Wind shear

Wind
Wind is the term used to describe the large-scale flow of atmospheric air.

Therefore, wind shear is defined as a sudden change of wind velocity and/or direction.

Wind shear may be vertical or horizontal, or a mixture of both types. ICAO defines the
vertical and horizontal components of wind shear as follows:

 Vertical wind shear is defined as change of horizontal wind direction and/or

speed with height, as would be determined by means of two or more
anemometers mounted at different heights on a single mast.
 Horizontal wind shear is defined as change of horizontal wind direction and/or
speed with horizontal distance, as would be determined by two or more
anemometers mounted at the same height along a runway.

Effects
The main effects of wind shear are:

 Turbulence
 Violent air movement (up- or down-draughts or swirling or rotating air patterns)
 Sudden increase or reduction of airspeed
 Sudden increase or decrease of groundspeed and/or drift.

Solutions
 Improved forecasting of wind shear;
 Improved training in wind shear recognition, avoidance and recovery;
 More widespread use of ground and airborne wind shear warning systems.

Tail wind
This is wind that blows in the direction of travel of an aircraft.
Effects
 Increases the ground speed at required takeoff airspeed and increases the
takeoff speed.
 Reduced climb gradient
 Achieve greater ground speed to attain the lift takeoff.
 During cruise will increase performance by increasing the ground speed which in
turn reduces the fuel requirements for the flight.
 Head wind
These blows against the direction of aircraft travel.
It favorable in takeoff and landings because an airfoil moving into ahead wind is capable
of generating greater lift, ATCs commonly choose to take off and land in the direction of
runway that will provide ahead wind.
Effects
 Reduces the ground speed at required takeoff airspeed and reduces the takeoff
speed.
 Increased climb gradient
 Allow aircraft to reach the lift off speed at low ground speed.
 During cruise will decrease performance by increasing the ground speed which in
turn increases the fuel requirements for the flight.
Relationship between ground speed, airspeed and wind speed.

Vgroundwind = Vairspeed – Vheadwind

Note: ground wind is the horizontal speed of an aircraft relative to the ground.

Cross wind
This is any wind that has perpendicular component of the line direction of travel.
This is component of wind that is blowing across the runaway, making landing and
takeoff more difficult that if the wind were blowing straight down the runaway.
Note: If crosswind is strong enough, it can damage an aircraft’s undercarriage upon
landing.
Fog
Fog is a visible aerosol consisting of tiny water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the
air at or near the Earth's surface.[1] Fog can be considered a type of low-
lying cloud usually resembling stratus, and is heavily influenced by nearby bodies of
water, topography, and wind conditions. In turn, fog has affected many human activities,
such as shipping, travel, and warfare. Fog shows up when water vapor, or water in its
gaseous form, condenses. During condensation, molecules of water vapor combine to
make tiny liquid water droplets that hang in the air. Sea fog, which shows up near
bodies of salty water, is formed as water vapor condenses around bits of salt.
Formation
Fog begins to form when water vapor condenses into tiny water droplets that are
suspended in the air. Some examples of ways that water vapor is added to the air are
by wind convergence into areas of upward motion; [6] precipitation or virga falling from
above;[7] daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans, water bodies,
or wet land;[8] transpiration from plants;[9] cool or dry air moving over warmer water;
[10]
 and lifting air over mountains.[11] Water vapor normally begins to condense
on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds.[12][13] Fog, like
its elevated cousin stratus, is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool,
stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass. [14]

Types
 Radiation fog is formed by the cooling of land after sunset by infrared thermal
radiation in calm conditions with a clear sky. The cooling ground then cools
adjacent air by conduction, causing the air temperature to fall and reach the dew
point, forming fog. In perfect calm, the fog layer can be less than a meter thick,
but turbulence can promote a thicker layer. Radiation fog occurs at night, and
usually does not last long after sunrise, but it can persist all day in the winter
months, especially in areas bounded by high ground. Radiation fog is most
common in autumn and early winter. Examples of this phenomenon include Tule
fog.[17]
 Ground fog is fog that obscures less than 60% of the sky and does not extend to
the base of any overhead clouds.[18] However, the term is usually a synonym for
shallow radiation fog; in some cases the depth of the fog is on the order of tens
of centimeters over certain kinds of terrain with the absence of wind.


