LCT 02: ANCIENT AND EARLY MODERN SOURCES

OF LITERARY AND CULTURAL STUDIES

1. Ancient (classical) sources (Greek and Roman period): literature

a. the role of literature in public life of ancient Greece
Literature in ancient Greece was most vividly developed in Athens. Athenian society was highly
literate and democratic. They took part in public life at agoras, where they discussed matters
important to the country. They were also expected to understand intertextuality and references
to other works of literature in the heard speeches and dramas. Thus, literature was a public
concern.
b. Aristophanes’ The Frogs (405 BCE) as a literary critical text in the literary
(dramatic) form
c. Literary criticism in ancient Greece was not the same concept as understood today. Back
in Antiquity, literary criticism was used as a source of entertainment. One of the earliest
critical pieces of literature was Aristophanes’ The Frogs (405 BCE), which included comments
on the nature of poetry (the conflict between traditional Aeschylus and modern Euripides).
This piece of writing was designed to amuse thousands of people at the contest for the best drama.
The Frogs is a comedy written by Aristophanes and performed on stage
in 405 BCE. It tells the story of the god Dionysus, who travels to Hades to bring
the playwright Euripides back from the dead. Dionysus wants to do so because
there are no good poets left alive, in his opinion. In Hades, Aeschylus
and Euripides hold a discussion on tradition and modernity in poetry.
Aeschylus is a traditionalist who wants to defend it, and Euripides is a modern
poet who argues for changes in poetry. After all, Aeschylus is declared
the winner and departs with Dionysus for Athens.
In terms of literary criticism, apart from the main theme of discussing the nature of poetry,
The Frogs touches upon social and political life in Athens. Aristophanes also included
comments on the value of poetry and the need for a return to traditional values.
d. the subjects of the literary debate: the form and social functions of poetry
e. the conflict between ancients and moderns
f. differences between old and modern models of tragedy: language, themes, effect
upon audience
EURIPIDES – MODERN AESCHYLUS – TRADITIONAL
sophisticated and complex language
language should be plain and simple in order
structures and vocabulary – high ideas need
for everyone to understand the ideas
high language
ordinary themes in plays, because then heroic themes in plays, because they
everybody can understand them encourage heroic values
the audience learns how to argue, use the audience improves their standards
language, and arrange words neatly by watching sophisticated tragedies
2. Ancient (classical) sources (Greek and Roman period): philosophy
I. Plato’s comments on poetry in his dialogues (Ion and Republic)
a. the concept of Socratic dialogue
Socratic dialogue is a genre of literary prose developed in Greece at the turn
of the 4th century BC. The earliest ones are preserved in the works of Plato
and Xenophon and all involve Socrates as the protagonist. These dialogues
and subsequent ones in the genre present a discussion of moral
and philosophical problems between two or more individuals illustrating
the application of the Socratic method.
Plato wrote approximately 35 dialogues, in most of which Socrates is the main character.
In the dialogues, Socrates, by means of kind interrogation, tries to find out more about
the other person’s understanding of moral issues. In the dialogues, Socrates presents himself
as a simple man who confesses that he has little knowledge. The outcome of the dialogue
is that Socrates demonstrates that the other person’s views are inconsistent. In this way,
Socrates tries to show the way to real wisdom. This philosophical questioning is known
as the Socratic method.
From the dialogues derives the dialogic nature of truth. Plato claimed that truth
is not dogmatic nor possessed by one person who conceptualizes it in their head. On the contrary,
truth is dialogic, so it is created in the act of a dialogue between two or more people. Thus, the best
way to discover the truth is by questions and answers.
b. Plato’s critique of poetry as knowledge in Ion and Republic (the conflict between
poetry and philosophy)
Ion is Plato’s Socratic dialogue in which
In Ancient Greece, poetry Socrates discusses with the titular character,
and philosophy were two opposing a professional rhapsode who also lectures
concepts. For Plato, philosophy was on Homer, the question of whether a rhapsode,
the only source of knowledge, because a performed of poetry, gives his performance
it was rational. On the contrary, on account of his skill and knowledge or by virtue
poetry, deriving from the divine, was of divine possession.
the source of dangers. In Ion, Plato touches upon the nature
of poetic art and argues for the superiority
