Maqām Traditions

between Theory and

Contemporary Music Making

Joint Symposium of the ICTM Study Groups M“QĀM and Music in

the “rab World , Ankara, December 2014

Collection of papers

Edited by Jürgen Elsner, Gisa Jähnichen, and Cenk Güray

Istanbul
Pan Publishing
2016

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 Timkehet Teffera

Religious Praise Poetry and Musical Rhetoric:

The Ethiopian Mänzuma1
In Ethiopia, sung or recited Islamic praise poems are generally called
mänzuma (also menzuma, manzuma). This musical and poetic genre is
practiced among the Harari, Arsi, Wollo, Təgray, Gurage, Jimma and the
Somali just to mention a few. Etymologically, the word takes its roots from
the Arabic term manẓūma, meaning to put words or sets of words into a
poetic form or nazom meaning order, arrangement and rhyme. In other
words, mänzuma is a narrative, panegyric poem consisting of an
extraordinary literary quality. Gebeyehu (1998: 62) points out that unlike
the Arabic terms for poetry (shi`r meaning knowledge), mänzuma is more
associated with music and song, or it refers to poems that are deliberately
arranged for singing than poetries. Wetter (2011) describes mänzuma as a
distinct Ethiopian musical creative art. Regarding the understanding in
society, he notes: Although Ethiopian Muslims would reject to call
mänzuma chanting as music it has without doubt a musical character.
Mänzuma songs belong to the spiritual and religious sphere of life which is
clearly distinguished from the profane world of music .
The present study aims at discussing the century old musical and poetic
mänzuma genre that is also known under different names, e.g. zikri/zekära2,
baahroo, sarmade and nazme3 in Harar, Arsi, Saho and Afar. Mänzuma
poetries are written and performed in different Ethiopian local languages
and in Arabic (Abdulwehab 2010).

1 This paper was presented on the joint symposium of the study groups Maqam and
Music in the “rab World in December in “nkara. This was a good opportunity for
me to introduce and discuss the Ethiopian mänzuma from its musical and artistic
perspective to a world audience largely composed of musicologists and
ethnomusicologists.
2 In his scientific work, Tarsitani (2006: 479) elaborately points out about extensive zikri song
repertoires, its long history and its unique status in the religious and cultural landscape of
Harar. Zikri, in the cultural reality of Harar, is a devotional activity characterized by male
singing with lyrics praising Allah, the Prophet Mohammed and the Muslim saints. It is
usually performed as a responsorial song, accompanied by käräbu [drum] and käbäl
[wooden concussion idiophone]
3 Kemal Abdulwehab (2010?). Basic Features of Mänzuma, an Islamic Panegyric of Ethiopia: A
First Comparative Attempt. Addis Ababa University (unpublished).
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The survey takes a closer look at Sheikh Mohammed Awel Hamza s4

mänzumat from Wollo, one of Ethiopia s Islamic centers. Mohammed Awel,
born in the town of Kombolča, is dubbed as the King of mänzuma . He is
highly respected and admired for his sonorant voice and his enduring
experience in the sphere of this musical genre. Mohammed Awel s
mänzumat are performed in both Arabic and Amharic. However, in order
to limit the scope of this investigation, only his mänzumat in Amharic will
be considered.
Islamic poetries belong to Ethiopia s cultural and historical treasures, but
this great asset has not yet been explored methodically. Thanks to
numerous Islamic scholars of past and present time who have greatly
contributed their part for the development and dissemination of Islamic
knowledge, this tradition is still today practiced in the everyday life of
many parts of the country. Scholarly inquiries at our disposal primarily
focus on the study of literature, folklore, philology and history, but only a
handful of studies are at our disposal focusing on the mänzuma from
musical perspective. Abdulwehab (2010) as well notes that only a handful
of anthropological and musicological studies have found their way in
academic journals and conference proceedings. Among these, the accounts
of Simone Tarsitani (2005, 2006) and Ilaria Sartori (2007), portraying the
Harari zikri, are worth mentioning. Among several attempts made in the
past to disseminate and exchange knowhow and information about Islamic
poetries in Ethiopia, in 2010 an international and interdisciplinary
mänzuma workshop was held at the Addis Ababa University discussing
The Roles and Values of Mänzuma: Islamic Panegyrics in Ethiopia and the Horn
of Africa. Scholars from inside and outside of Ethiopia attended this
workshop presenting relevant subject matters. Unfortunately, though, the
volume remained unpublished (Abdulwehab 2010). Among the papers
presented on this workshop was Idris Muhammed s survey conducted on
the mänzumat of Mohammed Awel Hamza. Likewise, Seyid Muhammed s
thesis (1997), submitted to the department of Ethiopian Languages and
Literature, deliberates the mänzumat repertoire of this great performer, but
I was unfortunately not able to access these works. To get a synopsis on
mänzuma performing tradition, its religious and socio-political
understanding, further interdisciplinary literatures have been reviewed
mainly B.A and M.A thesis submitted to language, folklore and literature
department/s of the Addis Ababa University. They largely discuss the
meanings, functions and roles of Islamic poetries that are either orally

4 In this paper, I will only use the name Mohammed Awel.

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transmitted or in written form. Nejat Seid s (2004) and Mohammed Jemal s