Advection fog layer in San Francisco with the Golden Gate Bridge and skyline in
the background
 Advection fog occurs when moist air passes over a cool surface
by advection (wind) and is cooled.[19] It is common as a warm front passes over
an area with significant snow-pack. It is most common at sea when moist air
encounters cooler waters, including areas of cold water upwelling, such as along
the California coast (see San Francisco fog). A strong enough temperature
difference over water or bare ground can also cause advection fog.
 Although strong winds often mix the air and can disperse, fragment, or prevent
many kinds of fog, markedly warmer and humid air blowing over a snowpack can
continue to generate advection fog at elevated velocities up to 80 km/h (50 mph)
or more – this fog will be in a turbulent, rapidly moving, and comparatively
shallow layer, observed as a few centimeters/inches in depth over flat farm fields,
flat urban terrain and the like, and/or form more complex forms where the terrain
is different such as rotating areas in the lee of hills or large buildings and so on.
Fog formed by advection along the California coastline is propelled onto land by
one of several processes. A cold front can push the marine layer coast-ward, an
occurrence most typical in the spring or late fall. During the summer months, a
low-pressure trough produced by intense heating inland creates a strong
pressure gradient, drawing in the dense marine layer. Also, during the summer,
strong high pressure aloft over the desert southwest, usually in connection with
the summer monsoon, produces a south to southeasterly flow which can drive
the offshore marine layer up the coastline; a phenomenon known as a "southerly
surge", typically following a coastal heat spell. However, if the monsoonal flow is
sufficiently turbulent, it might instead break up the marine layer and any fog it
may contain. Moderate turbulence will typically transform a fog bank, lifting it and
breaking it up into shallow convective clouds called stratocumulus.
 Evaporation fog or steam fog forms over bodies of water overlain by much
colder air; this situation can also lead to the formation of steam devils, which look
like their dust counterparts. Lake effect fog is of this type, sometimes in
combination with other causes like radiation fog. It tends to differ from most
advective fog formed over land in that it is, like lake-effect snow, a convective
phenomenon, resulting in fog that can be very dense and deep and looks fluffy
from above.
 Frontal fog forms in much the same way as stratus cloud near a front when
raindrops, falling from relatively warm air above a frontal surface, evaporate into
cooler air close to the Earth's surface and cause it to become saturated. This
type of fog can be the result of a very low frontal stratus cloud subsiding to
surface level in the absence of any lifting agent after the front passes.
 Ice fog forms in very low temperatures and can be the result of other
mechanisms mentioned here, as well as the exhalation of moist warm air by
herds of animals. It can be associated with the diamond dust form of
precipitation, in which very small crystals of ice form and slowly fall. This often
occurs during blue sky conditions, which can cause many types of halos and
other results of refraction of sunlight by the airborne crystals.
 Freezing fog, which deposits rime, is composed of droplets of super cooled
water that freeze to surfaces on contact.
 Precipitation fog (or frontal fog) forms as precipitation falls into drier air below
the cloud, the liquid droplets evaporate into water vapor. The water vapor cools
and at the dew point it condenses and fog forms.
 Hail fog sometimes occurs in the vicinity of significant hail accumulations due to
decreased temperature and increased moisture leading to saturation in a very
shallow layer near the surface. It most often occurs when there is a warm, humid
 layer atop the hail and when wind is light. This ground fog tends to be localized
but can be extremely dense and abrupt. It may form shortly after the hail falls;
when the hail has had time to cool the air and as it absorbs
heat when melting and evaporating.[20]
 Upslope fog forms when moist air is going up the slope of a mountain or hill
(orographic lifting) which condenses into fog on account of adiabatic cooling, and
to a lesser extent the drop in pressure with altitude.

Mountainous waves

Mountain Waves is defined as oscillations to the lee side (downwind) of high ground
resulting from the disturbance in the horizontal air flow caused by the high ground.

Effects

 Severe turbulence,
 Strong vertical currents, and
 Icing

Solutions

 Reduce on Airspeed. 
  Inform ATC. Notify ATC of mountain wave activity.

Katabatic wind

A cold flow of air travelling down an orographic slope (eg. hill or mountain).

During and after sunset, particularly on a clear day/night, air at and near the top of
elevated land surfaces, particularly over snow-covered surfaces, cools relatively quicker
than air at lower altitudes. As air cools it becomes denser and therefore heavier. The
cold air then flows down the side of the mountain, resulting in a katabatic flow (or wind).

The flow may be as strong as 100 knots, and generally more

pronounced in intensity to its opposite, anabatic wind.

When flying in the mountains, care should be taken when flying

on the shady side of valleys, as the katabatic effect, even
during the day, may be pronounced, depending on
performance and type or aircraft.

Fig. 1 is a simple diagram denoting the above text. The flow

may be as strong as 100 knots, and generally more
pronounced in intensity to its opposite, anabatic wind.

Fig. 2 is an extension of Fig. 1 and shows, in a simple way, the details of this paragraph.
NOTE: The colder air which flows down the valley walls may “collect” at the bottom of
the valley, creating a cold pool of air near the surface and low temperatures on the
ground. Aircraft approaching an airport in similar geographic and climatological
locations may experience an increase in performance while flying into the cold pool,
whereas, more safety-important, an aircraft climbing through the cold pool may
experience a significant inversion layer once out of the pool, possibly affecting
performance significantly.

