Marine pollution

Marine pollution occurs when

substances used or spread by humans,
such as industrial, agricultural and
residential waste, particles, noise, excess
carbon dioxide or invasive organisms
enter the ocean and cause harmful
effects there. The majority of this waste
(80%) comes from land-based activity,
although marine transportation
significantly contributes as well.[1] Since
most inputs come from land, either via
the rivers, sewage or the atmosphere, it
means that continental shelves are more
vulnerable to pollution. Air pollution is
also a contributing factor by carrying off
iron, carbonic acid, nitrogen, silicon,
sulfur, pesticides or dust particles into
the ocean.[2] The pollution often comes
from nonpoint sources such as
agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris,
and dust. These nonpoint sources are
largely due to runoff that enters the
ocean through rivers, but wind-blown
debris and dust can also play a role, as
these pollutants can settle into
waterways and oceans.[3] Pathways of
pollution include direct discharge, land
runoff, ship pollution, atmospheric
pollution and, potentially, deep sea
mining.

The types of marine pollution can be

grouped as pollution from marine debris,
plastic pollution, including microplastics,
ocean acidification, nutrient pollution,
toxins and underwater noise. Plastic
pollution in the ocean is a type of marine
pollution by plastics, ranging in size from
large original material such as bottles
and bags, down to microplastics formed
from the fragmentation of plastic
material. Marine debris is mainly
discarded human rubbish which floats
on, or is suspended in the ocean. Plastic
pollution is harmful to marine life.
Another concern is the runoff of nutrients
(nitrogen and phosphorus) from
intensive agriculture, and the disposal of
untreated or partially treated sewage to
rivers and subsequently oceans. These
nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients
(which are also contained in fertilizers)
stimulate phytoplankton and macroalgal
growth, which can lead to harmful algal
blooms (eutrophication) which can be
harmful to humans as well as marine
creatures. Excessive algal growth can
also smother sensitive coral reefs and
lead to loss of biodiversity and coral
health. A second major concern is that
the degradation of algal blooms can lead
to consumption of oxygen in coastal
waters, a situation that may worsen with
climate change as warming reduces
vertical mixing of the water column.[4]

Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere

to tiny particles which are then taken up
by plankton and benthic animals, most of
which are either deposit feeders or filter
feeders. In this way, the toxins are
concentrated upward within ocean food
chains. When pesticides are incorporated
into the marine ecosystem, they quickly
become absorbed into marine food
webs. Once in the food webs, these
pesticides can cause mutations, as well
as diseases, which can be harmful to
humans as well as the entire food web.
Toxic metals can also be introduced into
marine food webs. These can cause a
change to tissue matter, biochemistry,
behavior, reproduction, and suppress
growth in marine life. Also, many animal
feeds have a high fish meal or fish
hydrolysate content. In this way, marine
toxins can be transferred to land animals,
and appear later in meat and dairy
products.

Pathways of pollution
 

While marine pollution can be obvious, as with the marine debris shown above, it is often the pollutants that cannot be
seen that cause most harm.

There are many ways to categorize and

examine the inputs of pollution into
marine ecosystems. There are three
main types of inputs of pollution into the
ocean: direct discharge of waste into the
oceans, runoff into the waters due to
rain, and pollutants released from the
atmosphere.[5]
One common path of entry by
contaminants to the sea are rivers. The
evaporation of water from oceans
exceeds precipitation. The balance is
restored by rain over the continents
entering rivers and then being returned to
the sea. The Hudson River in New York
State and the Raritan River in New
Jersey, which empty at the northern and
southern ends of Staten Island, are a
source of mercury contamination of
zooplankton (copepods) in the open
ocean. The highest concentration in the
filter-feeding copepods is not at the
mouths of these rivers but 70 miles
(110 km) south, nearer Atlantic City,
because water flows close to the coast.
It takes a few days before toxins are
taken up by the plankton.[6]

Pollution is often classed as point source

or nonpoint source pollution. Point
source pollution occurs when there is a
single, identifiable, localized source of
the pollution. An example is directly
discharging sewage and industrial waste
into the ocean. Pollution such as this
occurs particularly in developing nations.
Nonpoint source pollution occurs when
the pollution is from ill-defined and
diffuse sources. These can be difficult to
regulate. Agricultural runoff and wind
blown debris are prime examples.
Direct discharge

Acid mine drainage in the Rio Tinto River

Pollutants enter rivers and the sea

directly from urban sewerage and
industrial waste discharges, sometimes
in the form of hazardous and toxic
wastes, or in the form of plastics.

