STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY REVIEWER

Statistics - is defined as a science that studies data to be able to make a decision.

- the word “statistics” actually comes from the word “state”
Probability - is the branch of mathematics concerning numerical descriptions of how likely an event is to
occur, or how likely it is that a proposition is true.
Random variable - usually written X, is a variable whose possible values are numerical outcomes of a
random phenomenon.
Discrete random variable - is one which may take on only a countable number or variables that cannot
be expressed in decimals.
Continuous random variable - is one which takes an infinite number of possible values or variables that
can be expressed in decimals.
Continuous - is represented by the area under a curve (in advanced mathematics, this is known as an
integral).
Universe - the collection of respondents from whom one obtains the data.
- the collection or set of units or entities from whom we got the data.
Variable - is a characteristic that is observable or measurable in every unit of the universe.
Population - The set of all possible values of a variable.
Sample - a subgroup of a universe or of a population.
Qualitative - variable express a categorical attribute.
Quantitative - (otherwise called numerical) data, whose sizes are meaningful, answer questions such as
“how much” or “how many”.
Nominal level of measurement - arises when we have variables that are categorical and non-numeric or
where the numbers have no sense of ordering.
Ordinal level - also deals with categorical variables like the nominal level, but in this level ordering is
important, that is the values of the variable could be ranked.
Interval level - tells us that one unit differs by a certain amount of degree from another unit.
Ratio level - also tells us that one unit has so many times as much as the property as does another unit.
Presentation of Data - refers to the organization of information such as measurements, numbers,
names, observations, etc. in a certain way.
Tabular Presentation - this is another way in presenting data. In this technique, the data are
summarized using tables.
Line Graph - It shows relationship between two or more sets of quantities.
Bar Graph - It is the graphical technique in which each value in the data is presented by
rectangular bars.
Pictograph - This is a graphical technique that expresses its meaning through its pictorial
resemblance to a physical object.
Pie Chart - this is the type of graphical presentation in which a circle (or sometimes a cylinder) is divided
into several partition characterizing the categories of the data.
Frequency Distribution Table (FDT) - is a tabular arrangement of data by categories and their
corresponding frequencies.
Range - is the difference between the highest and the lowest score.
Class Interval - is the grouping of category defined by a lower limit and an upper limit.
Class size - is the difference between two successive lower class limits.
Class Boundary - is the grouping or category defined by lower boundary and an upper boundary.
Class Frequency - is the number of data belonging to a class interval.
Class Mark - is the midpoint of a class interval.
Cumulative frequency distribution - is the tabular arrangement of data by class intervals whose
frequencies are accumulated.
Relative frequency distribution - is the tabular arrangement of data showing the proportion in percent
of each class frequency to the total frequency.
Mean - is the average of a set of data.
Ungrouped data - are set of values not grouped per class interval.
Grouped data - refer to a summary of values grouped into numbers of class intervals in which frequency
Median - is the value of the middle when all the elements in a set of data are arranged in ascending
order. of values that fall given class intervals is counted.
Mode - is defined as the element in a set of data that has the most number of frequencies.
Quantiles - the center of distribution.
Quartiles - are three values that split a data in four equal parts.
Deciles - are nine values that split data in 10 equal parts.
Percentiles - are 99 values that split data in 100 equal parts.
Point estimate - is a numerical value and it identifies a location or a position in the distribution of
possible values.
Interval estimate - is a range of values where one has a certain percentage of confidence that the true
value will likely fall in.
Parameter - is a characteristic of the population which is usually unknown and needs to be estimated.
Accuracy - is a measure of closeness of the estimates to the true value.
Precision - is a measure of closeness of the estimate to each other.
Normal or Gaussian distribution - is a continuous probability distribution.
Gaussian distribution is sometimes called the bell curve.
Sampling - is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations are
taken from a larger population.
Statistical Inference - generalizing results beyond the data collected, provided that the data collected is
a part of a large set of items.
Sample survey - is a method of systematically gathering information on a segment of the population.
Sample - the fraction of the population being studied.
Probability Sampling - survey involves allowing every member of the population to have a known,
nonzero chance of being selected into the sample.
Simple Random Sampling (SRS) - involves allowing each possible sample to have an equal chance of
being picked and every member of the population has an equal chance.
Sampling frame - listing of the elements of the population.
Stratified Sampling - is an extension of simple random sampling which allows different homogeneous
groups, called strata.
Systematic sampling - elements are selected from the population at a uniform interval.
Cluster sampling - divides the population into groups called clusters, selects a random sample of
clusters.
Non-probability or judgment sampling - is the generic name of several sampling methods where some
units in the population do not have the chance to be selected in the sample.
Haphazard or Accidental - sampling involves an unsystematic selection of sample units.
Convenience sampling - sample units are expedient to the sampler are taken.
Volunteer sampling - sample units are volunteers in studies wherein the measuring process is painful or
troublesome to a respondent.
Purposive sampling - pertains to having an expert select a representative sample based on his own
subjective judgment.
Quota sampling - sample units are picked for convenience but certain quotas
Snowball sampling - additional sample units are identified by asking previously picked sample units for
people they know who can be added to the sample.
Sampling distribution - the set of possible values that the point estimate could take under
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH
Quantitative Research - is a systematic and scientific investigation of data and their relationships. It is
often associated with the word numerical. Numerical means “of or relating to numbers” or expressed by
numbers, and would often answer question like “how many” or “how much” or even “what rank” are
data being observed.
Quantitative Research - gives a more accurate and precise result. It is often used by researchers who
want objective rather than subjective data.
Descriptive Research - It is a design that is exploratory in nature. The purpose of descriptive research is
basically to answer questions such as who, what, where, when, and how much.
Correlational Research - the main goal of this design is to determine if variable increases or decreases as
another variable increases or decreases.
Ex Post Facto - the objective of the study is to measure a cause from a pre-existing effect.