of philosophy over poetry when it comes
to knowledge. Through the form of a dialogue between Socrates and Ion, Plato shows the conflict
and the rivalry between poetry and philosophy as sources of education and moral values.
He implies that true knowledge comes from rational analysis. Therefore, poetry cannot be seen
as a source of wisdom and knowledge. According to him, it is not good to give trust in poetry. Poets
are divinely inspired and thus do not speak of knowledge but their inspiration goes beyond
the rational. Socrates, through challenging Ion’s point of view, argues that philosophy
is the source of truth.
 Republic is Plato’s Socratic dialogue concerning justice, the order and character of the just city-
state, and the just man. It is Plato’s best-known work, and one of the world’s most influential
works of philosophy and political theory, both intellectually and historically. It is a gigantic, book-
length dialogue. Plato explores the function of poetry in the ideal community.
In The Republic, Plato again challenges the dangers of poetry. This time the dialogue
is between Socrates and Glaucon. Socrates claims that poetical imitations are ruinous
to the hearers and that imitations are removed from truth. Moreover, poetry appeals
to emotions, not to knowledge. Poetic wisdom is restricted to the world of appearance.
c. Plato’s theory of Forms (Ideas) and the parable (allegory) of the cave as its
illustration (Republic Book VII)
The theory of Forms is a philosophical theory, concept, or worldview attributed to Plato,
that the physical world is not as real or true as timeless, absolute, unchangeable
ideas. According to this theory, ideas in this sense, often capitalized and translated as “Ideas”
or “Forms”, are the non-physical essences of all things, of which objects and matter
in the physical world are merely imitations. Plato speaks of these entities only through
the characters (primarily Socrates) of his dialogues who sometimes suggest that these Forms
are the only objects of study that can provide knowledge. The theory itself is contested from within
Plato’s dialogues, and it is a general point of controversy in philosophy. Nonetheless, the theory
is considered to be a classical solution to the problem of universals.
The Allegory of the Cave is an allegory
presented by Plato in Republic to compare
the effect of education and the lack of it
on our nature. It is a written dialogue between
Plato’s brother Glaucon and his mentor Socrates,
narrated by the latter. Plato describes a group
of people who have lived chained to the wall of a cave all their lives, facing a blank
wall. The people watch shadows projected on the wall from objects passing in front of a fire
behind them and give names to these shadows. The shadows are the prisoners’ reality
but are not accurate representations of the real world. The shadows represent the fragment
of reality that we can normally perceive through our senses, while the objects under the sun
represent the true forms of objects that we can only perceive through reason.
Socrates explains how the philosopher is like
Plato claimed that reality is not real. a prisoner who is freed from the cave and comes
He thought that material objects are to understand that the shadows on the wall
just representations of non-physical are actually not the direct source of the images seen.
ideas, the understanding of which A philosopher aims to understand and perceive
one can only get through reason. the higher levels of reality. However, the other
He illustrated this concept with the inmates of the cave do not even desire to leave their
allegory of the cave (Plato’s Cave). prison, for they know no better life.
d. Plato’s theory of poetic mimesis (The Republic Book X)
Mimesis is the imitative
representation of reality
in art. Therefore, poetry
is an imitative art and poets
represent as we know
it through the senses.
They do not represent reality
as it is but they represent
it as an imitation that
it already is: imitation of imitation of the perfect ideas. Thus, poetry is twice removed
from the true reality. The true reality is beyond materiality.
e. the distinction between mimesis and diegesis
Plato contributed also to the narrative theory, which is based on the concept that people
are storytellers. In Republic Plato introduced the concepts of diegesis and mimesis.
Diegesis is the narrative or narration and has three types:
1) narrative in the voice of the poet
2) narrative by means of mimesis – the direct speech of the characters
3) narrative which is a combination of both of the previous types
Diegesis happens when the poet delivers character speeches and in the sections between these
speeches. There are poetic stories where speech is represented directly (by mimesis), and there
are stories in which human speech and story are represented indirectly (by diegesis)