In a study published by Science, Jambeck

et al. (2015) estimated that the 10 largest
emitters of oceanic plastic pollution
worldwide are, from the most to the
least, China, Indonesia, Philippines,
Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Egypt,
Malaysia, Nigeria, and Bangladesh.[7]

Inland mining for copper, gold, etc., is

another source of marine pollution. Most
of the pollution is simply soil, which ends
up in rivers flowing to the sea. However,
some minerals discharged in the course
of the mining can cause problems, such
as copper, a common industrial pollutant,
which can interfere with the life history
and development of coral polyps.[8]
Mining has a poor environmental track
record. For example, according to the
United States Environmental Protection
Agency, mining has contaminated
portions of the headwaters of over 40%
of watersheds in the western continental
US.[9] Much of this pollution finishes up in
the sea.

Land runoff

Surface runoff from farming, as well as

urban runoff and runoff from the
construction of roads, buildings, ports,
channels, and harbours, can carry soil
and particles laden with carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and minerals. This nutrient-
rich water can cause fleshy algae and
phytoplankton to thrive in coastal areas;
known as algal blooms, which have the
potential to create hypoxic conditions by
using all available oxygen. In the coast of
southwest Florida, harmful algal blooms
have existed for over 100 years.[10] These
algal blooms have been a cause of
species of fish, turtles, dolphins, and
shrimp to die and cause harmful effects
on humans who swim in the water.[10]

Polluted runoff from roads and highways

can be a significant source of water
pollution in coastal areas. About 75% of
the toxic chemicals that flow into Puget
Sound are carried by stormwater that
runs off paved roads and driveways,
rooftops, yards and other developed
land.[11] In California, there are many
rainstorms that runoff into the ocean.
These rainstorms occur from October to
March, and these runoff waters contain
petroleum, heavy metals, pollutants from
emissions, etc.[12]

In China, there is a large coastal

population that pollutes the ocean
through land runoff. This includes
sewage discharge and pollution from
urbanization and land use. In 2001, more
than 66,795 mi2 of the Chinese coastal
ocean waters were rated less than Class
I of the Sea Water Quality Standard of
China.[13] Much of this pollution came
from Ag, Cu, Cd, Pb, As, DDT, PCBs, etc.,
which occurred from contamination
through land runoff.[13]
Ship pollution

A cargo ship pumps ballast water over the side

Ships can pollute waterways and oceans

in many ways. Oil spills can have
devastating effects. In addition to being
toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), found in crude oil,
are very difficult to clean up, and last for
years in the sediment and marine
environment.[14][15]
Oil spills are probably the most emotive
of marine pollution events. However,
while a tanker wreck may result in
extensive newspaper headlines, much of
the oil in the world's seas comes from
other smaller sources, such as tankers
discharging ballast water from oil tanks
used on return ships, leaking pipelines or
engine oil disposed of down sewers.[16]

Discharge of cargo residues from bulk

carriers can pollute ports, waterways,
and oceans. In many instances vessels
intentionally discharge illegal wastes
despite foreign and domestic regulation
prohibiting such actions. An absence of
national standards provides an incentive
for some cruise liners to dump waste in
places where the penalties are
inadequate.[17] It has been estimated that
container ships lose over 10,000
containers at sea each year (usually
during storms).[18] Ships also create
noise pollution that disturbs natural
wildlife, and water from ballast tanks can
spread harmful algae and other invasive
species.[19]

