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Chapter 5 LOGIC: Logical Statements and Quantifiers
Chapter 5 LOGIC: Logical Statements and Quantifiers
Chapter 5 LOGIC: Logical Statements and Quantifiers
Definition: A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both true
and false.
Ex. 𝑥 + 5 = 13 For any given value of 𝑥, it is either true or false, but not both.
b. 𝑡 ∧∼ 𝑟
c. ∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑡
Illustration
Determine the truth value of the following statement.
a. 9 ≥ 7
Equivalent Statements
Two statements are equivalent if they are both have the same truth value for all possible
truth values of their simple statements. The notation 𝑝 ≡ 𝑞 is used to indicate that the
statement 𝑝 and 𝑞 are equivalent.
Illustration
Show that 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) and (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟) are equivalent.
De Morgan’s Laws for Statements
For any statements 𝑝 and 𝑞,
∼ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡∼ 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞
∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞
Illustrations
It is not the case that, the student cut classes or took part in the demonstration.
Universal Quantifiers are used to deny the existence of something or to assert that every
element of a given set satisfies some conditions.
- none, no; all, every
Statement Negations
All X are Y Some X are not Y.
No X are Y Some X are Y.
Example:
Some fruits are not green.
All teachers are beautiful.
No restaurants are open.
Some MMW topics are challenging.
Arrow Notation
The conditional statement , “If 𝑝, then 𝑞,” can be written using the arrow notation 𝑝 → 𝑞.
The arrow notation 𝑝 → 𝑞 is read as “if 𝑝, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑞" or as “𝑝 implies 𝑞. "
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Examples:
If 7 ≥ 5, then 5 + 8 = 11.
Examples:
If the number is divisible by 2, then the number is even.
Examples:
If the square of 𝑛 is 36, then 𝑛 is 6 or –6.
The Biconditional
The statement (𝑝 → 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝) is called a Biconditional and is denoted by 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 which
is read as “𝑝 if and only if 𝑞.”
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ≡ (𝑝 → 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)
Examples:
𝑥 + 6 = 13 if and only if 𝑥 = 7.
terminals
p
p q Parallel Network
Series Network
q
p q p| p q| q p| q ( p| p) | ( q| q) ( p| p) | ( p| q)
T T F F F
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T