Basic Fire Science

by Major Cheong Yew Dong

1
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to:

1. Explain chemistry of fire

2. Discuss the principles of fire prevention

3. Explain the components of fire dynamics

4. Explain the hazards associated with confined fire

5. Explain the difference between fire and explosion

2
Overview
• What is a Fire?
• Chemistry of Fire
• Fire Triangle

• How to Prevent Unwanted Fire?

• Apply 1st, 2nd and 3rd Principles of Fire
Prevention

• How does Fire Start & Spread?

• Stages of Combustion
• Principles of Fire Spread
• Associated Dangerous Fire Phenomena

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Overview
• How are Fires Classified?
• Classification of Fires
• Fuel Characterization

• What is an Explosion?
• Mechanism of Explosion
• Associated Dangerous Explosion
Phenomena

• How to Prevent Unwanted Explosion?

• Explosion Prevention
• Hazardous Area Classification

• How are Explosions Classified?

• Types of Explosions

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A Brief History
• Fire was in existence as early as 3.2 millions years
ago

• Cooked food documented some 2 millions years

ago

• Control of fire dated some 400,000 years ago

• Better knowledge of fire science

• Fire is a natural reaction

• Tremendous power of usage or destruction

• How well can we manage and control fire?

• Fire science: backbone to managing and
controlling fire

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What is a Fire?

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Chemistry of Fire
• A chemical reaction:
A + B >> C + D
A + B >> with Heat applied >> C + D
Fuel + Oxygen >> with Heat applied >> Products + Water

• For example, combustion of hydrocarbons

• CH4 (Methane) + 2O2 (Oxygen) >> CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) + 2H2O (Water)
• C3H8 (Propane) + 5O2 (Oxygen) >> 3CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) + 4H2O (Water)

• Products or by-products of fire

• Smoke and fire gases
• Heat
• Light

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Chemistry of Fire
• Fire is a chemical reaction: Combustion
• A rapid oxidation process
• Combination of fuel and oxygen with applied heat source

• What is a fire?
• Fire is a rapid oxidation chemical reaction called combustion process that combined
fuel and oxygen with the applied ignition source, resulting the release of products such
as smoke, heat, and light in different intensity

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Fire Triangle

Source: XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
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Fire Triangle
• Which element is MOST difficult to
control?
• Oxygen

• Which element is ALMOST likely

can be controlled?
• Ignition Sources

• Which element is DEFINITELY

easily controlled?
• Fuel
• Housekeeping
• Storage Management

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How to Prevent Unwanted Fire?

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Principles of Fire Prevention
1st principle of fire prevention: Control of
Fuel
• Primary control because of good span of
control
• Prevent combustible fuel-air mixture
• Preferred approach, achievable thru robust
design
• Achieve thru Good Housekeeping, Storage
& Handling Controls
• Local exhaust ventilation, dilution ventilation,
purging, de-gassing, permit to work system,
fire watch system, etc

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Principles of Fire Prevention
2nd principle of fire prevention: Control
of Ignition Sources
• Secondary control because of unlimited
possibilities
• Trivial Sources: Unauthorized smoking,
welding, cutting, using open flames
• Inherent Sources: Inherent to
process/operation
• Eliminate, avoid, reduce probable ignition
sources
• Achieve thru bonding & grounding, area
classifications, equipment classifications,
permit to work systems

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Principles of Fire Prevention
3rd principle of fire prevention: Control of
Oxygen
• Tertiary control because oxygen is almost
everywhere
• Needed to support life
• Needed to support fire combustion
• Oxygen: 21% in Air, support combustion
• Enhances combustion at > 23%
• Oxidizers/Oxygen-producing chemicals
• Organic Peroxides
• Achieve thru inerting, blanketing, use of
flammability diagram to limit oxygen
concentration in vessel, etc

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Big Picture Stopover

• Oxygen • Oxygen • Oxygen • Oxygen

• Fuel • Fuel • Fuel • Fuel
• Heat • Heat • Heat • Proportioning
• Chain Reaction • Chain • Mixing
Reaction • Heat
• Ignition • Ignition
• Chain
Reaction

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How Does Fire Start & Spread?