Sampling - is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that individuals
represent the larger group from which they were selected.

Sample - is a smaller collection of units from a population used to determine the truths about the
population.

Population - is a larger group of individuals or a large collection of individuals or objects that are
selected to participate in a study.

Probability Sampling - uses randomization and takes steps to ensure all members to a population have a
chance of being selected.

Random sampling - every member has an equal chance.

Stratified sampling - population divided into subgroups and members are randomly selected from each
group.

Systematic sampling - uses a specific system to select members such as every 5th person on the list.

Multi- stage random sampling - a combination of two or more variations.

Non-probability sampling - does not rely on the use of randomization techniques to select members.

Convenience or accidental sampling - members of units are selected based on availability.

Purposive sampling - members of a particular group of purposefully sought after.

Modal instance sampling - members or units are the most common within a defined group and
therefore are sought after.

Expert sampling - members considered to be high quality are chosen for participation.

Proportional and non-proportional quota sampling - members are sampled until exact proportions of
certain types of data are obtained or until sufficient data in different categories is collected.
Diversity sampling- members are selected intentionally across the possible types of responses to
capture all possibilities.

Snowball sampling - members are sampled and then asked to help identify other members to sample
and this process continues until enough samples are collected.

Likert Scale - This is the most common scale used in quantitative research. Respondents were asked to
rate or rank statements according to the scale provided.

Semantic Differential - a series of bipolar adjectives will be rated by the respondents. This scale seems
to be more advantageous since it is more flexible and easier to construct.

Face Validity - also known as “logical validity.” It calls for an initiative judgment of the instruments as it
“appear.”

Content Validity - an instrument that is judged with content validity meets the objectives of the study. It
is done by checking the statements or questions if this elicits the needed information

Construct Validity - refers to the validity of instruments as it corresponds to the theoretical construct of
the study. It is concerning if a specific measure relates to other measures.

Concurrent Validity - When the instrument can predict results similar to those similar tests already
validated, it has concurrent validity.

Predictive Validity - When the instrument is able to produce results similar to those similar tests that
will be employed in the future, it has predictive validity. This is particularly useful for the aptitude test.

Reliability - refers to the consistency of the measure of results of the instrument.

Test-retest Reliability - It is achieved by giving the same test to the same group of respondents twice.

Equivalent Forms Reliability - It is established by administering two identical tests except for wordings
to the same group of respondents.

Internal Consistency Reliability - It determines how well the items measure the same construct. It is
reasonable that when a respondent gets a high score in one item, he will also get one in similar items.

Observation - it must be structured so that there is a defined purpose to the observation.

Interview - interview are structured, with the interviewee only being able to choose a response, this
type is often used in places with poor return rate of questionnaires.

Questionnaires/Surveys - Questionnaires can be useful in collecting data on simple and well-defined

issues and unbiased response.

