resistance is proportional to resistivity, the equation for temperature dependence of
resistance is:
• 𝑅 = 𝑅0 ( 1 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇0 )

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Resistor
• Resistors are devices that control the level of current in some parts of a circuit. Some resistors have a
fixed value of resistance while others have a resistance which can be varied. A resistor whose value
can be changed is called a variable resistor.
Reading the value of a resistor
• Four colored bands resistor: The first two colors give the first two digits in the resistance value. The
third color represents the power of ten for the multiplier of the resistance value. The last color is the
tolerance of the resistance value.
• Five colored band resistor: The first three bands give the first three digits in the resistance value. The
fourth color represents the power of ten for the multiplier of the resistance value. The last color is the
tolerance of the resistance value.

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Electromotive Force (EMF) and circuits
• An electromotive force (emf) makes current flow.
(but emf is not a force!)
+
• “EMF” is a voltage difference!
• Ideal source – EMF is constant
• EMF symbol = E

• For simple complete circuits,

EMF “pushes” + current around
from start to finish.

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Symbols for circuit diagrams

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Internal Resistance
• Real sources of emf actually contain
some internal resistance r.

• The terminal voltage of an emf

source is

Vab =  – Ir

• Terminal voltage of 12-V battery is

less than 12 V when actually
connected to the light bulb.

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Example: Open Circuit
If the EMF of the battery is 12 V and the internal resistance of the battery, r = 2
Ohms , Find the voltmeter and ammeter readings when not connected to
anything (yet).

Solutions

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 12 Volts!
𝐼= 0 Amps!

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 Source in a complete circuit
• Now add a 4-Ohm resistor to the same source….

• What is total resistance? What is current? Vab?

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 Source in a complete circuit
• Now add a 4-Ohm resistor to the same source….

• Total resistance of SERIES resistors = 2 + 4 = 6 Ohms

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 Source in a complete circuit
• Now add a 4-Ohm resistor to the same source….

• Total resistance of SERIES resistors = 2 + 4 = 6 Ohms

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 Source in a complete circuit
Va’b’ = IR
Vab =  – Ir.
2A x 4W = 8V
12V – (2A x 2W) = 8V

Ideal I =
12V/6 W
=2A

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 Source in a complete circuit
Va’b’ = IR
Vab =  – Ir.
2A x 4W = 8V
12V – (2A x 2W) = 8V

Ideal I =
12V/6 W
=2A

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Using voltmeters and ammeters
What do Ammeters and Voltmeters do to circuits?

Ammeters measure
flow of current PAST a
point.

Ideally, they should

NOT influence the
current

Ideally, R(ammeter) = 0!

Put them IN SERIES

with circuit “legs”

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Using voltmeters and ammeters
What do Ammeters and Voltmeters do to circuits?

Voltmeters measure
pressure difference
across (or between)
points in the circuit.

Ideally, they should

NOT influence the
current

Ideally, R(voltmeter) = !

Put them in parallel!

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Potential changes around a circuit
• “Loop Rule”:
• NET change in
potential = zero
for “round trip” in a
circuit

• Net EMF for a loop

equals sum of voltage
“drops” across
resistors and/or other
elements.

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 Energy & Power
ENERGY
• Energy is the fundamental capacity to do work.
• Energy is the amount of power consumed over time,
which can be written as w=∫p dt from t0 to t
• i.e w = P x t
• Energy is measured in joules (J)and symbolized by the
letter w. (lowercase w).
• Note that energy can neither be created or destroyed,
only transformed.

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POWER
• Power is the rate at which energy is used.
• P = dW/dt, where W is energy and t is time
• Since i=dq/dt and v = dw/dq, P can be rewritten as
• (dw/dq) * (dq/dt)
• 𝑷 = 𝑽 ∗ 𝑰 = 𝑽𝟐 𝑹 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
• Power in electrical circuits is measured in watts and symbolized by the
letter W. Note: energy uses a lowercase letter and power uses an
uppercase.
• 1 W = 1J/s.
• For example, a 60 watt light bulb uses 60 joules of energy in 1
second.

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Energy and Electricity Units (KWh)
• What’s a kilowatt-hour (KWh)??
• It is a unit of measurement for energy just as a Joule.
• 1 Kilowatt = 1000 Watts = 1000 Joules/Second
• Kilowatt-hour = 1000 Watts x 3600 seconds
• = 3.6 x 106 Joules = 3.6 MegaJoules
• = 3.6 MJ
• How much energy do I use?
• 100W light bulb 5 hours at night to study physics?
• 0.1 KW x 5 hours = 0.5 KWh @ $.18/KWh
• Only 9 CENTS!!! (See!! Study physics more!)

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