(1984 EC) scholarly contributions focus on the poetic legacy of Sheikh
Sayyid Ibrahim Yassin Šafi “bba Oram (nicknamed as Sheikh Č̣ale) who
initiated the Sufi center in east Wollo around the beginning of the 20 th
century. Sheikh Č̣ale was one of the most prominent mänzuma poets of his
time. In these works, due emphasis are given to his historical Arabic and
Amharic manuscripts locally called Arabiy and aǧamī. These poetries ….
have a special color and force which is attested by scholars both in Ethiopia and
outside” (Seid 2004). Another popular poet is Sheikh Hussein Gibril who
has left a huge legacy of poetries. Another equally relevant material is
Getie Gelaye s (2004) paper discussing the historical works, primarily the
revelations, of this ecclesiastic scholar. Furthermore, ”erhanu Gebeyehu s
B.A thesis (1998), which offers an in-depth insight to Islamic oral poetries
in Wollo, may be considered as a successful research outcome. The study is
based on intensive and methodologically worked out field researches and
participatory observations. Accordingly, Gebeyehu discusses various
genres and sub-genres of Islamic oral poetries in relation with their socio-
cultural and religious settings, their different performance styles as well as
their meaning and purpose. He writes the following on diversity of
mänzumat and their messages: There was a considerable problem in looking for
local meanings especially in defining and differentiating between sub-genres. The
context and content variation of songs are not noticed by most people. Many
people, including those who show steadfast adherence to the various rituals
designate every song as mänzuma, without any differentiations. Only the poets
and the ulama [religious experts, locally known as madih] are able to discuss
the various poetic forms” (Ibid. 14-23). The so far mentioned written sources
are relevant information for my investigation, since they provide an insight
of both written and orally transmitted poetries and their use in the various
occasions.

Historical Background: Let us now take a short look to the history of Islam
in Ethiopia with particular emphasis of the Wollo region. About 35 to 40%
of the country s population is believed to profess to Islam. Hence, besides
the Christian Orthodox belief, Islam is the major religion in the various
Ethiopian regions. According to the map (figure 1) shown below, dominant
Islamic centers, inhabited by more than 60% of Muslims, are Afar, Harar
and the Somali regions in northeast, east and southeast Ethiopia, followed
by 10 – 40% in parts of the Oromia, Benishangul Gumuz, Amhara and
Tigray regions.

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As part of the Amhara Administrative region (figure 2), Wollo is

dominantly inhabited by Amhara community members followed by
Oromos, Argobas, Afars. Consequently, it accommodates a mixed
population made up of both Christians and Muslims. This region is also
known for the rock-hewn monolithic churches of Lasta-Lalibela from the
12th century that belongs to one of the world famous architectures. Wollo s
Islamic center is located in the east adjacent to the regions of Tigray and
Afar to the north and east.

Figure 1: Islam concentration in Ethiopia, Martin W. Lewis (2013).5

5 http://www.geocurrents.info/cultural-geography/religion/religious-change-and-tension-in-
ethiopia.

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 Religious Praise Poetry and Musical Rhetoric: The Ethiopian Mänzuma

Figure 2: Amhara Administrative Region.

Saudi Arabia, the birth place of Islam, used to have intensive interaction
with the Horn of Africa, particularly with ancient Abyssinia today s
Ethiopia) since early history. Abyssinia, the mystical land of the Habäša
people and the land of antique history, has played a pivotal role in the
expansion of the Islamic faith. When this faith was introduced in Ethiopia
during the 7th century, the then powerful Aksumite (also Axumite) Empire
was already a few centuries old. Founded in the 1st century, a sophisticated
civilization with a range of innovations, architecture, constructions, e.g.
stelae monoliths, ceramics, coinage, scripts, e.g. Ge ez, and a strong trade
with neighboring nations, e.g. the Arabic Peninsula, were initiated and
progressively practiced. One of the significant moments in the Ethiopian
history was that it introduced Christianity in the 4th century as a state
religion during the rule of king Ezana. This led to the establishment of a
dominant Christian kingdom until the country came into contact with
Islam in the 7th century.
Undoubtedly many cultures across the world have been shaped by the
expansion of Islam, a worldwide power that is simply founded on faith.
This spiritual revolution began with the life of a single ordinary man
named Mohammed, born around 570s/80s in the sun-blasted and
inhospitable Arabian Peninsula who proclaimed a profound message
preaching a monotheistic belief that was to change the course of the world
forever.
Convinced of the spiritual call of Prophet Mohammed and the religious
doctrines he preached, his followers developed growing curiosity and
interest. Nevertheless, they were persecuted by the then powerful Quraysh
clan in Mecca for having accepted the new religion. Consequently, a small

