Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Algebraic structures
NGUYEN CANH Nam1
1 Faculty of Applied Mathematics Department of Applied Mathematics and Informatics Hanoi University of Technologies namnc@mail.hut.edu.vn

HUT - 2010

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Agenda
1

Binary operators Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators Groups Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups Subgroups, normal subgroups Subgroups Normal subgroups

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

Agenda
1

Binary operators Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators Groups Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups Subgroups, normal subgroups Subgroups Normal subgroups

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

Binary operators
Denition

Denition A mapping :SS S is called a binary operator on the set S. A binary operator on S thus assigns to each ordered pair of elements of S exactly one element of S. Binary operators are usually represented by symbols like , , +, , instead of letters f , g and so on. Moreover, the image of (x, y ) under a binary operator is written x y instead of (x, y ).

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

Binary operators
Examples

Example Addition (+) and multiplication () in the set Z of integers, Z more generally, in the set IR of real numbers are the most familiar examples of binary operators. If A and B are subset of X , then A B, A B, and A B are also subsets of X . Hence, union, intersection and difference are all binary operators on the set P(X ). Again, given mappings f : X X and g : X X , their composition f g is also a mapping X X . Hence, the composition () of mappings is a binary operator on the set S = X X of all mappings from X to X .

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

Binary operators
Closure

Denition Let be an operation on a set B and C B. The subset C is said to be closed under the operation provided that Whenever a, b C then a b C
Example Let Z be the set of integer numbers, O be the subset containing all Z odd numbers and E be the set containing all even numbers. Then a) Under ordinary addition E is closed. Actually, if a, b E (even) then a + b E (even). b) The set O is not closed under ordinary addition. Indeed, if a, b O (odd) then a + b is even, doesnt belong to O.
NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

Binary operators
Closure

Example Let O be the set of rational numbers and dene Q B = {a + b 2 | a, b O }. Then B is closed under ordinary Q addition and multiplication on O . Q Actually, a1 + b1 2 + a2 + b2 2 = (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 ) 2 and (a1 + b1 2)(a2 + b2 2) = (a1 a2 + 2b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 ) 2 Example Given X Y , the power set P(X ) is closed under the operation of union and intersection on the power set P(Y ).
NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

Agenda
1

Binary operators Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators Groups Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups Subgroups, normal subgroups Subgroups Normal subgroups

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

Binary operators
Commutativity and Associativity

Denition A binary operation : S S S on the set S is

1

commutative if x y =y x for all x, y S

Addition (+) and multiplication () in the sets IN, Z and IR are Z commutative : a + b = b + a, a b = b a associative if x (y z) = (x y ) z for all x, y , z S Addition (+) and multiplication () in the sets IN, Z and IR are Z associative : a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c, a (b c) = (a b) c
NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

Binary operators
Identity element

Denition Identity element. We say that a binary operation : S S S on the set S has the identity element e if e S and ae =ea=a Example Addition (+) in the sets IN, Z and IR has the identity element 0 : Z a+0=0+a=a Multiplication () in the sets IN, Z and IR has the identity element Z 1: a1=1a=a for all a S

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

Binary operators
Inverse element Denition Inverse element. Let : S S S be an binary operation on the set S with the identity element e. Consider an element a S, element a S is called the inverse of a if aa =a a=e If every element of S has the inverse element we say that operator is invertible. Example Addition (+) in the sets Z and IR, all element a has the inverse element a : a + (a) = (a) + a = 0 Multiplication () in the sets Z , all element a = 1 has no inverse element. 1 Multiplication () in the sets IR, all element a = 0 has the inverse element a , 1 1 1 we write a , a = a=1 a a

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

Binary operators

Remark a) If a binary operator denoted by + then the identity element is usually denoted by 0 and the inverse element of x is usually denoted by x called the negative of x. b) If a binary operator denoted by then the identity element is usually denoted by 1 and the inverse element of x is usually denoted by x 1 .

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

Binary operators

Example Let Sym(X ) be the set of all bijections from on X . The composition operation has the following properties a) (f g) h = f (g h) (associative), b) The identity element is idX , c) For f Sym(X ), its inverse element the inverse map f 1 . d) The operation is not commutative since, as you might remember, in general, f g = g f .

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Agenda
1

Binary operators Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators Groups Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups Subgroups, normal subgroups Subgroups Normal subgroups

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Semigroups
Denitions

The simplest algebraic structure to recognize is a semigroups which is dened as follows. Denition Let S be a non-empty set on which there is dened a binary operation denoted by . For a, b S the outcome of the operation between a and b is denoted by a b. Then set S is called a semigroup if the following axioms hold (i) For all a, b S, a b S (closure). (ii) For all a, b c S, (a b) c = a (b c) (associativity). Any algebraic structure S with a binary operation + or is normally written (S, +) or (S, )
NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Semigroups
Examples

Example (a) The system of integers or reals under usual multiplication (or addition) (b) The set of mappings from a nonempty set S into itself under composition of mappings.