Scales - rating scales can be used for observations. It allows the observer to rate the behavior of an
event on a scale. It lists an ordered series category of a variable and then assigns a numerical value on
each item.

Nominal data - it has no logical order. It is only a matter of distinguishing by name. Numbers used do
not denote quantity.
Ordinal data - it has no logical order. The difference in values is not constant. It provides a “rank” in
data.

Interval data - it provides information about order and also provides an interval.

Ratio or “scale” - the data is continuous, ordered, has standardized differences between values and it
has a natural zero.

Descriptive Statistical Techniques - It is used to describe basic features of the data in the study. It
provides a summary of the orderly or sequential data obtained from the sample.

Mean – average of all the items or score. It can be denoted by a variable with a line on top.

Median – the score in the middle of the set of items that cuts or divides the set into two groups.

Mode - refers to the item or score in the data set that has the most repeated appearance in the set.

Standard Deviation- it tells how spread numbers are.

Pearson Correlation – it is used to find a correlation between two variables or even among 3 or more
variables.

Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient – it allows to determine if two variables relate in a monotonic
function.

T-test – it helps compare whether two groups have different or similar average value. It can also help
determine if two population means are equal.
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Mass percentage can be defined as the ratio of Mass of the component of the solution and total mass of
the solution multiplied by 100%.
Volume percentage can be defined as the ratio of Volume of the component.
Molality (m) can be defined as the ratio of number of moles of solute to the mass of solvent in kg.

Molarity is the ratio between the moles of the dissolved substance per Liter of solution.
Thermochemistry – the study of heat and energy changes that accompany physical and chemical
processes.

Thermodynamics – is the study of energy and its transformations.

Energy the ability to do work or produce heat and the sum of all potential and kinetic energy in a system
is known as the internal energy of the system.

Potential energy - energy by virtue of position.

Kinetic energy - energy of motion.

Exothermic reaction often results to an increase in the temperature of the reaction mixture and the
reaction vessel, and possibly the air surrounding the vessel.

Change that involves absorption of energy from the surroundings is said to be an endothermic change.

Endothermic – net absorption of energy (heat exchange) by the system; energy is a reactant; (i.e.,
baking soda and vinegar when mixed get very cold to the touch) +ΔH

Exothermic – net release of energy (heat exchange) by the system; energy is a product; (i.e., burning
methane gas in the lab burner produces heat; light sticks give off light which is also energy); −ΔH
Law of Conservation of Energy – You may know it as “energy is never created nor destroyed”

First law of Thermodynamics states that “the change in the internal energy of a closed system is equal
to the difference between the heat given to the system and the amount of work done by the system on
its surroundings.
Heat (q) – Two systems with different temperatures that are in thermal contact will exchange thermal
energy, the quantity of which is call heat.
Temperature (T)—is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules, KEave.
Enthalpy (H)– flow of energy (heat exchange) at constant pressure when two systems are in contact.
Enthalpy of reaction (∆Hrxn) – amount of heat released (negative values) or absorbed (positive values)
by a chemical reaction at constant pressure in kJ/molrxn

Enthalpy of combustion (∆Hcomb)—heat absorbed or released by burning (usually with O2) in

Enthalpy of formation (∆Hf) – heat absorbed or released when one mole of compound is formed from
elementsin their standard states in kJ/molrxn.
Enthalpy of fusion (∆Hfus)—heat absorbed to melt one mole of solid to liquid at melting point
expressed in kJ/molrxn.

Enthalpy of vaporization (∆Hvap)—heat absorbed to vaporize or boil.

Calorimetry - process of measuring heat based on observing the temperature change when a body
absorbs or discharges energy as heat.

Calorimeter is the device used to measure the heat flow.

System Is the part of the universe under the study.

Surroundings Is the rest of the universe outside the system.

Closed system – is an isolated system that does not exchange any matter and energy with its
surroundings. Allows transfer of energy (heat)but not mass.

Open System – can exchange mass and energy. usually in the form of heat, with its surroundings.