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group fled Arabia to seek refuge in Ethiopia. The migrants were sent by
the Prophet who relied on the then ruler of the Aksumite kingdom (north
Ethiopia), King Negash (Arabic al-Najāshī or Ashama ibn Abjar) who
welcomed Mohammed s followers. After patiently proving the refugees
religious conception by letting their spokesman, Jafar, read passages from
the Qur an, King Negash was finally convinced and allowed the
newcomers to stay in Ethiopia. It is believed that the Abyssinian court,
including its high ranking priests, was convinced with the links of both the
Christian and Muslim faiths. Following this event, a very strong bond was
established between Prophet Mohammed and king Negash who was
increasingly convinced by the essence of Islam. Eventually he was
converted to Islam, a historical moment that contributed to its expansion in
other Ethiopian regions over the centuries to come.
Pre-Islamic Arab civilization was largely a non-written culture transmitted
from one generation to another. People relied on their memory. Those
capable to recite poetry almost at the drop of their hat (orally) enjoyed a
high respect, appreciation and value in their community. The word had a
mystical significance and poets were the ones who told the story of their
community maintaining the link with its lineages, rejoicing its splendors,
triumphs and lamenting its conquests.
As stated by Ethiopian Muslim clerics, the earliest mänzuma reciter who is
also mentioned in the Holy Qur an, is Miszmare Dawud6. Based on this
early history coupled with the Islamic expansion in Ethiopia, we may
envisage where the Ethiopian mänzuma genre and its extraordinary poetic
culture might have possibly originated. The collection of Hadiths (Ṣaḥīḥ al-
Buḫārī) gives reference to early Ethiopian Muslims (Habäša) in a number of
passages who used to have performed praise songs during the lifetime of
Prophet Mohammed in front of his mosque. In one of the six major hadith
collections called Ṣaḥīḥ al-Buḫārī the following is written: It was narrated
that Abu Hurairah said: "Umar came in when the Ethiopians were playing in the
masjid. Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, rebuked them, but the Messenger of
Allah said: 'Let them be there, O Umar, for they are Banu Arfidah”.7 Through
these performances the Habäša are said to have expressed their boundless
admiration to Prophet Mohammed glorifying him, the Almighty God and
the Holy Qur an. Kemal (2010) argues that … in many regards, the songs the
Habäša were said to have performed resembles what we call today mänzuma”.
Consequently, we can see that the genre was already developed during the

6 In the holy bible denotes it as Mäzmurä Dawit.

7 See vol.2, book 19, no. 1596: http://www.gowister.com/hadith/nasai/1605/.

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early period of Islam. In continuation, Kemal tells us that …. the Prophetic

tradition from authentic Islamic sources could be taken, at least provisionally, as
an indication of the mänzuma being a long-held art and tradition of Ethiopian
Muslims as far back as the 7th century. However, it was in the 19th century when
the Sufi orders were consolidated in Wollo that mänzuma flourished in central and
northern Ethiopia and took, more or less, its present form Ibid.). This
ascertainment once again proves the close link of Ethiopians with Islam
already since ancient times and their role after its institution in the country.
Besides, it is important to note that the Ethiopian mänzuma developed its
own characteristic features in close conjunction with the local traditions
and music cultures. Even though the culture of performing Islamic poetries
was brought from Arabia along with the religion, in Ethiopia the
performing style developed its own characteristic. Here all kinds of foreign
cultural, linguistic, religious or artistic influences have always been
absorbed to a certain degree and integrated into the existing local culture
to become their ethiopianized flavour in the process of time. Hence
regarding the mänzuma genre, it is obvious that the same process took
place. Both oral and written poetries have always been composed by
eminent Islamic clerics who have been playing an important role to
preserve the distinct Ethiopian feature of their artistic products, i.e. style of
poetries, melodic-rhythmic arrangements and performance styles. In
Wollo, the ulama or madih, were and still today are the ones who maintain
the mänzuma tradition alive. These respected and knowledgeable clerics
possess the highest Islamic education and are capable to compose poetries.
Nevertheless, artistic creation requires natural talent. So, besides a good
knowledge in Arabic, the religious history, the glory and the deeds of holy
saints (awälya), the madih should also have a good memory and wonderful
vocals (Gebeyehu 1998: 56).
Throughout history, mänzuma poetries have primarily been used as
didactic tools to disseminate knowledge about the essence of the Islamic
religion. Among well-known Ethiopian religious poets Sheikh Hussein
Ğibril and Sheikh Sayyid Ibrahim (widely known as Sayyid Č̣ale) may be
mentioned whose poetries narrate historical facts, religious ethics, values,
virtues and aesthetics. The religious poetries found in the historical
manuscripts of these scholars largely focused on praises of Allah, his
Prophet (tawaṣolāt and madḥ an-nabī), local saints and ecclesiastical leaders
and on the preaching of the oneness of God (tawhid8). Mänzumat
performances are predominantly carried out on the Prophet s birthday

8 Also spelled tawḥīd, tawheed and tauheed.

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(mawlid), pilgrimages (ziyāra), religious gatherings (hadra) and holidays,

e.g. Eid-al-Adha, the holy fasting month of Ramadan followed by Eid-al-Fatir
that marks its end (Seid 2014, Jemal 1984 EC, Kemal 2010).
Mänzumat are mono-rhymed lyric poetries, i.e. a repetitive scheme of
syllables appears at the end of the verses that may stretch over 6, 8, 10 or
more lines. The profound messages of the poems, coupled with the skilled
vocals of the singer and the individual style of performing, can elevate
listeners to plunge into a deeply spiritual world. The following mänzuma
stanza, consisting of 12 lines ending on the same final rhyme te , may be
taken as an example. The content of each line has been translated in the
most sense making way.
Mohammed Awel, Music Album, Nile Records, Addis Ababa, 2001 (EC),
track 1 (untitled)