Anabatic Wind
Air flow travelling up a facing slope of an orographic surface (e.g. hill, mountain)

Anabatic winds are mainly created by ultraviolet solar radiation heating up the lower
regions of an orographic area (i.e. valley walls). Due to its limited heat capacity, the
surface heats the air immediately above it by conduction. As the air warms, its volume
increases, and hence density and pressure decreases. The air becomes relatively
buoyant and rises up the orographic slope (orographic lift), resulting in the anabatic flow
(or wind).

The relatively colder air is displaced, part of it travels downwards to “replenish” the
valley floor, and the process of heating by conduction may begin anew.

Anabatic winds vary in intensity and occurrence;

In general, anabatic winds are more pronounced in the summer season when the sun's
heating is more intense, and its velocity ranges from 10 to 30 knots.

Predominantly a day time phenomenon, anabatic wind may flow further than the
orographic tops, cooling as it rises vertically (convection), dry-adiabatically. If the air is
cooled sufficiently to reach the air's dew point temperature, the saturated air may
condense its water vapor content, resulting in mainly convective clouds. If the air is
sufficiently unstable, cumulonimbus clouds may be produced, resulting in orographic
thunderstorms.
Depending on the relative position of the sun and the angle of the orographic surface to
the sun, the “sunny side” of valleys are more prone to anabatic winds than the “shady
side”, where relatively colder air may even flow downwards along the orographic slope,
resulting in a katabatic wind. Pilots of small piston-engine aircraft are advised to fly on
the sunny side of valleys especially in higher altitudes in order to avoid katabatic winds.

Note: On sunny hour anabatic winds are stronger than shady hours

Turbulence
Aviation experts describe turbulence as random, unpredictable motion that occurs
between layers of air moving at different speeds.

Turbulence type cause

 convective Uneven heating of the earth’s surface
mechanical Obstructions disrupt airflow
Mountain wave Airflow disrupted by mountains
Clear air jet stream associated above 15000ft

Note: Jetstream is defined as a flat tubular current of air, quasi-horizontal, whose axis
is along a line of maximum speed and which is characterized not only by great speeds
but also by strong transverse gradients of speed.
Jet streams are fast flowing, narrow, meandering air currents in the atmospheres of
some planets, including Earth.[1] On Earth, the main jet streams are located near the
altitude of the tropopause and are westerly winds (flowing west to east). Their paths
typically have a meandering shape. Jet streams may start, stop, split into two or more
parts, combine into one stream, or flow in various directions including opposite to the
direction of the remainder of the jet.
Categories of turbulence
In aviation industry, in order to provide a standard for reporting and describing
turbulence, has classified turbulence into intensities according to its effect on aircraft
and occupants as follows:
Light: Displaces loose objects, but there is no difficulty walking about the cabin.
Moderate: Strong enough to make waking difficult. Drinks splash, and passengers
strain against their seat belts.
Severe: Passengers are pushed violently against their seat belts, walking is impossible
and loose objects are thrown about (Morrison, 200 1).
Extreme: Aircraft is violently tossed about and is practically impossible to control.

Temperature

 As air temperatures rise at constant pressure, air density declines, resulting in less lift
generation by an aircraft wing at a given airspeed and potentially imposing a weight
restriction on departing aircraft.
Higher Temperature Maxima Higher temperature maxima at ground level result in
significant decreases in air density, reducing the lift force on the wings of departing
aircraft. This reduction in lift could have severe consequences for aircraft take-off
performance, where high altitudes or short runways limit the payload or even the fuel
carrying capacity.
Sand and Dust Storms. The likely increase in occurrence and intensity of sand and
dust storms caused by both longer drought periods and potentially stronger winds in the
sub-tropical latitudes will require a thorough analysis of its impacts on the safety and
regularity of flights in these regions. There is emerging evidence that the drive to
achieve higher engine efficiency to reduce fuel consumption has pushed the operating
temperatures in the combustion chambers of the most modern engines towards
temperatures in excess of 1600°C.
At these temperatures, the silicates contained in typical sand and dust storms will melt
and thus affect the performance and maintenance requirements of jet engines.
What happens to the air when the temperature decreases?
As the molecules heat and move faster, they are moving apart. So air, like most other
substances, expands when heated and contracts when cooled. Because there is more
space between the molecules, the air is less dense than the surrounding matter and the
hot air floats upward.

How does elevation affect temperature?
As you increase in elevation, there is less air above you thus the pressure decreases.
As the pressure decreases, air molecules spread out further (i.e. air expands) and
the temperature decreases.