II. Aristotle’s Poetics (350 BCE)

Aristotle’s Poetics is the earliest surviving work of Greek dramatic theory and first
extant philosophical treatise to focus on literary theory. It is also the first
text in Western civilization entirely devoted to literature. In this text Aristotle offers
an account of “the poetic art”. Aristotle divides the art of poetry into verse drama
(to include comedy, tragedy, and the satyr play), lyric poetry, and epic. The genres
all share the function of mimesis.
a. the notion of ‘poetics’ and examples of famous poetics
The concept of poetics is the inquiry into the laws and principles that underline
a verbal work of art. It presents the rules of writing. Poetics is a theory of poetry dealing
with the principle of writing and is concerned with the rules of the creation of poetry. In Aristotle’s
work, he puts value in the description of the nature
of poetry writing, and how poetry is composed For Aristotle, ‘poetics’ denotes the

and written. To him, poetry is a kind principles of the creation of poetry.

of literature and its aim is to imitate life. He thinks that the main aim

The method he uses is the empirical study of poetry is to imitate reality

of particular phenomena to formulate general through mimesis.

principles and rules. Aristotle describes mimesis,

 the imitative representation of reality, as a craft with its own laws and aims. He also points
out that there are various ways of imitating, as it is, ought to be, and is said to be. He also describes
and sets the rules of a perfect tragedy. The whole concept of poetics has often carried normative
and prescriptive connotations.
Examples of famous poetics include Horace’s Ars Poetica, Pseudo-Longinus’ On the Sublime,
and William Wordsworth’s Preface to Lyrical Ballads.
b. the significance of Poetics for literary studies
Poetics laid foundations for the creation and development of the theory of literature
as a scholarly discipline. It presents the rules of writing and the theory of poetry. Aristotle
classified literary text, which made it possible to classify other forms of art. He also contributed
to narrative theory by presenting a second fundamental criterion for the understanding
of narrative, which was the distinction between the reality we experience and the narrated
reality, written by the artist. He also defined tragedy, which is an imitation of an action
that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude, and its soul in the plot – mythos. Aristotle
put emphasis on the reader-centered approach, and on how the work of art influences
its audience. He also classified narratology as a humanistic discipline dedicated to the study
of the logic, principles, and practices of narrative representation.
c. Aristotle’s legacy – the influence of Poetics on narrative theory, formalisms,
and reader-response criticism
1) influence on narrative theory – Poetics contributed to narrative theory by presenting
a second fundamental criterion for the understanding of narrative, which was the distinction
between the reality we experience and the narrated reality, written by the artist. According
to him, the artist selects certain events out of which he constructs the plot.
He pointed out that the world created by the poet is a construct presenting a subset of events,
chosen and arranged according to the laws of aesthetics. The approach of Poetics
to the function of the protagonist and their action was that it could be explained as governed
by aesthetics and logical requirements of mythos – plot.
2) influence on formalism – Formalism is the study of a text without taking into account
any outside influence. Formalism rejects or sometimes simply brackets notions of culture
or societal influence, authorship, and content, and instead focuses on modes, genres,
discourse, and forms. The main point made
in Poetics is that the plot, mythos, is the most Poetics employs a few important
important part of tragedy. Even though, literary notions: the theory
Although Aristotle points out six parts of poetry, the narrative structure,
of tragedy, he states that the plot is the most formalism, and catharsis.
important as it contributes to the excellence
of tragedy. He justifies his claim by stating that the plot is necessary for something to be called
tragedy and that the plot can have an effect on the audience, for example by means of katharsis.
His formalism is the concept of a plot as the arrangement of incidents connected
by the casual necessity and principles of probability. The plot is the imitation of life.
It can be simple or complex.
 3) influence on reader-response criticism – Poetics put emphasis on the reader-centered
approach, which denotes how the work of an artist influences the reader and the audience.
Aristotle uses the term “catharsis” as a way to describe the effect true tragedy should have
on the audience. Catharsis is the purification or cleansing of emotions.
In his criticism, Aristotle claims that the purpose of tragedy is to result in catharsis by evoking
emotions of terror and pity for the protagonist. To create this effect, tragedy should
be an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude,
and the language of the poet should be rich and ornamented. The plot should
be an arrangement of incidents that are complete and which follow the principles of necessity
and probability.
d. Aristotle’s theory of mimesis and the notion of poetic truth:
1) kinds of mimesis
• presenting things as they are
• presenting things as they ought to be
• presenting things as they are believed to be by people (beliefs in gods, nature)