ስጋዬም ቅቤዬም ወፊቅና ውበቴ My meat and butter, my gold - my splendor

መብልና መ ናዬ ሹመቴ My food and beverage, my well-being -

my greatness

መኩሪያ መሻሪያዬ ጌ ሽልማቴ My pride, my treasure, my gift

ሲሳዬ መሳዬ ቀንኛ ጤእፈቴ My blessing, my soul mate, my source of survival

መሸሻዬ ዋሴ ዋሻዬ ማጀቴ My shelter, my advocate, my confidant

እፈስና ነ ሴ ሙጥ ፍውነቴ My head - My soul, my entirety

መቆሚያዬን ማያ ስጋዬና አ ንቴ My vision, my future, my flesh and bone

ዙያይፉ መባተሊያውም አንጀቴም ጉበቴ My inner self, my most intimate friend

እጄም እግፉም አ ጀፊባዬ አና ቴ My hands, feet, mouth, my back and face

በልግና መሐፉ አዝመፈዬ ምፊቴ My autumn, my harvest, my asset

አንቱን መውደዴ ነው እስከጊዜ ሞቴ It is because my love to you (the Prophet) that will
last until the day I die

ስጡድም ስቆምም ቁጭ ብዬም በቤቴ Whether I walk, stand or sit at home.

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 Religious Praise Poetry and Musical Rhetoric: The Ethiopian Mänzuma

In this stanza, the performer expresses his boundless love to Prophet

Mohammed by counting his body parts. I suppose that such poems belong
to the mälk (or mälh9) genre performed on rituals and group worships in
both solo and group renditions. Mälk poetries are created to describe
certain body parts symbolically and metaphorically. In these poems
Prophet Mohammed or holy saints are praised. While creating the poem,
the poet should be able to make a sense making sequence of the visual
picture of the body parts that are organized in several independent or self-
contained stanzas thus offering the attentive listener to concentrate …on
one aspect at a time. The effect is strongly cinematic……we follow the
horizontal axis of the human body, seeing the size, shape and color of each
body part as it would be seen in reality, and thereby confirming its three
dimensional solidity (ibid). The motif of love is a dominating feature….
The beloved is the prophet and his lovers are all human beings, the Arabs,
the non-Arabs and God. The repetition provokes thoughts about an extra
ordinary magical love that maddens everybody (Gebeyehu 1998: 94-95,
see also Jemal 1984 EC: 23-33).
Besides mälk poetries, there are several other mänzuma genres, e.g. sälle
(largely used in Addis Ababa and southern Ethiopian regions), täkrar (in
Wollo and neighboring areas) and täsälima. Each of them comprises several
sub-genres that will however, not be discussed further in the present
study.
Mänzumat are performed in both solo and group (song leader and chorus
group). Solo mänzumat, also known as yä mänzuma əngurguro, are sung
without any accompaniment. They are performed during the occasion of
mäwlid kitab with contents narrating Prophet Mohammed s life story and
his miracles. Unlike group mänzumat, solo renditions have slow tempo and
it has a meditative character allowing the reciter to improvise the melody
more freely and repeat certain themes and words depending on his feeling.
Solo mänzumat are performed in seated position with a group of attendees
who listen to the chronicles with full concentration and with deep emotion.
At times very short song parts may be inserted which offers the attendees
to sing in unison. These moments are often intended to keep up the spirits

9 Mälk is a descriptive poem, a verbal portrait …..that praises the name, the physique and the
personal qualities of prophet Mohammed and certain awalya and expresses invocations and
supplications of the devotee” (Gebeyehu 1998: 90). Mälk poetry dedicated to Mohammed is sung
in the Arabic month of Rabee a el-Awwal, the month in which Prophet Mohammed was born and
particularly in the weeks of Mawlid, in ceremonies held at shrines and homes,….in the first week of
the Arabic Month of Moharram on the commemoration of the Hijrah (the Prophet s journey from
Makkah to Medina in the twelfth year of his mission, corresponding to June 622 A.D ibid .

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of all participants. After a short while, the solo part sets in, while listeners
would continue to enjoy the performance and the devout message that
takes them to an intense spiritual journey. … a drama of word and
gesture are instruments of the contemplative religious experience that
leads to holiness, which often takes place in the form of feeling of bliss or
peace, for the believers (Gebeyehu 1998: 13).
Additionally, mänzumat are used as part of zar rituals, spirit possession
rituals that are observed in both Muslim and Christian cultures, for
instance, in Wollo. Here, communal gatherings called hadra and wädaǧa
and the veneration of spirits take place in front of holy shrines of different
areas of Wollo. These ceremonials are accompanied by recitations of
panegyric poetries, singing and trance dancing (Gebeyehu 1998: 39-53,
Teffera 2015). Unlike in other Islamic religious ceremonies, women,
participating in zar and related rituals such as dubärti wädaǧa and maräbba,
are actively involved with reciting poetry, singing and calling upon
invisible spirits which they worship. Nevertheless, mänzumat are largely a
male dominated music practice so that on various ceremonies, men
exclusively or predominantly participate in the singing, reciting, dancing
and drum beating.
In general we may note that the types of mänzumat and their varied content
demand or require different performance styles, occasions and different
types of ….audience participation. Some forms need to be recited whereas
others need to be delivered in declamation or songs. Some require the
participation of the audience in singing the refrains whereas others are
purely solo. Some are accompanied by hand claps and drum whereas
others do not need this. Besides, the performance of Islamic poetry
depends on occasions. Various religious occasions and rites demand
different form of poetry that correspond to the specific purposes and
functions a certain ceremony intends to achieve. Thus, content and
appropriateness govern the actualization of every genre of Islamic poetry
(Gebeyehu Ibid: 51).
Music analysis: In this study, we will take a look at a few Mohammed
Awel s selected mänzumat pieces to get a picture of their melodic, rhythmic
arrangements and their poetic contents. The selected songs discussed
below, neither derive from a fieldwork nor from any participatory
observation made on the spot. Rather they are taken from commercial
music albums (figures 3-5) I purchased in music shops in Addis Ababa.
As one of the most prominent mänzuma performers, Mohammed Awel is a
very familiar name. His music albums have been offered on the music