Isolated system – which does not allow the transfer of either mass or energy.
 PAGBASA
Sikolohiya 1. Ang pag-aaral ng kilos, gawi at pag-uugali ng bawat tao.
KAST o kasi mentality 2. Karaniwang hindi matanggap ng mga Pilipino ang kanyang pagkakamali,
pagkabigo, pagkukulango kaya'y pagkatalo.
Okey lang o OK Mentaliy 3. Ang nagpamalas ng magaan at walang ligalig na saloobin ng Pilipino sa
buhay.
Pasenya ka na o Pasensya Mentality 4. Nangangahulugang pagpapatawad o pagpapaumanhin.
Wika 5. Salamin ng kaluluwa sapagkat sa pamamagitan nito ay mababanaagangpag-iisip, damdamin, at
pangarap ng mga tao.
6.Ang mga sumusunod ay mga sikolohikal na pag uugaling Pilipino.
Kasi Mentality 7. Nahuli ako sa klase kayat tinanong ako ng aking guro kung bakit kayat akoy
nangatwiran anong sikolohikal na pag-uugaling Pilipino ang ginamit ko?
Okay Mentality 8. Halatang may dinaramdam si Jessa nung pumasok sa paaralan ngunit nananatili itong
nakangiti at sinasabi sa sariling ayos lang ang lahat anong sikolohikal na pag-uugaling pilipino ang
ginamit ni Jessa?
Pasensya Mentality 9. Dalawang oras ng naghihintay si Chloe kay Shem sa istasyon ng tren ngunit
sinalubong padin nya ito ng may ngiti sa kanyang mga labi anong sikolohikal na pag-uugaling pilipino ang
ginamit ni Chloe kay Shem?
10.Ang mga sumusunod ay paraang kung paanong nakatutulong ang kaalamang sikolohikal sa
pagpapaunlaad ng kakayahan nating manaliksik maliban sa isa.
Belvez 11. Ayon sa kanya, ang pagbasa ay pagkilala at pagkuha ng mga ideya at kaisipan sa mga sagisag
na nakalimbag upang mabigkas nang pasalita ang mga ito.
Bottom- Up 12. Isa itong tradisyonal na pananaw mula sa teoryang behaviorism.
Top-down 13. Ito ay hango sa teoryang kognitibo.
Schema o Iskima 14. Patuloy na nadaragdagan, napauunlad, nalilinang, at nagbabago.
Interactive 15. Kombinasyon ng top-down at bottom-up.
Maikhay/masinsin intensitibong pagbabasa 16.Ginagamit sa mga maiikling teksto upang makakuha ng
mga tiyak na impormasyon.
Batayang Antas 17. Nakapokus ang ganitong antas ng pagbabasa sa wika.
Inspeksyunal 18. Pre-reading o sistematikong iskiming kung tawagin.
Mapanuri o Kritikal 19. Ito ay isang aktibong antas ng pagbasa.
Sintopikal 20. Mataas na antas ng pagbasa.
Lilia Antonio 21. Ayon sa kanya ang pagsulat ay isang artikulasyon ng mga ideya, konsepto, paniniwala
at nararamdaman na ipinahahayag sa paraang pasulat, limbag at elektroniko na kung saan mayroon
itong dalawang yugto; Pangkognitibo at ang mismong proseso ng pagsulat.
Gonzalvo 22. Ayon sa kanya ang pagsulat ay ang pagsasatitik ng mga sagisag ng kaisipan. Ito
rinaypaglilimbag ng mga sagisag ng lengguwane.
Peck at Buckingham 23. Ayon sa kanila ,ang pagsulat ay ekstensyon ng wika at karanasang natamong
mag- aaral sa kanilang pakikinig, pagsasalita, at pagbabasa.
Dr. Francisco 24. Ayon sa kanta ang pagsulat ay nagtataglay ng iba’t ibang anyo o genre.
Isagani Cruz 25. Ayon sa kanya, naituturo ang pagsulat sapagkat hindi naman namamana ang
kakayahang ito.
Formal 26. Ito ay mga sulating may malinaw na daloy at ugnayan ng pangunahing paksa at
detalyadongpagtalakay ng balangkas ng paksa.
Di Formal 27. Ito ay mga sulating akita ang pagtalakay sa paksa, magaan ang pananalita, masaya at may
pagkapersonal naparang nakikipag-usap lamang sa mga mambabasa.
28.Ang mga sumusunod ay mga tips sa mabisang pagsulat maliban sa isa.
29.Ang mga sumusunod ay proseso ng pagsulat maliban sa isa.
Proseso ng pagsulat 30. Nagkakaroon ng hulma at tiyak na hugis ang mga ideya at konseptong nasa
isipan ng tao habangunti-uting naisusulat ito saan?
Tekstong impormatibo 31. Ito ay naglalayong magbigay ng impormasyon o magpaliwanag nang malinaw
at walang pagkiling tungkol sa iba’t ibang paksa.
32.Dito madalas makikita ang ang halimbawa ng tekstong impormatibo.
Layunin ng may akda 33. Maaring magkakaiba depende sa may akda.
Pantulong na kaisipan 34. Nakatutulong ito na mabuo sa isipan ng mga mambabasa ang pangunahing
ideyang nais niyang matanim o maiwan sa kanila.
Paglalahad ng totoong pangyayari/kasaysayan 35. Ito ay uri ng tekstong impormatibo na naglalahad
ang mga totoong pangyayaring naganapsa isang panahon o pagkakataon.
Pag-uulat pang-impormasyon 36. Ang uri ng tekstong impormatibong ito ay naglalahad ang
mahahalagang kaalamanoimpormasyon patungkol sa tao, hayop iba pang bagay na nabubuhay gayundin
sa mga pangyayari sa paligid.
Pagpapaliwanag 37 .Ito ang uri ng tekstong impormatibong nagbibigay paliwanag kung paano o bakit
naganapangisang bagay o pangyayari.
Pagsusulat ng mga talasanggunian 38. Inilalagay ng mga manunulat ang mga aklat, kagamitan, at iba