Ballast water taken up at sea and

released in port is a major source of
unwanted exotic marine life. The invasive
freshwater zebra mussels, native to the
Black, Caspian, and Azov seas, were
probably transported to the Great Lakes
via ballast water from a transoceanic
vessel.[20] Meinesz believes that one of
the worst cases of a single invasive
species causing harm to an ecosystem
can be attributed to a seemingly
harmless jellyfish. Mnemiopsis leidyi, a
species of comb jellyfish that spread so
it now inhabits estuaries in many parts of
the world, was first introduced in 1982,
and thought to have been transported to
the Black Sea in a ship's ballast water.
The population of the jellyfish grew
exponentially and, by 1988, it was
wreaking havoc upon the local fishing
industry. "The anchovy catch fell from
204,000 tons in 1984 to 200 tons in 1993;
sprat from 24,600 tons in 1984 to 12,000
tons in 1993; horse mackerel from 4,000
tons in 1984 to zero in 1993."[19] Now that
the jellyfish have exhausted the
zooplankton, including fish larvae, their
numbers have fallen dramatically, yet
they continue to maintain a stranglehold
on the ecosystem.

Invasive species can take over once

occupied areas, facilitate the spread of
new diseases, introduce new genetic
material, alter underwater seascapes,
and jeopardize the ability of native
species to obtain food. Invasive species
are responsible for about $138 billion
annually in lost revenue and
management costs in the US alone.[21]
Atmospheric pollution

A graph linking atmospheric dust to various coral deaths across the Caribbean Sea and Florida.[22]

Another pathway of pollution occurs

through the atmosphere. The ocean has
long been affected by the passage of
chemicals from the atmosphere (e.g.
nutrient source; pH influence).[23] Wind-
blown dust and debris, including plastic
bags, are blown seaward from landfills
and other areas. Dust from the Sahara
moving around the southern periphery of
the subtropical ridge moves into the
Caribbean and Florida during the warm
season as the ridge builds and moves
northward through the subtropical
Atlantic. Dust can also be attributed to a
global transport from the Gobi and
Taklamakan deserts across Korea,
Japan, and the Northern Pacific to the
Hawaiian Islands.[24]

Since 1970, dust outbreaks have

worsened due to periods of drought in
Africa. There is a large variability in dust
transport to the Caribbean and Florida
from year to year;[25] however, the flux is
greater during positive phases of the
North Atlantic Oscillation.[26] The USGS
links dust events to a decline in the
health of coral reefs across the
Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the
1970s.[27]

Climate change is raising ocean

temperatures[28] and raising levels of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These
rising levels of carbon dioxide are
acidifying the oceans.[29] This, in turn, is
altering aquatic ecosystems and
modifying fish distributions,[30] with
impacts on the sustainability of fisheries
and the livelihoods of the communities
that depend on them. Healthy ocean
ecosystems are also important for the
mitigation of climate change.[31]

Deep sea mining

As with all mining operations, deep sea

mining raises questions about potential
environmental damages to the
surrounding areas. Because deep sea
mining is a relatively new field, the
complete consequences of full-scale
mining operations are under
investigation.

Some of the potential toxic metals

include copper, zinc, cadmium, lead as
well as rare earth elements such as
lanthanum and yttrium.[32] Following the
release of toxins there is an increase of
noise, light, sediment le dan plumes and
elements that have the potential to
impact the ecosystems.[33]

Deep sea minerals (DSM) can be

extremely beneficial, it can cause wealth,
raising living standards as well as
economic opportunities for both current
and future generations.[34] In addition, if
the wealth is poorly managed it can have
the potential to cause great economic
and social damage . The instability of
price and production levels of minerals
can cause an external economic shock
leading to a significant backlash on the
domestic economy.[34]
Types of pollution