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market at least since more than three decades. Despite the fact that today
an increasing number of mänzuma albums of other performers are available
in music shops of large Ethiopian cities and towns, I believe that
Mohammed “wel s songs have been dominating the market until recent
years. So, among others, mänzumat in Oromiffa language (one of the
widely spoken Ethiopian languages), can nowadays also be purchased in
music shops. Another route of dissemination is the internet. Nowadays
uncountable mänzuma tracks are posted on various online portals. They are
primarily accessible on YouTube10.

Figure 3: Mohammed Awel əngurguro Mänzuma [Solo], Music Album, Nile

Records, Addis Ababa (2001 EC =Ethiopian calendar).

10 Watch, e.g. mänzumat of vocalist Ustaz Raayyaa Abbaa Maccaa on YouTube:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p7ZwukoxvKE;_https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=bpoOulimDn0 (last retrieved 16.04.2015)

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Timkehet Teffera

Figures 4a-b: (left): Mohammed Awel: əngurguro Mänzuma, Music Album, Nile
Records, Addis Ababa; volume 14, (2000 EC); (right): Mohammed Awel (2002
EC). Yä dəbbe Mänzuma [Antiphonal songs accompanied by drum
beating] Music Album, Nile Records, Addis Ababa, volume 15, (2000 EC)

Figures 5a-b: (left) Mohammed Awel: əngurguro Mänzuma [Solo] Music Album,
Producer: Mohammed Nur Hussein, Nile Records, Addis Ababa (2002 EC);
(right) Mohmmed Awel: Dəbbe Mänzuma [Antiphonal songs accompanied by
drum beating], Music Album. Nile Records, Addis Ababa, (2002 EC).

Like any other music genres, mänzumat performance styles, types and their
poetic contents observed among different Ethiopian Muslim communities
have a close link with the respective traditional music system that have
constantly been shaped, reshaped, redefined and changed in the course of
time. Hence Wollo mänzumat represent characteristic similarities with the
Amhara traditional secular music in general. Communities inhabiting
central and northern Ethiopian regions, mostly apply five tones in their
traditional musics. With regard to the Amhara music, four different types
of traditional modes or scales (qəñətoč), namely təzətā, batī, ančī hoyē länē

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and ambassäl11, are widely employed. Each qəñət is differentiated through

its distinct interval relationship.
Similarities exist between Amhara and Oromiffa mänzuma melodies that
use five tones. Unlike these music cultures, the eastern Ethiopian Harari
applies diatonic scales in their music which includes their religious praise
poetries, zikri (Sartori 2007: 4).
Scholars believe that in Ethiopia, mänzuma was initially introduced in
Wollo. Hence a large amount of mänzuma poetries exist in Amharic
language. An increasing number of mänzumat are also performed in other
Ethiopian languages, for instance, Silte, Gurage, Tigriña, Oromiffa and
Harari.
Exhilarating metaphors and allegorical expressions are common in
mänzuma poetries. Apart from the deeply religious praise poetries,
mänzumat also narrate socio-cultural and socio-political situations. It is not
easy to understand certain passages or verse lines of mänzuma poetries,
even if I am a native Amharic speaker. As a non-Muslim, I must first of all
admit that I lack basic knowledge of the religion and its profound
meaning. Another problem lies in the use of different Amharic dialects,
which, even within the region of Wollo, are used in different localities.
Nevertheless, I have tried my level best to prepare the translation of the
poems I represented here as accurate as possible. Therefore, the

11 In one of my previous scientific studies (Teffera 2013: 34), I made the following suggestion
with reference to the issue qəñətoč ….I am aware that the Amhara traditional secular
music is indeed not limited to a determined theoretical framework and to these four
qəñətoč, but, let us, for the time being, set out from this point….. ….from its present
understanding and in its broadest sense, the term qəñət refers to a scale consisting of five
pitches (occurring within an octave range) with approximate interval relationships. It is
important to note that the Amhara music tradition is not based on fixed, but on non-
tempered pitches, i.e. pitch deviations or pitch instability may appear in both instrumental
and vocal performances, however, within a limited tolerance margin that would still allow
the given qəñət to be recognized as such.
The qəñətoč, their invention, development and change through time, their perception and
visualization from emic and etic viewpoints and their theoretical and practical
understanding, requires continued researches that should be directed to local and regional
music cultures, given the fact that even within the Amhara region an absolute musical
homogeneity cannot be expected. Consequently, we may assume that different Amhara
localities may have small or large scale deviations, like the variances existing e.g. in dance
and song styles or in the Amariña dialects. Particularly, still unexplored Amhara regions
(e.g. Tägulät, Mənğar and Mänz, even more importantly the towns of ambassäl and bati that
are not only one of the azmari [traditional musicians] strongholds, but two of the qəñətoč
are named after them) could be of great interest to study scales and their function in
traditional music performances.