pang sangguniang ginamit upang higit na mabigyang-diin ang katotohanang akita batayan ng mga
impormasyong taglay nito.
Sunod-sunod 39. Ang mga kaalaman ay nakaayos nang _____ at inilalahad nang buong linaw at may
kaisahan.
Ideya 40. Dagliang inilalahad ng tekstong impormatibo ang ________ sa mga mambabasa sa
pamamagitan ng paglalagay ng pamagat sa bawat bahagi otinatawag na organizational markers na
nakatutulong upang agad na akita at malaman ngmgamambabasa ang pangunahing ideya ng babasahin.
Tekstong diskriptibo 41. Isang pagpapahayag ng mga impresyon at kakintalang likhang pandama.
Karaniwang paglalarawan 42. Tahasang inilalarawan ang paksa sa pamamagitan ng pagbanggit sa mga
katangian nito gamit ang mga pang-uri at pang-abay.
Masining na paglalarawan 43. Ito ang malikhaing paggamit ng wika upang makabuo ng kongkretong
imahe tungkol sa inilalarawan. Tinatangka nitong ipakita, iparinig, ipaamoy, ipalasa at ipadamaang isang
bagay, karanasan o pangyayari.
Simile o pagtutulad 44 .Paghahambing ng dalawang magkaibang bagay, tao at pangyayari
sapamamagitan ng mga salitang tulad ng, parang, kagaya, kasing, kawangis, kapara, animo’y at katulad.
Metapora o pagwawangis 45. Tuwirang paghahambing kaya’t hindi na kailangang gamitan ng mga
salitangnagpapahayag ng pagtutulad.
Personipikasyon o pagsasatao 46. Tumutukoy sa paglalapat ng mga katangiang pantao sa mga
bagaynaabstrakto o walang buhay.
Hayperboli47. Eksaherado o sobra sa mahinahong katotohanan at hindi dapat kuninangliteral na
pagpapakahulugan.
Onomatopeya 48. Paggamit ng salitang may pagkakatulad sa tunog ng bagay na inilalarawan.
Subhektibo 49. Uri ng paglalarawan kung saan ang manunulat ay nakabatay lamang sa kanyang
mayamang imahinasyon at hindi nakabatay sa katotohanan.
Obhektibo 50. May pinagbabatayang katotohanan.
 DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND READINESS
Disaster is a sudden - calamitous occurrence that causes great harm, injury, destruction, and
devastations to life and property.
Hazard - A dangerous phenomenon, substance human activity or condition that may cause loss of life,
injury or other health impacts, etc.
Disaster – a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society.
Natural Disaster - A natural phenomenon is caused by natural forces. They can be classified as rapid
onset disasters and those with progressive onset, such as droughts that lead to famine.
Biological Hazard - process or phenomenon of organic origin or conveyed by biological vectors/agents.
Geological Hazard - natural process, originates from the solid earth – geosphere.
Hydrometeorological Hazard - natural process, but involved with the atmosphere and/or hydrosphere.
Man - made and Technological Hazard - a hazard originating from technological or industrial conditions.
Disaster Risk - is expressed as a function of hazard, exposure, and vulnerability.
Exposure - the UNISDR defines exposure as people, property, systems and other elements present in
hazard zones that are thereby subject to potential loss.
Vulnerability - the UNDP defines vulnerability as “the degrees of loss to a given element at risk at a
certain severity level.”
Risk is defined as “the combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences”
Disaster risk is the product of the possible damage caused by a hazard due to the vulnerability within a
community.
Earthquake is a feeble shaking to violent trembling of the ground produced by the sudden displacement
of rocks or rock materials below the earth surface.
Tectonic Earthquakes - those generated by the sudden displacement along faults in a solid and rigid
layer of the earth.
Volcanic Earthquake - earthquake induced by rising lava and magma beneath active volcanoes.
Fault refers to a fracture, fissure or a zone of weakness where movement or displacement has occurred
or may occur again; a fault is to be “active fault” if it has historical and contemporary seismicity.
Ground shaking - disruptive up-down and sideways movement or motion experienced during an
earthquake.
Ground rupture - disruptive on the ground due to movement of fault.
Tsunami - sea waves resulting from the disturbance of ocean floor by an earthquake.
- is a series of giant sea waves commonly generated by under-the-sea earthquakes.
- tsunami waves are generated because of movement of fault under the sea.
Storm surges is a wind – generated waves on the surface of the sea.
Local Tsunamis are confined to coasts within a hundred kilometres of the source usually earthquakes
and landslide or a pyroclastic flow. It can reach the shoreline within 2 to 5 minutes.