Can floating in the ocean

Marine debris pollution

Marine debris, also known as marine

litter, is human-created waste that has
deliberately or accidentally been released
in a sea or ocean. Floating oceanic
debris tends to accumulate at the center
of gyres and on coastlines, frequently
washing aground, when it is known as
beach litter or tidewrack. Deliberate
disposal of wastes at sea is called ocean
dumping. Naturally occurring debris, such
as driftwood and drift seeds, are also
present. With the increasing use of
plastic, human influence has become an
issue as many types of (petrochemical)
plastics do not biodegrade quickly, as
would natural or organic materials.[35]
The largest single type of plastic
pollution (~10 %) and majority of large
plastic in the oceans is discarded and
lost nets from the fishing industry.[36]
Waterborne plastic poses a serious
threat to fish, seabirds, marine reptiles,
and marine mammals, as well as to
boats and coasts.[37]
Dumping, container spillages, litter
washed into storm drains and waterways
and wind-blown landfill waste all
contribute to this problem. This
increased water pollution has caused
serious negative effects such as
discarded fishing nets capturing animals,
concentration of plastic debris in
massive marine garbage patches, and
increasing concentrations of
contaminants in the food chain.

Beach littered with garbage

Plastic pollution

Marine plastic pollution (or plastic

pollution in the ocean) is a type of marine
pollution by plastics, ranging in size from
large original material such as bottles
and bags, down to microplastics formed
from the fragmentation of plastic
material. Marine debris is mainly
discarded human rubbish which floats
on, or is suspended in the ocean. Eighty
percent of marine debris is plastic.[38][39]
Microplastics and nanoplastics result
from the breakdown or photodegradation
of plastic waste in surface waters, rivers
or oceans. Recently, scientists have
uncovered nanoplastics in heavy snow,
more specifically about 3000 tons that
cover Switzerland yearly.[40] It is
estimated that there is a stock of 86
million tons of plastic marine debris in
the worldwide ocean as of the end of
2013, assuming that 1.4% of global
plastics produced from 1950 to 2013 has
entered the ocean and has accumulated
there.[41] It is estimated that 19–23
million tonnes of plastic leaks into
aquatic ecosystems annually.[42] The
2017 United Nations Ocean Conference
estimated that the oceans might contain
more weight in plastics than fish by the
year 2050.[43]
 A woman and a boy collecting plastic waste at a beach during a cleanup exercise

Water ways are polluted by plastic

particles ranging in size from large
original material such. as bottles and
bags, down to microplastics formed from
the fragmentation of plastic material.
This material is only very slowly
degraded or removed from the ocean so
plastic particles are now widespread
throughout the surface ocean and are
known to be having deleterious effects
on marine life.[44] Discarded plastic bags,
six pack rings, cigarette butts and other
forms of plastic waste which finish up in
the ocean present dangers to wildlife and
fisheries.[45] Aquatic life can be
threatened by butts through
entanglement, suffocation, and
ingestion.[46][47][48] Fishing nets, usually
made of plastic, can be left or lost in the
ocean by fishermen. Known as ghost
nets, these entangle fish, dolphins, sea
turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles,
seabirds, crabs, and other creatures,
restricting movement, causing starvation,
laceration, infection, and, in those that
need to return to the surface to breathe,
suffocation.[49] There are various types of
ocean plastics causing problems to
marine life. Bottle caps have been found
in the stomachs of turtles and seabirds,
which have died because of the
obstruction of their respiratory and
digestive tracts.[50] Ghost nets are also a
problematic type of ocean plastic as they
can continuously trap marine life in a
process known as "ghost fishing".[51]

The 10 largest emitters of oceanic

plastic pollution worldwide are, from the
most to the least, China, Indonesia,
Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Thailand,
Egypt, Malaysia, Nigeria, and
Bangladesh,[52] largely through the rivers
Yangtze, Indus, Yellow, Hai, Nile, Ganges,
Pearl, Amur, Niger, and the Mekong, and
accounting for "90 percent of all the
plastic that reaches the world's
oceans."[53][54] Asia was the leading
source of mismanaged plastic waste,
with China alone accounting for 2.4
million metric tons.[55]