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translations are reproduced according to their sense making content and

not word by word.
Let us take a look at one of Mohammed “wel s əngurguro mänzuma entitled
Tawhid.
Mänzuma (solo), song: Tawhid, performer: Mohammed Awel, Source: CD
Album, əngurguro Mänzuma; Nile Records, Addis Ababa, 2002 (Ethiopian
calendar)
አላሁመ ፍሊ ወ አላ ሙሐመዲ
ወአሊ ሙስሌም አዲ
1 ቢስሚላሂ ብዬ ኪታቤን ልጀምፊ
ተውሂድ በሚጥት ን በሐበሽ ንግግፊ
2 በጧትም በማታም ጌታን ላመስግነው
ቢያስደሳም ቢያስከ ም ምንጊዜም ምስጉን ነው
3 አፍላት ወፍላሚን አጤይሂ ፍመድ
በአላህ መላክተኛ ይውረድ በመሐመድ
4 በቤተፍቦቹም ይውረድባቸው
ቁፊዓኑ ያላቸው ሐፈ ናቸው
5 የእስላም ልጅ አደፈ የእስላም ልጅ አደፈ
አላህን እወቁ ከሙሐመድ ጋፈ
6 በአልሀም ዱሊላሂ አትጣንም እስላም
ተውሂዲን ቁፊዓንን አ ብቀህ በ ም
አዋጅ ባቱን ሁላ ፈው እንጂ በ ም
ቀ ታ አልተማሩት በነ ስ እኮ አይመ ም
7 ኢማን ስድስት ነው በቀልብ የሚያዝ
ሴት ወንዱ ይወቀው ሁጥም ነው እዙዝ
8 በላህ ማመን ማጤት አይፊቅም ቅፊብ ነው
…. ሲ ቱ ስሙን ስፈውን ማወቅ ነው
9 አላህን ማወቁ አይደጤም ዕሩቅ
ዋጂብ ሙስታሂጥን ጃኢዙን ማወቅ
10 ላ ኢላጠ ኢጤላ የሁጥም ትፊጉም ነው
የእስልምና መግቢያ ደጃ ም ግቢው ነው
May “llah s peace be upon Mohammed, his
messenger
----
Let me start my prayers saying bi-smi-llāhi”
applying the tawhid of the Habäsha
Let me thank the Almighty day and night
In happiness and sadness; may God be
praised
„A salat wa-salam min Allahi samad
May the blessing come through “llah s
prophet, Mohammed
May his whole family be praised
The Qur an has approved their purity
Take care of the people of Islam
Be aware of Allah and Prophet Mohammed
You can t be a Muslim just by saying al-
hamdu li-llahi
Take God s oneness and the Qur an serious
Call for the holy saints of Islam
It is not a born knowledge, one needs to
grasp it fully
Imans are six; they should be treated with
great care
Both women and men should be aware of it
Believe in Allah, he is always besides you
Get acquainted to his name and deeds
To know Allah is not difficult
….it is important to know everything about
him
La ilah illa Allah explains the whole thing
It is the entry to Islam, its estate

The commercial recording of this solo mänzuma is performed for 35

minutes. During a natural setting however, it could probably last even
longer depending on the length of the poem and the occasion.
Tawhids are educational poems in which the doctrines of Islam (Kemal
2010) are taught. Hence tawhid poetries are exclusively performed by
skilled Muslim clerics who possess an insightful ability to disseminate the

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knowledge appropriately. Gebeyehu (1998: 83) explains that in such cases

great attention is given to the expertise of the poet particularly of the
Qur an and Hadith than the individual creativity of the performer. He is
thus required to have a deep knowledge of the scriptures, as well as a
considerable skill of music and poetry.
In the following score, each verse has been reproduced line by line to
demonstrate the melodic-rhythmic arrangement. The piece uses five
pitches with approximate intervals resembling one of the above mentioned
traditional modes.
As we may encounter, the first 5 melody phrases use the tones e-g-a-b-d
thus resembling the interval relation common for the bati qəñət. From lines
6 - 7 the initial tone set shifts to the sequence c – d – e – g - a and after a
while to another tone set f – g – a – c - d from melody phrases 8 - 11. The
interval relations of the last two tone sets represent the təzəta qəñət. The
shifting of tone sets occurs several times in this musical piece. I assume
that the singer is not aware of any tonal shifting and it is probably
tolerated and even irrelevant as far as the overall frame of the melody is
maintained. Given the duration of the song (35 min), the freedom of
melody ornamentation, improvisation and the slightly changing melodic
themes (melodic sections) along with frequently recurring (cyclic) phrases,
shifting of tone sets - which is not necessarily the case in all mänzuma
pieces I listened to - possibly be caused. Another important factor worth
considering is that every mänzuma piece undoubtedly bound to certain
space and time. For that matter, even if the same song is performed by the
same singer over and over again, its melodic-rhythmic structure will never
be exactly the same as the previous one.

