09-Aug-22

Prof. Seema Daud

Types of Studies Objectives of the Lecture

Cross sectional
Case Control By the end of the lecture learners should be
Longitudinal able to:
Cohort

1. Describe:
Clinical Trial
1. The relationship between public health,
epidemiology, research & statistics
2. Criteria for choosing the study type for
Community Trial collecting empirical (observed/actual) data

Prof. Seema Daud 2. Classify and Explain:

Descriptive Study Designs

Public Health
Epidemiology
The science and art of preventing disease,
prolonging life and promoting health and The study of the frequency,
efficiency through organized community
efforts for: distribution and determinants of
1. Personal Hygiene health & disease related states in
2. Sanitation of the environment specified populations,
3. Adequate standard of living and the application of this study to
4. Control of Communicable Infections control health problems.
5. Early diagnosis and prevention of disease

Research Public Health

It is the systematic search for information
and new knowledge using empirical(observable
Tool
& verified) evidence Epidemiology
Statistics Tools
Techniques and Procedures dealing with the
systematic collection, organization, presentation,
Research Statistics
analysis and interpretation of numerical data and Methodology (Calculations
application of mathematical calculations to (Type of & Formulas)
describe or analyze the data
Studies)

Department of Community Medicine (LMDC)

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 09-Aug-22
Prof. Seema Daud

Descriptive Analytical Criteria for Definition & Choice of

• Only Observational
• One group only
• Generate hypothesis
• Does not confirm
association/risk factor/cause hypothesis or
• What?
• How Many?
• Who? Person
• When? Place
• Where? Time
• Observational or Epidemiological Study Types
Interventional
1. Objective of the study: Want to find burden of disease or
• More than one group association between variable of cause or dose effect
• Generate or Confirms relationship or incidence etc.
2. Study unit: Individuals or whole population or area?
association/risk
factor/cause 3. Number of groups studied: One or More than one?
4. State of Subjects at start of study: healthy or diseased
• Why? 5. Direction of the study: In Present, Present to Past or
Present to Future?
• How?

Type: Study unit:

Descriptive Studies Descriptive Individuals
• One group Past Present Future
• Only Observational (Non Interventional)
• Generate hypothesis Case Study/Series
• Does not confirm association
• Observational study without interventions
On Individuals On Population • A study of one diseased individual,
or Area Based providing a detailed in-depth description of
an uncommon disease
1. Case Report • 1 to 3 cases can be considered as case study
2. Case Series Ecological
3. Cross Sectional • More than 3 cases become a series

Type: Groups Studied: Study unit:

Descriptive One Individuals
Past Present Future

Cross Sectional
• Researcher observes events without interference /
interventions/ manipulations / modifications
• Describes a population or a subgroup within the
population with respect to an outcome (disease) and
a set of risk factors (exposure) at one point in time
• The purpose of the study is to find the prevalence
of the outcome of interest (snapshot)
• Hypothesis can be generated

Department of Community Medicine (LMDC)

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 09-Aug-22
Prof. Seema Daud

Type: Groups Studied: Study unit:

Examples of Cross Sectional Studies Descriptive Individuals
One
•Study of diarrheal disease among children Past Present Future
under 5 years of age in Lahore District in 2015.
Longitudinal study
•Study of immunization status of children in
schools of Karachi in January, 2015.
• Repeated cross-sectional studies may be carried
•Study of seat belt use in women drivers in out on the same population over a longer time
Multan.
• This type of study can yield incidence rates
•Study of prevalence of depression in women of • Observational study without intervention
reproductive age group in villages of Sindh.
• Hypothesis can be generated

Examples of Longitudinal Studies

•Study of diarrheal disease among children under 5
years of age in Lahore District from 2015 till 2020
•Study of immunization status of children in schools
of Karachi from 2015 till 2020
•Study of seat belt use in women drivers in Multan
from 2018 till 2021.
Movie
•Study of depression in women of reproductive age
group in a village of Sindh for a period of 5 years.

Type: Groups Studied: Study unit:

Descriptive One Population Types of Ecological Studies
Past Present Future
• Correlating population disease rates with
Ecological / Correlational
factors of interest, such as healthcare use
• Observational study in which at least one variable is measured at • Comparing the prevalence of a disease
the group or population level (aggregate not individual level).
between different regions at a single point
• The unit of observation can be a:
in time (geographical studies)
 Geographical administrative locality
 Cluster of houses
• Demonstrating changes in mortality over
 Town
time (time series)
 Whole country

Department of Community Medicine (LMDC)

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 09-Aug-22
Prof. Seema Daud

The comparison may be between same populations in

The comparison may be between
same place at different times (Time Series)
populations in different places at
the same time

Examples of Ecological Studies Ecological Fallacy

• Grouped data do
1. Measurement of air quality in Liberty Market not necessarily
represent
area, Lahore individual level
data
2. Association of prevalence of autism in Karachi
• When results of
with the source of drinking water population (group)
studies are
3. Association of prevalence of hypertension in wrongly applied to
Lahori gate area with average noise level individuals within
that population, it
4. Comparison of mortality due to Leukemia in is called
Ecological
hazardous waste sites and areas without such waste Fallacy
sites

Validity Ranking for etiological hypothesis

generation according to descriptive study design

Validity Ranking Types of Studies

Highest 4. Longitudinal Study
3. Cross Sectional Study
2. Ecological Study
Lowest 1. Case Study / Series

Department of Community Medicine (LMDC)

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