Ocean acidification

Ocean acidification is the reduction in the

pH value of the Earth’s ocean. Between
1751 and 2021, the average pH value of
the ocean surface has decreased from
approximately 8.25 to 8.14.[56] The main
cause of ocean acidification is carbon
dioxide emissions from human activities
which have led to atmospheric carbon
dioxide (CO2) levels of more than 410
ppm (in 2020). The oceans absorb CO2
from the atmosphere. This leads to the
formation of carbonic acid (H2CO3)
which dissociates into a bicarbonate ion
−
(HCO3) and a hydrogen ion (H+). The free
hydrogen ions (H+) decrease the pH of
the ocean, therefore increasing acidity
(this does not mean that seawater is
acidic yet; it is still alkaline, with a pH
higher than 8). A decrease in pH
corresponds to a decrease in the
concentration of carbonate ions, which
are the main building block for calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) shells and skeletons.
Marine calcifying organisms, like
mollusks, oysters and corals, are
particularly affected by this as they rely
on calcium carbonate to build shells and
skeletons.[57]

The change in pH value from 8.25 to 8.14

represents an increase of almost 30% in
hydrogen ion concentration in the world's
oceans (the pH scale is logarithmic, so a
change of one in pH unit is equivalent to
a tenfold change in hydrogen ion
concentration).[58] Sea-surface pH and
carbonate saturation states vary
depending on ocean depth and location.
Colder and higher latitude waters have
the capacity to absorb more CO2. This
can increase acidity, lowering the pH and
carbonate saturation states in these
regions. Other factors that affect the
atmosphere-ocean CO2 exchange, and
therefore impact local ocean
acidification, include: ocean currents and
upwelling zones, proximity to large
continental rivers, sea ice coverage, and
atmospheric exchange with nitrogen and
sulfur from fossil fuel burning and
agriculture.[59][60][61]

An island with a fringing reef in the Maldives. Coral reefs are dying around the world.[62]

Nutrient pollution
A polluted lagoon

The effect of eutrophication on marine benthic life

Eutrophication is an increase in chemical

nutrients, typically compounds
containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an
ecosystem. It can result in an increase in
the ecosystem's primary productivity
(excessive plant growth and decay), and
further effects including lack of oxygen
and severe reductions in water quality,
fish, and other animal populations.
Nutrient pollution, a form of water
pollution, refers to contamination by
excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a
primary cause of eutrophication of
surface waters, in which excess
nutrients, usually nitrates or phosphates,
stimulate algae growth. Such blooms are
naturally occurring but may be increasing
as a result of anthropogenic inputs or
alternatively may be something that is
now more closely monitored and so
more frequently reported.[63]
The biggest culprit are rivers that empty
into the ocean, and with it the many
chemicals used as fertilizers in
agriculture as well as waste from
livestock and humans. An excess of
oxygen-depleting chemicals in the water
can lead to hypoxia and the creation of a
dead zone.[6]

Estuaries tend to be naturally eutrophic

because land-derived nutrients are
concentrated where runoff enters the
marine environment in a confined
channel. The World Resources Institute
has identified 375 hypoxic coastal zones
around the world, concentrated in coastal
areas in Western Europe, the Eastern and
Southern coasts of the US, and East Asia,
particularly in Japan.[64] In the ocean,
there are frequent red tide algae
blooms[65] that kill fish and marine
mammals and cause respiratory
problems in humans and some domestic
animals when the blooms reach close to
shore.

In addition to land runoff, atmospheric

anthropogenic fixed nitrogen can enter
the open ocean. A study in 2008 found
that this could account for around one
third of the ocean's external (non-
recycled) nitrogen supply and up to three
per cent of the annual new marine
biological production.[66] It has been
suggested that accumulating reactive
nitrogen in the environment may have
consequences as serious as putting
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.[67]

One proposed solution to eutrophication

in estuaries is to restore shellfish
populations, such as oysters. Oyster
reefs remove nitrogen from the water
column and filter out suspended solids,
subsequently reducing the likelihood or
extent of harmful algal blooms or anoxic
conditions.[68] Filter feeding activity is
considered beneficial to water quality[69]
by controlling phytoplankton density and
sequestering nutrients, which can be
removed from the system through
shellfish harvest, buried in the sediments,
or lost through denitrification.[70][71]
Foundational work toward the idea of
improving marine water quality through
shellfish cultivation to was conducted by
Odd Lindahl et al., using mussels in
Sweden.[72]