THEORY OF MIMESIS

means / medium: objects: manner / mode:

- harmony & rhythm - better - in narration & action

- color & shape - worse - in action
- speech - as they are

2) tragedy as an imitation of action

In Poetics, Aristotle contains his theory of tragedy. Tragedy is the story of the downfall
of the character, caused by excessive pride or the error of judgment. For Aristotle, tragedy
is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude.
A complete action is one that has a beginning and an end, both closed at both ends.
The language is rich and has all sorts of ornament. The action of the tragedy is complete
and the events are connected by causal necessity.
3) plot (mythos) as a means of imitation of action: definition of the plot, principles
of plot construction
The most important part of tragedy and its soul is the plot, mythos. The arrangement
of the plot should follow the laws and principles of necessity, so logic, and the events
should be probable. The plot should be an imitation of life. Plots can be divided into simple
and complex. Complex plots are those that contain change of fortune, reversal of fortune,
and recognition. The worse kind of plot in tragedy is an episodic plot. The purpose of tragedy
is to result in catharsis by evoking emotions of terror and pity for the protagonist. Catharsis
is the purification of emotions.
 4) differences between history and poetry (historical truth and poetic truth)
In Poetics, Aristotle distinguishes between poetry and history.
POETRY HISTORY
poetry shows what may happen, not what
history is about what happened in the past
happened
poetry shows the general and universal
history reports facts and truths
truths about reality
poetry comments on the nature of reality history comments on the particular events
poetry is more philosophical history is more factual
historians concentrate on a single period
poets use mythos (the plot), so the soul
and incidents that happened
of tragedy is connected to causal incidents
with no connection

5) imitation as creation: two kinds of errors in poetry

In Poetics, Aristotle distinguishes two kinds
of errors in poetry. They both touch its essence, For Aristotle, accidental errors are
so those when a poet imitates something justifiable. However, the artist
incorrectly and those which are accidental, is guilty of error if they represent
which is a failure due to the wrong choice. the impossible in their works.
If the failure is due to the wrong choice
(introducing technical accuracies in medicine), the error is not essential to the poetry.
If the artist describes the impossible, he is guilty of an error. It may be justified
if due to the error the plot is more striking. The impossible must be justified by reference
to artistic requirements, or to the higher reality, or to received opinion. The poet can create
an alternative reality but it is not the reality as we know it.

III. Plato’s contribution to media studies

Plato contributed to the development of media studies. He believed that oral communication
is superior to written text. He thought that writing in the form of dialogues was useful
for transmitting principles to people, with the aim of spreading the concepts of his doctrine
in the most congenial way.
a. Plato’s critique of writing in Phaedrus (360 BCE)
Phaedrus is a dialogue between Plato’s protagonist, Socrates, and Phaedrus. The discussion
in the dialogue revolves around the art of rhetoric and how it should be practiced
and dwells on subjects as diverse as metempsychosis (the Greek tradition of reincarnation)
and erotic love. One of the dialogue’s central passages is the famous Chariot Allegory,
which presents the human soul as composed of a charioteer, a good horse tending upward
to the divine, and a bad horse tending toward to material embodiment.
In Phaedrus, Plato comments upon the shift in media which went from orality to literacy. It is one
of the first texts that deal with medium. It investigates the importance of medium,
 the process of creation, and communication. However, Plato’s attitude toward writing
is rather negative. He presents his ideas through a dialogue between Thamus and Theuth.
Their conversation is about letters which supposedly would make people wiser,
but this assumption turns out to be wrong. He claims that a person who needs to consult
everything with a written text is not wise. To him, a true path to wisdom is through human
conversation and interaction with others, so through dialogue. For Plato, writing is inhumane,
it destroys memory, and is unresponsive and passive. People will stop remembering facts
when they are written down.
b. media turn in literary studies
Basically every time a media shift happens in literary studies, there are skeptics of it. Beginning
with Plato and his criticism of writing, artists and scholars are suspicious of new forms
of communication and see them as dangerous. The invention of print in the 15th century met
similar resistance, presented e.g. by Alexander Pope, who claimed that with print, every dunce can
become a writer. Also, the invention of e-books was seen by some as unnecessary: many
writers advocated against the digitalized version of the book.