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Stages of Combustion
• Induction or
Initiation Stage

• Interaction of:
• Fuel
• Correct Proportion
• Physically Mixed
• Oxygen
• Heat Source

• Initiation of
Combustion
Reaction (Starts)

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Stages of Combustion
• Growth or
Propagation Stage

• Sustained Chemical
Combustion
Reaction

• Self-sustaining
Chemical
Combustion Chain
Reaction

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Stages of Combustion
• Growth or
Propagation Stage

• Zone (a):
• Flashover Zone

• Flashover
• Temperature
Dependent
• Fire Phenomenon
• All items in the
compartment begins
to burn at the same
instant

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Stages of Combustion
• Fully Developed
Stage

• Near-steady State
Burning
Characterized by
• Massive Flame
• High Temperature

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Stages of Combustion
• Decay Stage

• Rate of Reaction
Decreases

• Temperature
Lowered

• Fuels Deplete

• Fire Reaction Stops

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Basic Stages of Compartment Fire

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Basic Stages of Compartment Fire

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Basic Stages of Compartment Fire

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Basic Stages of Compartment Fire

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Principles of Fire Spread
• Heat Transfer Methods
• Conduction, Convection, Radiation

• Conduction
• Direct contact of materials
• Mostly involved solids
• Building materials, elements of structure

• Not the most prevalent method of fire

spread
• Limited by thermal conductivity of approved
building materials

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Principles of Fire Spread
• Heat Transfer Methods
• Conduction, Convection, Radiation

• Convection
• Indirect contact of materials
• Most involved liquids & gases
• Hot smoke layer, hot oil convection current

• Most common method of fire spread

within building & structure
• Limited by exposure to combustible
surfaces

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Principles of Fire Spread
• Heat Transfer Methods
• Conduction, Convection, Radiation

• Radiation
• No contact of material
• Mostly involved solids and liquids
exposed
• Infrared (IR) electromagnetic wave

• Most common and prevalent method

of fire spread within building &
across structure
• Limited by line of sight exposure

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Principles of Fire Spread
• Heat Transfer Methods
• Conduction, Convection, Radiation
• Direct Burning or Flame Impingement

• Factors influencing fire spread:

• Fuel Load
• Warehouse or Office Building
• Occupant Load
• Warehouse or Office Building
• Elements of Structure
• Ventilation

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Big Picture Stopover
• Compartment Fires (Confined)
• Rollover
• Flashover
• Full Developed
• Backdraft or Smoke Explosion

• Industry Fires
• Pressurized Jet Fire
• Spill Pool Fire
• Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE)
• Fireball

• Understand Associated Hazards for Effective Training of:

• Fire Evacuation Warden Team
• Company Emergency Response Team (CERT)

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How are Fires Classified?

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Classification of Fires

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Classification of Fire (SS 578: 2019)
Fire is classified into 5 main categories:

• Class A
• Fires involving ordinary combustible solids
• Class B
• Fires involving flammable or combustible
liquids
• Class C
• Fires involving flammable or combustible
gases
• Class D Electrical…?
• Fires involving combustible metals
• Class F
• Fires involving cooking media/oil in commercial
kitchens

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Fuel Characterization
• Fuel Types: Solids, Liquids, and Gases
• Gasoline: Class I, Category 2 Petroleum (Flammable Liquid)
• Liquid, FP <- 40oC, FR: 1.4 – 7.6 Vol%, BP: 30 – 210oC
• Diesel: Class II. Category 3 Petroleum (Combustible Liquid)
• Liquid, FP > 55oC, FR: 1 - 6 Vol%, BP: 170 – 390oC

• Important Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Fuels:

• Melting Point, Boiling Point
• Vapor Density, Vapor Pressure
• Flash-Point, Fire-Point, Auto-Ignition Temperature
• Chemical Compatibility, Stowage Conditions

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Fuel Characterization
• All materials (solid, liquid, gas) will burn when sufficient
heat is applied
Gas Gas

Combustion
Solid Melts Liquid Boils Gas Expands
Products

Heat Heat Heat

• Vapor burns, not the material

• Flash-Point: Temperature in which a material (solid/liquid) gives off sufficient vapor
to flash across surface momentarily
• Fire-Point: Temperature in which heat from the combustion process is sufficient to
cause the material (solid/liquid) to gives off more vapor that sustain the combustion
chain reaction
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Fuel Characterization
• Melting Point: Temperature in which the solid material melts
• Boiling Point: Temperature in which the liquid material boils
• Vapor Pressure: Pressure of the vapor acting on the container wall
• Vapor Density: Density of a gas in relation to an equal volume of air
– Vapor Density of Methane Gas = 0.56 (Air = 1)
– Methane Gas is Lighter than Air
– Methane will rise upward and eventually dispersed by itself.