Toxicants

Apart from plastics, there are particular

problems with other toxic pollutants that
either do not break down or only very
slowly in the marine environment.
Examples of persistent toxicants are
PCBs, DDT, TBT, pesticides, furans,
dioxins, phenols, and radioactive waste.
Heavy metals are metallic chemical
elements that have a relatively high
density and are toxic or poisonous at low
concentrations. Examples are mercury,
lead, copper and cadmium. Some
toxicants can accumulate in the tissues
of many species of aquatic life in a
process called bioaccumulation. They
are also known to accumulate in benthic
environments, such as estuaries and bay
muds: a geological record of human
activities of the last century.

Specific examples
Chinese and Russian industrial
pollution such as phenols and heavy
metals in the Amur River have
devastated fish stocks and damaged
its estuary soil.[73]
Acute and chronic pollution events
have been shown to impact southern
California kelp forests, though the
intensity of the impact seems to
depend on both the nature of the
contaminants and duration of
exposure.[74][75][76][77][78]
Due to their high position in the food
chain and the subsequent
accumulation of heavy metals from
their diet, mercury levels can be high in
larger species such as bluefin and
albacore. As a result, in March 2004
the United States FDA issued
guidelines recommending that
pregnant women, nursing mothers and
children limit their intake of tuna and
other types of predatory fish.[79]
Some shellfish and crabs can survive
polluted environments, accumulating
heavy metals or toxins in their tissues.
For example, mitten crabs have a
remarkable ability to survive in highly
modified aquatic habitats, including
polluted waters.[80] The farming and
harvesting of such species needs
careful management if they are to be
used as a food.[81][82]
Surface runoff of pesticides can alter
the gender of fish species genetically,
transforming male into female fish.[83]
Heavy metals enter the environment
through oil spills – such as the
Prestige oil spill on the Galician coast
and Gulf of Mexico which unleashed
an estimated 3.19 million barrels of
oil[84] – or from other natural or
anthropogenic sources.
In 2005, the 'Ndrangheta, an Italian
mafia syndicate, was accused of
sinking at least 30 ships loaded with
toxic waste, much of it radioactive.
This has led to widespread
investigations into radioactive waste
disposal rackets.[85]
Since the end of World War II, various
nations, including the Soviet Union, the
United Kingdom, the United States, and
Germany, have disposed of chemical
weapons in the Baltic Sea, raising
concerns of environmental
contamination.[86][87]
The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear
disaster in 2011 caused radioactive
toxins from the damaged power plant
to leak into the air and ocean. There
are still many isotopes in the ocean,
which directly affects the benthic food
web and also affects the whole food
chain. The concentration of 137Cs in
the bottom sediment that was
contaminated by water with high
 concentrations in April–May 2011
remains quite high and is showing
signs of very slow decrease with
time.[88]

Underwater noise

Marine life can be susceptible to noise or

the sound pollution from sources such
as passing ships, oil exploration seismic
surveys, and naval low-frequency active
sonar. Sound travels more rapidly and
over larger distances in the sea than in
the atmosphere. Marine animals, such as
cetaceans, often have weak eyesight, and
live in a world largely defined by acoustic
information. This applies also to many
deeper sea fish, who live in a world of
darkness.[89] Between 1950 and 1975,
ambient noise at one location in the
Pacific Ocean increased by about ten
decibels (that is a tenfold increase in
intensity).[90]

Noise also makes species communicate

louder, which is called the Lombard vocal
response.[91] Whale songs are longer
when submarine-detectors are on.[92] If
creatures don't "speak" loud enough, their
voice can be masked by anthropogenic
sounds. These unheard voices might be
warnings, finding of prey, or preparations
of net-bubbling. When one species
begins speaking louder, it will mask other
species voices, causing the whole
ecosystem to eventually speak louder.[93]