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Semigroups
Examples

Semigroups are common in mathematics and easy to create as the following examples show Example
1

Let S be the set of one element, S = {a}, say. Dene a a = a Then (S, ) becomes a semigroup. Let S be a non-empty set. Dene a binary operation on a b = b for all a, b S. S by We clain that S is a semigroup under this operation. Certainly, we have for ll a, b S, a b = b S. We also have for all a, b, c S, (a b) c = b c = c and a (b c) = a c = c and so (a b) c = a (b c). Thus (S, ) is a semigroup.
NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Agenda
1

Binary operators Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators Groups Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups Subgroups, normal subgroups Subgroups Normal subgroups

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Groups
Denition

Denition A group is a nonempty set G equipped with an binary operation that satises the following axioms (i) Closure : If a G and b G, then a b G. (ii) Associativity : a (b c) = (a b) c for all a, b, c G. (iii) There is an element e G (called the identity element) such that a e = a = e a for every a G. (iv) For each a G, there is an element a G (called the inverse of a) such that a a = a a = e. If the binary operation in a group (G, ) is commutative - that is, a b = b a for all a, b G - then the group is called commutative or abelian.
NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Groups
Examples

Example
1

Let Z be the set of all integers and let be the ordinary Z addition, +, in Z That Z is closed and associative under Z. Z are basic properties of the integers. What serves as the unit element, e, of Z under ? Clearly, since Z a = a e = a + e, we have e = 0, and 0 is the required identity element under addition. What about a1 Here too, since e = 0 = a a1 = a + a1 , the a1 in this instance is a, and clearly a (a) = a + (a) = 0. Moreover, it is a Abelian group. However, Z under multiplication is not a group. We know Z that, for example, the number 2 does not have an inverse element in Z Z.
NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Groups
Examples

Example 2 Let O be the set of all rational numbers and let the Q operation on O be the ordinary addition of rational Q numbers. As above, O is easily shown to be a group under Q . Note that Z O and both Z and O are groups under the Z Q Z Q same operation . They are all Abelian group. 3 Let IR+ be the set of all positive real numbers and let the operation on IR+ be the ordinary product of real numbers. Again it is easy to check that IR+ is an Abelian group under . 4 Sym(X ) with the composition of maps is a noncommutative group.
NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Groups
Order

A group G is said to be nite if it has a nite number of elements, otherwise it is said to be innite. If G is nite , the number of elements in G is called the order of G and is denoted |G|. An innite group is often said to have innite order. Example Z and O under multiplication are examples of groups of innite Z Q order.

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Agenda
1

Binary operators Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators Groups Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups Subgroups, normal subgroups Subgroups Normal subgroups

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Groups
Properties

Proposition In a group, the identity element is unique; for an element x its inverse element is unique

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Groups
Properties

Theorem Let (G, ) be a group. (i) (Cancellation) Let a, b, x G be such that a x = b x. Then a = b. (Similary y a = y b, y G implies a = b.) (ii) (Unique solution of equation) Let a, b G. Then the equation a x = b has the unique solution x = a1 b. (Similary y a = b has the unique solution y = b a1 . Proof. (ii) Certainly a1 b is a solution since a (a1 b) = (a a1 ) b = e b = b where e is the identity. On the other hand, a x = b implies that aa (a x) = a1 b from which we conclude that (a1 a) x = a1 b and so x = e x = a1 b.
NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Groups
Properties

Theorem Let (G, ) be a group and a, b G. Then (a b)1 = b1 a1 .

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Subgroups Normal subgroups

Agenda
1

Binary operators Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators Groups Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups Subgroups, normal subgroups Subgroups Normal subgroups

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Subgroups Normal subgroups

Subgroups
Denition

Denition Let H be a non-empty subset of the group (G, ) which is also a group under the operation . Then H is called a subgroup of G. Example
1 2 3 4 5

Two obvious subgroups of G are G itself and {e}. Z is a subgroup of (O , +) or (IR, +). Z Q 2Z = {2n | n Z is a subgroup of (Z +). Z Z} Z, H = {2n + 1 | n Z is not a subgroup of (Z +). Z} Z, Z is not a subgroup of (O , ) where O = O \ {0}. Z Q Q Q

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Subgroups Normal subgroups

Subgroups
Criterion conditions

Theorem (Subgroup criterion) A nonempty subset H of the group (G, ) is a subgroup of G if and only if two following conditions hold (i) For all a, b H we have a b H. (ii) For all a H we have a1 H. Proposition The intersection of a collection of subgroups of G is also a subgroup.

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Subgroups Normal subgroups

Agenda
1

Binary operators Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators Groups Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups Subgroups, normal subgroups Subgroups Normal subgroups

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Subgroups Normal subgroups

Cosets
Denition

Denition Let H be a subgroup of a group (G, ). The left and the right cosets of H containing g are gH = {g h | h H} respectively. Proposition Assume that H is a subgroup of the group (G, ). Then (i) For x G, x xH. (ii) If y xH then xH = yH. (iii) The cosets of H form a partition of G. (iv) xH = yH if and only if x 1 y H.
NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 5

and

Hg = {h g | h H}

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Subgroups Normal subgroups

Normal subgroups
Denition

Denition A subgroup H of a group G is called a normal subgroup of (G, ) if for all x G, h H we have x h x 1 H. In this case we write H 0 G. Example
1

Let G be a group and e is the identity element of G. Then G and {e} are normal subgroups of G. If G is an Abelian group then any subgroup H of G is a normal subgroup.

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Subgroups Normal subgroups

Quotient group
Denition

Let H be a normal subgroup of (G, ). Put x = xH for x G. On the set G/H = {xH | x G} = {x | x G} we dene an operator as follows x y = x y. Then this is a binary operator. Proposition Assume that H is a normal subgroup of G. G/H with the above operator id also a group, called the quotient group.

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Subgroups Normal subgroups

Quotient group
Example

Example Let Z be the set if integers, m be a x natural number, Z mZ = {mn | n Z Then mZ is a normal subgroup of the Z Z}. Z additive group Z and the quotient group Z Z Z/mZ = {0, 1, , m 1} where k = {mn + k | n Z Z Z}.

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Mathematics I - Chapter 5