Dew point
This is the air temperature at which a sample of air would reach 100% humidity based
upon its current degree of saturation.
NOTE: When dew point is below the freezing point(32F) frost will form.
Why need to know dew point?
Therefore, knowing the dew point gives an idea of how moist or dry the air is in
atmosphere.
How is moisture added to air? The air gains moisture through two processes,
evaporation and sublimation. Evaporation is when water goes from a liquid to a gas,
such as a puddle on your driveway on a hot summer day that “evaporates”. Sublimation
is when water goes from a solid to a gas, such as when snow or ice “sublimates” and
adds moisture to the air without going through the liquid phase.

Sea breeze,
A sea breeze or onshore breeze is any wind that blows from a large body of
water toward or onto a landmass; it develops due to differences in air pressure created
by the differing heat capacities of water and dry land. As such, sea breezes are more
localised than prevailing winds. Because land heats up much faster than water
under solar radiation, a sea breeze is a common occurrence along coasts after sunrise

In meteorology, prevailing wind in a region of the Earth's surface is a surface wind that

blows predominantly from a particular direction. The dominant winds are the trends in
direction of wind with the highest speed over a particular point on the Earth's surface

Those who live within 30 to 40 km (about 19 to 25 miles) of the coastline often

experience the cooler 10- to 20-km- (about 6- to 12-mile-) per-hour winds of the
sea breeze on a sunny afternoon only to find it turn into a sultry land breeze late at
night. Since the surface flow of the sea breeze terminates over land, a region of low-
level air convergence is produced. Locally, such convergence often induces the upward
movement of air, fostering the development of clouds. Such clouds may produce
showers that occur over land in the afternoon.

What does sea breeze affect?

Where the sea breeze front meets the drier, hotter inland air, the warmer, lighter
air will converge and rise and develop thunderstorms. This is why we so frequently
have a 20 to 30 percent chance of rain on any given Summer day due to the sea
breeze.

How does cold weather affect helicopters?

Freezing conditions can be extremely dangerous for helicopter flights, especially if
humidity is high. Ice can form on the inside and outside of aircraft, changing the way
that the equipment functions and potentially creating control problems. Humid air is also
less dense, which can decrease aircraft performance.
Land breeze
What is a land breeze and what causes it?
The land breeze is a coastal breeze at night blowing from the land to the ocean. It
is caused by the difference in the rates of cooling of the land and of the ocean. Once
again, the bigger the difference in temperature between the two, the stronger the wind.

Why is land breeze important?

Land breeze, a local wind system characterized by a flow from land to water late at
night. ... Since the surface flow of the land breeze terminates over water, a region of
low-level air convergence is produced. Locally, such convergence often induces the
upward movement of air, fostering the development of clouds.

What is the Effect of Land Breeze?

Since the flowing of the land breeze terminates over water, it creates a region of low-
level air convergence. Such convergence often causes the upward movement of air and
the formation of clouds. Therefore, you may find clouds lying off the coast at night, but
the daytime sea breeze later dissipates that. It does not necessarily cause temperature
changes.

Desert climate
The desert climate or arid climate (in the Köppen climate
classification BWh and BWk), is a climate which there is an excess
of evaporation over precipitation. The typically bald, rocky, or sandy surfaces in desert
climates hold little moisture and evaporate the little rainfall they receive. Covering 14.2%
of earth's land area, hot deserts are the most common type of climate on
earth[1] after polar climate.
Mirages and Dust Devils
 Mirages, which appear like silvery water, are caused by light from the sun reflecting off
a layer of turbulent heated air near the desert surface. They are most common on hot
days on a flat, heated surfaces. The "water" is simply a reflection of the sky. As one
approached it disappears.
 Small whirlwinds, called dust devils, are common in arid lands and are thought to be
related to very intense local heating of the air that results in instabilities of the air mass.
Dust devils may be as much as one kilometer high.

Fronts
A weather front is a boundary separating air masses of several characteristics such
as air density, wind, and humidity. 
Types
Cold front
A cold front is located along the warm side of a tightly packed temperature gradient. On
surface analysis charts, this temperature gradient is visible in isotherms and can
sometimes be identified using isobars since cold fronts often align with a surface trough.
Warm front
Warm fronts are at the leading edge of a homogeneous warm air mass, which is located
on the equatorward edge of the gradient in isotherms, and lie within broader troughs of
low pressure than cold fronts. A warm front moves more slowly than the cold front which
usually follows because cold air is denser and harder to remove from the Earth's
surface.
An occluded front
An occluded front is formed when a cold front overtakes a warm front, [8] and usually
forms around mature low-pressure areas. [2] The cold and warm fronts curve naturally
poleward into the point of occlusion, which is also known as the triple point.
A stationary front.
A stationary front is a non-moving (or stalled) boundary between two air masses, neither
of which is strong enough to replace the other. They tend to remain essentially in the
same area for extended periods of time, usually moving in waves. [11] There is normally a
broad temperature gradient behind the boundary with more widely
spaced isotherm packing.