According to the oceanographer Sylvia

Earle, "Undersea noise pollution is like
the death of a thousand cuts. Each
sound in itself may not be a matter of
critical concern, but taken all together,
the noise from shipping, seismic surveys,
and military activity is creating a totally
different environment than existed even
50 years ago. That high level of noise is
bound to have a hard, sweeping impact
on life in the sea."[94]

Noise from ships and human activity can

damage Cnidarians and Ctenophora,
which are very important organisms in
the marine ecosystem. They promote
high diversity and they are used as
models for ecology and biology because
of their simple structures. When there is
underwater noise, the vibrations in the
water damage the cilia hairs in the
Coelenterates. In a study, the organisms
were exposed to sound waves for
different numbers of times and the
results showed that damaged hair cells
were extruded or missing or presented
bent, flaccid or missed kinocilia and
stereocilia.[95] Ships can be certified to
meet certain noise criteria.[96]
Other

There are a variety of secondary effects

stemming not from the original pollutant,
but a derivative condition. An example is
silt-bearing surface runoff, which can
inhibit the penetration of sunlight through
the water column, hampering
photosynthesis in aquatic plants.[97]

Mitigation
Much anthropogenic pollution ends up in
the ocean. The 2011 edition of the United
Nations Environment Programme Year
Book identifies as the main emerging
environmental issues the loss to the
oceans of massive amounts of
phosphorus, "a valuable fertilizer needed
to feed a growing global population", and
the impact billions of pieces of plastic
waste are having globally on the health
of marine environments.[98]

Bjorn Jennssen (2003) notes in his

article, "Anthropogenic pollution may
reduce biodiversity and productivity of
marine ecosystems, resulting in
reduction and depletion of human marine
food resources".[99] There are two ways
the overall level of this pollution can be
mitigated: either the human population is
reduced, or a way is found to reduce the
ecological footprint left behind by the
average human. If the second way is not
adopted, then the first way may be
imposed as the world ecosystems falter.

Seal entangled in plastic netting.

The second way is for humans,

individually, to pollute less. That requires
social and political will, together with a
shift in awareness so more people
respect the environment and are less
disposed to abuse it.[100] At an
operational level, regulations, and
international government participation is
needed.[101] It is often very difficult to
regulate marine pollution because
pollution spreads over international
barriers, thus making regulations hard to
create as well as enforce.[102]

Without appropriate awareness of

marine pollution, the necessary global
will to effectively address the issues may
prove inadequate. Balanced information
on the sources and harmful effects of
marine pollution need to become part of
general public awareness, and ongoing
research is required to fully establish,
and keep current, the scope of the
issues. As expressed in Daoji and Dag's
research,[103] one of the reasons why
environmental concern is lacking among
the Chinese is because the public
awareness is low and therefore should
be targeted.

Marine debris removal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NOAA removed approximately 57 tons of derelict fishing
nets and plastic litter from the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument's tiny islands and atolls, sensitive
coral reefs and shallow waters).

The amount of awareness on marine

pollution is vital to the support of keeping
the prevention of trash from entering
waterways and ending up in our oceans.
The EPA reports that in 2014 Americans
generated about 258 million tons of
waste, and only a third was recycled or
composted. In 2015, there was over 8
million tons of plastic that made it into
the ocean. The Ocean Conservancy
reported that China, Indonesia,
Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam dump
more plastic in the sea than all other
countries combined.[104] Through more
sustainable packing this could lead to;
eliminating toxic constituents, using
fewer materials, making more readily
available recyclable plastic. However,
awareness can only take these initiatives
so far. The most abundant plastic is PET
(Polyethylene terephthalate) and is the
most resistant to biodegradables.
Researchers have been making great
strides in combating this problem. In one
way has been by adding a special
polymer called a tetrablock copolymer.
The tetrablock copolymer acts as a
laminate between the PE and iPP which
enables for an easier breakdown but still
be tough. Through more awareness,
individuals will become more cognizant
of their carbon footprints. Also, from
research and technology, more strides
can be made to aid in the plastic
pollution problem.[105][106]Jellyfish have
been considered a potential mitigating
organism for pollution.[107][108]