Far field or distant tsunamis can travel from 1 to 24 hours before reaching the coast of the nearby
countries.
Liquefaction is a process that transforms the behavior of a body of sediments from that of a solid to that
of a liquid when subjected to extremely intense shaking.
Landslides - change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of factors acting together or
alone.
-
Topples occur suddenly when a massive part of very steep slopes break loose and rotate forward.
Rock falls involve chunks of detached rocks that fall freely for some distance or bounce and roll down
the steep slope.
Slides involve large rocks of bedrock that break free and slide down along planer or curved surface.
Lateral spreads are triggered by earthquakes and affect gentle slopes with less than 10 degrees
inclination. Slope materials lose cohesion through liquefaction caused by shaking during earthquakes.
Flows involve downslope motion of fine – grained clay, silt, and fine sand made mobile by water
saturation. These flows include mudflows and earthflows, and are common during rainy season.
Complex slides are combination of two or more types of movement.
Volcanic hazards are phenomena arising from volcanic activity that pose potential threat to persons or
property in a given area within a given period of time.
Lava flow are stream-like flows of incandescent molten rock erupted from a crater or fissure. When lava
is degassed and/or very viscous, it tends to extrude extremely slowly, forming lava domes.
Ashfall and tephra fall are showers of airborne fine – to coarse – grained volcanic particles that fallout
from the plumes of a volcanic eruption; ashfall distribution/dispersal is dependent on prevailing wind
direction.
Pyroclastic flows and surges are turbulent mass of ejected fragmented volcanic materials, mixed with
hot gases that flow downslope at very high speeds.
- are potentially highly destructive owing to their mass, high temperature, high velocity and great
mobility.
Lahars are rapidly flowing thick mixture of volcanic sediments and water, usually triggered by intense
rainfall during typhoons, monsoons and thunderstorms. Lahar can occur immediately after an eruption
or can become long-term problem if there are voluminous pyroclastic materials.
Volcanic gases involve gases and aerosols released into the atmosphere.
Debris avalanche or volcanic landslide is a massive collapse of a volcano, usually triggered by an
earthquake or volcanic eruption.
Ballistic projectiles are volcanic materials directly ejected from the volcano’s vent with force and
trajectory.
Tsunami is a sea waves or wave trains that are generated by sudden displacement of water.
Geological hazards are natural phenomena that cause major problems around the world.
Sinkholes - occur on elevated or flat surfaces and can range from massive to barely noticeable which
may leave a dent, a hole, or a body of water on the ground.
Landslide is a ground movement on a sloping terrain. It does not happen on flat ground because of the
angle on the ground, gravity induces the land to move downward.
Soil Creep Landslide is a very slow downslope movement of particles that occurs in every slope covered
with loose, weathered material.
Slumping Landslide is a downward movement of rock debris, usually the consequence of removal of
buttressing earth at the foot of a slope of unconsolidated material.
Debris Flow Landslide happens when the slope becomes saturated with water, this then triggers a
landslide of water-soaked mass of rock and soil that slides down.
Rock Fall landslides are sudden slides caused by heavy rain the rock on the slope loosens and then slides
down the slope.
Sinkhole is a topographic depression created when groundwater dissolves the underlying limestone
bedrock. Often known as "sink" or "doline,".
Cover Collapse Sinkhole - it develops suddenly (over an hour period) thus, causing catastrophic damage.
Cover Subsidence Sinkhole - it gradually grows where the sediment covers are permeable and contain
sand.
Dissolution Sinkhole - it occurs in areas where calcareous is exposed on the ground or where thin layers
of soil and permeable sand are also covered. Limestone or dolomite dissolution is most intense when
the water first reaches the rock surface.
Artificial Sinkhole - such types of sinks may be caused by various human activities, including
groundwater pumping and building.
 PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy comes from the two Greek words Philos (love) and Sophia (wisdom)
- may also be defined as a science of thinking that deals with the study of processes governing
thoughts and conduct.