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Timkehet Teffera

Figure 6: Extract of a Mänzuma piece (solo); title: Tawhid (Doctrine of God’s

oneness); performed by Mohammed Awel, Source: CD Album, əngurguro
Mänzuma [Solo] Music Album, Nile Records, Addis Ababa, 2002 (Ethiopian
calendar).

The musical notation represented above is just to demonstrate how a solo

mänzumat is performed. Hence it is up to the experienced vocalist who
embellishes the melody phrases individually suiting them to the poetic

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structure. A mänzuma may consist of several melodic-rhythmic themes as

in the case of the analyzed music example.
Contrary to solo renditions, group mänzumat are distinguished through
their relatively fast tempo and fixed rhythm that is mostly supported by
drum beating and hand clapping (Berhan 2010). During such
performances, participants usually participate in standing position (in a
circle, semi-circle or a raw), while the drum player who is often positioned
in the middle of the performing group, remains seated. Poetries called
ramsa or such referring to blessings (sir or baraka) of the Prophet and holy
saints12 belong to mänzumat performed in groups. Contrary to solo
mänzumat, group mänzumat take the lion share of mänzumat repertoires.
Their forms, styles and contents are as diverse as the occasions.
Except the dəbbe drum, no other music instruments accompany mänzumat
performances. The dəbbe is a kettle-drum with a hollowed out wooden
resonator. Its opening is covered with hide. The stretched membrane is
beaten with a pair of wooden sticks held in each hand. In most cases only
one dəbbe drum is used to accompany songs. In some areas however, two
different sized dəbbe drums are played by one drummer. The larger drum
produces a low pitch and the smaller a high pitch. The stressed beats are
usually produced from the low-pitched drum. The most frequently used
drum and hand clapping pattern is the following:

Figure 7: Dəbbe drum and hand clapping pattern

While performing a group mänzuma, the division of roles of the lead singer
and the chorus can be arranged variously depending on the structure of
the given musical piece. Also in this regard striking similarities between

12 In many Ethiopian cultures, the exceptional reverence dedicated to elders and great
personalities, is expressed by the act of standing up in the moment such people enter a
room or in general whenever they arrive/appear. This act is considered as a sign of
welcome and a special form of greeting and respecting the person. This irreplaceable
Ethiopian custom has been practiced by the Habäša people during the lifetime of Prophet
Mohammed and it still is part and parcel to the everyday life of numerous Ethiopian
communities, irrespective of cultural and religious affiliations.

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Timkehet Teffera

mänzuma song structures and that of the Amhara traditional songs are
witnessed. In doing so, we may encounter linear, refrain, stanzaic as well
as call-response patterns in both mänzuma pieces as well as in Amhara
traditional songs.
The lyrical extract of a group mänzuma represented below is made up of
refrain and stanza sections. Gebeyehu (1998: 93) notes that it is common
that the lead singer introduces the refrain lines of the given mänzuma to the
accompanying group or the audience which immediately picks up the
words and reacts. These lines often contain of words used in daily
worships and prayers. Due to the fact that the majority of the participants
have experience in hadra events, they are able to shape their response lines
accordingly. If the lead singer however, has the feeling that the chorus
group is not responding to his satisfaction, he would repeat these opening
lines several times until the chorus group becomes familiar with its part. In
the case of the mänzuma piece shown below, the song leader at first sings
the 3-lined refrain (a-b-c) that is repeated in the same manner (a-b-c) by the
chorus group. The refrain is repeated three times and then the soloist
proceeds to the stanza part.
Extract of a group Mänzuma, lead singer: Mohammed Awel accompanied
by a chorus group, drum beats and hand clapping, Music Album, volume
15 Nile Records, Addis Ababa 2002, track no. 2.
Refrain
mp Amharic translation
soloist a ፍላቱ ረቢያ አሌይኩም ነቢይ Prayers for you, my prophet
b ፍላቱ ረቢያ አሌይኩም ነቢይ Prayers for you, my prophet
c አዴዴም አጀረም ከረም adedem ajäräm käräm
chorus a ፍላቱ ረቢያ አሌይኩም ነቢይ Prayers for you, my prophet
b ፍላቱ ረቢያ አሌይኩም ነቢይ Prayers for you, my prophet
c አዴዴም አጀረም ከረም adedem ajäräm käräm
Stanza
mp Amharic translation
soloist d ፍላቱ ረቢያ አሌይኩም ነቢይ Prayers for you my prophet
chorus c አዴዴም አጀረም ከረም adedem ajäräm käräm
soloist d1 ፍላቱ ረቢያ አሌይኩም ነቢይ Prayers for you my prophet
chorus c አዴዴም አጀረም ከረም adedem ajäräm käräm
soloist d አላህ ያደጤው ነቢ ይመስክፊ Allah has blessed the Prophet
chorus c አዴዴም አጀረም ከረም adedem ajäräm käräm
soloist d1 ፍላዋትና ፍላምታ ጋፊ With prayers and peace
chorus c አዴዴም አጀረም ከረም adedem ajäräm käräm

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 Religious Praise Poetry and Musical Rhetoric: The Ethiopian Mänzuma

Soloist d ዛፉም በዱኒያ ይጣናል ክብፊ A great honour for the world
chorus c አዴዴም አጀረም ከረም adedem ajäräm käräm

mp = melodic phrase
Unlike the refrain section, in the stanza part the soloist commonly inserts
new verse lines (d and d1), whereas the chorus applies melodic phrase c of
the refrain part in the response lines. Figure 8 demonstrates refrain and
stanza parts of this mänzuma piece in a more elaborated manner including
the drum beating and hand clapping patterns.