Global goals

In 2017, the United Nations adopted a

resolution establishing Sustainable
Development Goals, including reduced
marine pollution as a measured goal
under Goal 14. The international
community has agreed that reducing
pollution in the oceans is a priority, which
is tracked as part of Sustainable
Development Goal 14 which actively
seeks to undo these human impacts on
the oceans.[109] The title of Target 14.1 is:
"By 2025, prevent and significantly
reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in
particular from land-based activities,
including marine debris and nutrient
pollution."[109]

History
Parties to the MARPOL 73/78 convention on marine pollution (as of April 2008)

Although marine pollution has a long

history, significant international laws to
counter it were not enacted until the
twentieth century. Marine pollution was a
concern during several United Nations
Conventions on the Law of the Sea
beginning in the 1950s. Most scientists
believed that the oceans were so vast
that they had unlimited ability to dilute,
and thus render pollution harmless.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, there
were several controversies about
dumping radioactive waste off the
coasts of the United States by
companies licensed by the Atomic
Energy Commission, into the Irish Sea
from the British reprocessing facility at
Windscale, and into the Mediterranean
Sea by the French Commissariat à
l'Energie Atomique. After the
Mediterranean Sea controversy, for
example, Jacques Cousteau became a
worldwide figure in the campaign to stop
marine pollution. Marine pollution made
further international headlines after the
1967 crash of the oil tanker Torrey
Canyon, and after the 1969 Santa
Barbara oil spill off the coast of
California.

Marine pollution was a major area of

discussion during the 1972 United
Nations Conference on the Human
Environment, held in Stockholm. That
year also saw the signing of the
Convention on the Prevention of Marine
Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and
Other Matter, sometimes called the
London Convention. The London
Convention did not ban marine pollution,
but it established black and gray lists for
substances to be banned (black) or
regulated by national authorities (gray).
Cyanide and high-level radioactive waste,
for example, were put on the black list.
The London Convention applied only to
waste dumped from ships, and thus did
nothing to regulate waste discharged as
liquids from pipelines.[110]

Society and culture

The Great Pacific garbage patch causes vast quantities of trash to wash ashore at the south end of Hawaii.

Laws and policies

There are different ways for the ocean to

get polluted, therefore there have been
multiple laws, policies, and treaties put
into place throughout history. In order to
protect the ocean from marine pollution,
policies have been developed
internationally.

In 1948, Harry Truman signed a law

formerly known as the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act[111] that allowed
the federal government to control
marine pollution in United States of
America.
In 1972, the Marine Protection,
Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972
(MPRSA) was passed by the United
States Congress, and regulates ocean
dumping of waste in US
waters.[112][113]
The 1954 Convention for the
Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by
Oil and the 1973 International
Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution by Ships were weakly
enforced due to a lack of respect for
the laws from flag states.[114]
In 1973 and 1978, MARPOL 73/78 was
a treaty written to control vessel
pollution, especially regarding oil. In
1983, the International Convention for
the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
enforced the MARPOL 73/78 treaty
internationally.[115]
The 1982 United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) was
established to protect the marine
environment by governing states to
control their pollution to the ocean. It
put restrictions on the amount of
toxins and pollutants that come from
all ships internationally.[116]
In 2006, the Marine Debris Research,
Prevention and Reduction Ac.[117] It
was established by the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) to help identify,
determine the source of, reduce and
prevent marine debris.
 In December 2017, the UN
Environmental Agency (UNEA)
established the Ad Hoc Open-Ended
Expert Group on Marine Litter and
Microplastics with the purpose of
examining marine plastic pollutions
and to evaluate ways to handle the
issue.[118]

See also
Environment
portal
Oceans
portal

Aquatic toxicology
Environmental impact of pesticides
Mercury pollution in the ocean
 National Cleanup Day
Oil pollution toxicity to marine fish
Stockholm Convention on Persistent
Organic Pollutants
Sea snot
World Oceans Day

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Further reading
Dunning, Brian (16 December 2008).
"Skeptoid #132: The Sargasso Sea and
the Pacific Garbage Patch" (https://ske
ptoid.com/episodes/4132) . Skeptoid.
Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
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