Ethics which is derived from the Greek term ethos, meaning “moral philosophy,” is concerned about
human conduct. As a normative study, it deals with norms or standards of right and wrong applicable to
human behavior.

Aesthetics comes from the Greek word aisthetikos which means “sensitive” or perceptive.” In this
branch of philosophy, the philosopher is concerned with the analysis of aesthetic experience and the
idea of what is beautiful.

Epistemology comes from the Greek word episteme which means “knowledge.” This branch of
philosophy deals with various problems concerning knowledge.

Logic is the branch of philosophy that looks into whether there are rules or principles that govern
reasoning.
Metaphysics literally means “after physics.” It is the study of the nature of reality.
Logical Analysis - it allows a person during an argument to get practice at identifying solid arguments,
and therefore serves the purpose not only of aiding refutation, but also makes one less prone to making
flawed arguments themselves.

- this is more systemized approach to philosophy, which relies on methods f deduction and one’s ability
to master said methods.

Conceptual Analysis - this method is extremely useful in certain circumstances, such as when a complex
concept is either left undefined or a definition is used inconsistently.
Deconstruction - this method allows a thinker to challenge their own cultural preconceptions and thus
gain a somewhat more objective point of view.

Phenomenology - this approach is applicable when encountering a field of philosophy for the first time.
We also usually combine it with a sort of self – directed deconstruction.

Public Intellectual - this method serves to popularize philosophical discourse and make it accessible to
the common man.

Philosophy as Dialogue - the usefulness of this approach is that it brings a philosopher into contact with
many ideas in short period of time.

Comparative – Descriptive Approach - this is a valuable learning tool, since we often come to
understand concepts in relations to what we already know.

Comparative – Constructive - this is a very useful method in creating new ideas, which are extremely
important to the process of truth seeking.

Integrating Philosophy into other Experiences - It is a point of philosophy. By applying this method in
our everyday life, man can create an active philosophizing.
Active philosophizing is a method and a means to use and enjoy time.

Fact is something that is true and can be verified as such is something that is true and can be verified as
such.

Opinion is a statement that holds the element of belief; it tells how someone feels. In other words, it is
what someone believes or thinks, and is not necessarily the truth.

Opinions are statements that go beyond providing facts.

➢ Conclusion is a judgment based on certain facts.

➢ Beliefs are statements that express convictions that are not easily and clearly explained by facts.

➢ Explanations are statements that assume the claim to be true and provide reasons why the
statement is true.

➢ Arguments are a series of statements that provide reasons to convince the reader or listener that a
claim or opinion is truthful.

➢ Fallacies are arguments based on faulty reasoning.

➢ Bias is a disproportionate weight in favor of or against an idea or thing, usually in a way that is close-
minded, prejudicial, or unfair.

• Ad hominem - attacking the person presenting the argument instead of the argument itself.

• Appeal to force - using the threat of force or an undesirable event to advance an argument.

• Appeal to emotion - using emotions such as pity or sympathy.

• Appeal to the popular - the idea is presented as acceptable because a lot of people accept it.

• Appeal to tradition - the idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long time.

• Begging the question - assuming the thing or idea to be proven is true; also known as circular
argument.

• Cause-and-effect - assuming “cause-and effect” relationship between unrelated events.