As already mentioned earlier, group mänzumat are variously arranged not

only with regard to the division of roles of the soloist and the
accompanying chorus, but also drumming and hand clapping parts. In
many mänzumat pieces I analysed, drumming and hand clapping
exclusively accompany the chorus parts that are often performed in fixed
rhythm, unlike the solo parts that are individually improvised by the
soloist in free rhythm and a relatively slower tempo.

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Timkehet Teffera

Figure 8: Extract of a group Mänzuma performed by Mohammed Awel

accompanied by a chorus group, drum beats and hand clapping, Music Album,
volume 15 Nile Records, Addis Ababa 2002, track no. 2

“ccording to Gebeyehu : the slow speed (tempo) of the

performance gives more weight to the verbal contents of the song than to
melody and rhythm. Contents sung by the soloist also cover much time as
these songs involved developed verbal contents. So, although the gifted
voice of a mänzuma performer may be appreciated from aesthetical point of
view, its poetic message is given more consideration than any melodic-
rhythmic course. Parallels are also observed in Amhara secular songs that
mostly entail steadily recurring melodic phrases. In most cases the
knowledgeable listener would, intentionally or instinctively, shift the
attention to content of the lyric that steadily offers new and exciting
moments of entertainment. Kebede (1975: 60) rightly argues the following:
"The Ethiopian emphasis on the study of poetry and versification becomes
particularly noticeable when we realize that tradition attaches precedence
to the meaning of the lyrics rather than to the accompanying melodies. It is
the meaning that generally forms the basis of the Ethiopian aesthetic
conception. Most traditional songs for example consist of relatively
repetitive melodies, while the texts contain varied stanzas, artfully
interwoven with subtlety and ambiguity, which only the knowledgeable
attentive listener can translate meaningfully. It is important to understand
that the aesthetic element of Ethiopian music is traditionally governed by
textual considerations".

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 Religious Praise Poetry and Musical Rhetoric: The Ethiopian Mänzuma

Conclusion
The contact of Ethiopia with Arabia since the lifetime of Prophet
Mohammed has led to the introduction and expansion of the Islamic faith
in this country. This historical process also paved a way to cultural
exchanges including the performance of Islamic poetries expressed
through mänzumat which took its distinct ethiopianized characteristic in
the course of history. Great Ethiopian Islamic scholars have played a
pivotal role in transmitting knowledge of mänzumat poetries (in both oral
and written form) from one generation to the other. Mänzumat performing
is part of the musical traditions of Ethiopian Muslim communities.
Taking Mohammed “wel s Amharic mänzumat, solo and group renditions
of this musical genre have been discussed from their melodic and rhythmic
features as well as their content and form of poetries, their purposes,
functions and values.
This short survey is a minor contribution to the mänzuma genre from
ethnomusicological perspective. There is still a lot to explore in this nearly
untouched cultural asset. Hence in order to understand the essence of
mänzumat from musicological viewpoint, more interdisciplinary
investigations, among others, in anthropology, linguistic, philology and
history, intensive fieldworks and participatory observations need to be
carried out in the future.

Acknowledgement
I am very grateful to my colleagues Prof. Kemal Abdulwehab (Institute of
Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University/AAU), Dr. Andreas Wetter
(Humboldt University, Berlin) and Dr. Getie Gelaye (Hamburg University)
to have provided me with published and unpublished source materials
and to have taken their time to exchange information and knowledge.

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Discography
Mohammed Awel Hamza (1995 EC). əngurguro Mänzuma [Solo] Audio
Cassette, volume 7, Nile Records, Addis Ababa.
Mohammed Awel (2000 EC). əngurguro Mänzuma [Solo] Music Album.
volume 14. Nile Records, Addis Ababa.
Mohammed Awel (2002 EC). Dəbbe Mänzuma [Group Mänzuma
accompanied by dəbbē drum] Music Album. volume 15 Nile Records,
Addis Ababa.
Mohammed Awel (2001 EC). Music Album, Nile Records, Addis Ababa.
Mohammed Awel (2002 EC). əngurguro Mänzuma [Solo] Music Album.
Producer: Mohammed Nur Hussein. Nile Records, Addis Ababa.
Mohammed Awel (2003/4 EC). Dəbbe Mänzuma [Group Mänzuma
accompanied by dəbbē drum] Music Album. Nile Audio Visual Center,
Addis Ababa.

Documentary Film
Gardner, Robert (2000). Islam: Empire of Faith. Part 1: Prophet Mohammed
and rise of Islam (full; PBS Documentary), Producer/Director: Robert
Gardner, Executive Producers: Brian Donegan & Ron Devillier
Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) Complete Life Story in English;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7FvfFSIQZnI

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