Gas Gas

Combustion
Solid Melts Liquid Boils Gas Expands
Products

Heat Heat Heat

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Fuel Characterization
• Flammability Range
– FR (Gasoline): 1.4 – 7.6 Vol%
– Burn: 1.4% Gasoline in 98.6% Air
– Burn: 7.6% Gasoline in 92.4% Air
• Lower Flammable Limit (LFL)
– Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
• Higher Flammable Limit (UFL)
– Higher Explosive Limit (UEL)

Gas Gas

Combustion
Solid Melts Liquid Boils Gas Expands
Products

Heat Heat Heat

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Quick Review
• Fire is a rapid oxidation reaction (combustion) that gives off heat,
smoke, and light in different intensity
• Fuel, oxygen and ignition heat source needed to initiate fire reaction
• 1st Principle of Fire Prevention: Fuel Control
• Compartment Fire and hazard such as flashover
• Flash-Point: Temperature in which a material (solid/liquid) gives off
sufficient vapor to flash across surface momentarily
• Heating a substance releases vapor
• Vapors burns, not the substance

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What is an Explosion?

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Mechanism of Explosion
• Explosion is a “super fast and violent
oxidation reaction” that gives off heat,
smoke, light, and overpressure in much
greater intensities
• Types of Explosion
• Physical Explosion: A Overfilled Balloon
Bursts
• Chemical Explosion: A Violent Oxidation
Reaction
• Chemical Explosion has 2 wave fronts:
• Combustion Wave Front
• Flame Front
• Pressure Wave Front
• Blast Wave

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Mechanism of Explosion
• Fuels in Chemical Explosions:
• Gas Explosion: Flammable or Combustible Vapor
• Dust Explosion: Combustible Dust Particulates

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Big Picture Stopover
• Compartment Fire Life Cycle
• Backdraft or Smoke Explosion

• Industry & Commercial Hazards

• Dust Explosions

• Understand Associated Hazards for

Effective:
• Explosion Prevention
• Explosion Protection

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How to Prevent Unwanted
Explosion?

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Principles of Explosion Prevention
• Principles of Explosion Prevention
• 1st Principle: Fuel Control
• To Prevent Explosion by
• Avoiding/eliminating an explosive atmosphere
• Prevention Methods: Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV), Dilution Ventilation (DV), Use of
Inert Gases, Regular Removal of Dust Accumulated, Using Alternative Materials,
Handling in Closed System, Use of Early Leak Detection
• 2nd Principle: Ignition Control
• To Prevent Explosion by
• Avoiding/eliminating an ignition source
• Hazardous Area Classification
• Use of Intrinsically Safe Equipment

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Hazardous Area & Equipment Classification
• Based on International
Electro-technical
Commission (IEC)

• Work areas classified

according to frequency of
presence
• Zone 0, 1, 2
• Flammable Vapor
• Zone 20, 21, 22
• Combustible Dust

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Big Picture Stopover
• Principles of Explosion Protection
• To Protect Against Explosion by
• Diverting/suppressing the explosion effects
• Protection Methods: Explosion Venting, Rapid Explosion Suppression
System

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How are Explosions Classified?

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Classification of Explosion
• Chemical Explosion has 2 wave fronts:
• Combustion Wave Front (CWF): Boundary of the combustion
• Pressure Wave Front (PWF): Boundary of the overpressure
• Deflagration: Velocity of CWF is slower than PWF
• Involve Low Explosives
• Detonation: Velocity of CWF is same as PWF
• Involve High Explosives

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Quick Review
• Explosion is a super-fast and violent oxidation reaction that gives off
heat, smoke, light and overpressure
• 2 types of chemical explosion involving flammable gas/vapor or
combustible dust
• Explosion can be classified as a deflagration or detonation
• Key to Explosion Prevention is Avoiding & Eliminating
• Explosive atmosphere
• Ignition Probability
• Hazardous Area & Equipment Classification

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Summary
• What is a Fire? • What is an Explosion?
• Chemistry of Fire • Mechanism of Explosion
• Fire Triangle • Associated Dangerous Explosion
Phenomena
• How to Prevent Unwanted Fire?
• Apply 1st, 2nd and 3rd Principles of Fire • How to Prevent Unwanted
Prevention Explosion?
• Explosion Prevention
• How Does Fire Start & Spread? • Hazardous Area Classification
• Stages of Combustion
• Principles of Fire Spread • How are Explosions Classified?
• Associated Dangerous Fire Phenomena • Types of Explosions

• How are Fires Classified?

• Classification of Fires
• Fuel Characterization

50
Summary
At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to:

1. Explain chemistry of fire

2. Discuss the principles of fire prevention

3. Explain the components of fire dynamics

4. Explain the hazards associated with confined fire

5. Explain the difference between fire and explosion

51
Reference
• Furness, A., & Muckett, M. (2007). Introduction to Fire Safety Management. Burlington:
Butterworth-Heinemann.

• Stollard, P. (2014). Fire from First Principles: A Guide to International Building Fire Safety.
Oxon: Routledge.

• Ludhra, S. (2014). Common Sense Guide to Fire Safety and Management. Oxon:
Routledge.

• SCDF (2018). Fire Safety Management for Fire Safety Manager (First Edition)

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