• Fallacy of composition - assuming that what is true of a part is true for the whole.

• Fallacy of division - assuming that what is true for the whole is true for its parts.

Dualism - It is the doctrine that all the phenomena of the universe can be explained by two separate and
distinct substances such as mind and matter.

- Human person is a composite of two elements: body and spirit.

According to Plato, a human was exiled into this world of matter and imprisoned in the body.

Moderate Dualism - emphasizes the unity of the two elements.

Aristotle propounded that the human person’s existence realistically is a constitution of body and soul,
mind and matter, sense and intellect, passion, and reason.

- BODY is his/her outer part, which one can be sensibly perceived.

- SOUL is the inner part of human person. It consists of three parts: MIND, EMOTION, and WILL.

- SPIRIT is the innermost part of human person by which he/she can commune with God.

Monism - It is the doctrine that the universe can be explained by one substance such as matter, mind, or
some other single thing or force.

Idealist monism upholds the idea that human person is purely spiritual.

Materialist monism argues that only the body is real.

- The body is the human person itself. The idea of spirit is only an illusion.

The new monism - started with the idea that human person is a unitary being with material existence
that has a mysterious dimension that belongs to the realm of the spiritual.

- The humanistic thinkers see him/her as a total otherness.

- What is privileged in the new monism is neither the spirit nor the body, but the totality of human
person.

Man is the general term commonly used to refer to the entire human race. The term, Human on the
other hand, refers to man as a species- Homo sapiens or modern human beings.
St. Thomas, the Philosopher who believed that the human person’s nature as an embodied spirit
enables us to engage in meaningful experiences and makes transcendence possible.

Transcendence is a state of being or existence that is above and beyond physical needs and realities.

Limitations of Transcendence may not occur to everyone, does not come at a specified period, varies
across all people, may coincide with physical limitations of the body.

Possibilities for Transcendence include: developing a positive outlook in life, working towards reaching
a goal and learning from experience.
Aiming for transcendence, it is important to consider the feasibility of your goals, the work you would
need to put in it.
Karl Marx, claimed that the human person is purely a material entity, a cog of a machine.
George Berkley, claimed that matter has no real existence independent from the mind, for without the
mind, there is no matter.
Human person is a child of the universe, a part of nature and small world.
Environment - is referred to “all of the surrounding things, conditions and influences affecting the
growth or development of living things”.
- It is the natural world within which groups of families, people, animals and plants live.
- It is derived from the French word “environner” which means “to encircle or surround”.
 - It means the circumstance or conditions that surround an organism or group of organisms, or the
complex of social or cultural conditions that affect an individual or community.
Environmental Philosophy is a branch of Philosophy that is concerned with the natural environment and
humanity’s place in it.
Prudence- which is the ability to have good judgment that allows avoidance of dangers and risks.
Frugality- which is the act of using money or other resources wisely and practically.
Freedom, in a traditional sense, is a synonymous to liberty or independence. In a democratic society,
this term is often used as the right of a person to do whatever he/she pleases to do, for as long as
his/her conduct or actions are within the bounds set by law.
Freedom of choice is the basic characteristics of a person.
Freedom is the absence of coercion, intimidation or constraint imposed upon a subject by another
person, institution, thing or circumstance.
Freedom from - means implies restraints, which are interior or exterior.
Freedom for - means and implies growth as a full person.
Physical Freedom – refers to the absence of any restraint. This means that a person has the freedom to
go anywhere he or she wanted to do. On the other hand, we cannot go to two places at a time yet we
have the ability to go to wherever we want to go.
Psychological Freedom – is also called freedom of choice. This means that a person has the will power
whether to act or not to act on what he or she considers to be right and wise.
Moral Freedom – refers to using freedom in a manner that upholds human dignity and goodness.
Freedom is not an object that a person may use in whatever way he or she pleases. A person must use
his or her freedom to grow as a person.
Voluntariness – refers to the ability of a person to act out of his or her own free will and self-
determination.
Responsibility – refers to the person being accountable for his or her actions and their consequences.
Physical Limitations are real. These deny and take away the power and ability to determine to what one
wants in life.
Psychological Limitations are the subjective obstacles or factors that control the mind such as fear,
envy, or laziness.
Social Limitations are components or elements of an organizational culture such as norms, values,
language, beliefs, symbols, traits and fashion, fads and crazes.