3. Ancient (classical) sources (Greek and Roman period): rhetoric

a. definition of rhetoric
Rhetoric is the art of public speaking. A rhetor (a sophist)
is a person who is skilled in speaking and addresses the audience
in order to make an impact on it. The outcome of speaking well
is to convince people of one’s rights, ideas, and views. Speech
distinguishes people from beasts, it has a humanist aspect
and presents moral values.
b. the role of rhetoric in the social life of a democratic society
Without speech, it would be impossible to organize social life and present moral values. Rhetoric
is the foundation of democracy as it is used in law, politics, education, and philosophy
to make symposia and debates. In theology, it is used to gain influence over the believers.
Language gives control over ideas; without mastery of language and speaking one cannot
have mastery of ideas.
c. three branches of rhetoric (according to Aristotle):
1) judicial / forensic (past) – it includes discourse or the written word that considers whether
or not something was just, legal, or ethical. While judicial rhetoric is most common
in courtrooms, it is also found more broadly any time a person tries to justify their actions
or defend themselves (courtroom proceedings, lawyer statements, jury deliberations, written
laws, personal justification)
2) demonstrative / epideictic (present) – includes discourse or the written word that praises
or blames a person for their actions or accomplishments. Typically seen as ceremonial
and praiseworthy, epideictic rhetoric can be seen in obituaries, eulogies, letters
of recommendation, nominating speeches, etc.
 3) deliberative (future) – includes discourse or the written word that is intended to either
persuade people into action or dissuade them from doing or thinking something. Examples
include political speeches, proposals, presentations, and social justice campaigns.
d. five offices/canons of rhetoric
1) invention (heuresis/inventio) – refers to coming up with or ‘inventing’ an idea. Any good
communication starts with having a good idea.
2) arrangement (taxis/dispositio) – is about organization. Once you have a good idea,
you determine what order it needs to go in to be the most effective. The main aim is to make
the message clear.
3) style (lexis/elocutio) – refers to the choices you make to impact a reader or listener. You need
to consider word choice, tone, pace, visualization, and other emotion-evoking style options.
4) memory (memoria) – is about your knowledge and understanding of the content. The more
you know, the more you research, the more you learn and understand, the better your
presentation will be.
5) delivery (pronuntiatio) – refers to how you actually present the message. If it is a speech,
we talk about eye contact, posture, rate of voice, articulation, the way you dress, etc. In other
communication, it may be the paper something is printed on, the quality of the print,
professionalism, etc. (gestures, facial expressions, tone of voice – conversational, tone
of debate, tone of amplification)
e. Plato’s and Aristotle’s debate on the role and value of rhetoric
Plato was SKEPTICAL of rhetoric. For him, it was the art of winning someone by discourse
and it had the power of gaining influence over others. It led to conviction without educating people
as to right or wrong. A rhetorician was seen by Plato as a non-expert who was not educated
on the subject. Rhetoricians were just good speakers, frequently persuading other non-experts,
for whom truth was not important. Plato advocated that rhetoric should be used only for the truth
and that the chief purpose of an orator is not to educate people but to convince them. It has
nothing to do with moral or intellectual value.
Aristotle OPPOSED TO Plato’s claims, stating that rhetoric can promote truth and justice,
as the true position is naturally superior. Moreover, rhetoric has a role in social life.
f. two ancient literary-critical texts influenced by rhetoric: Horace’s Ars Poetica
and Pseudo-Longinus’ On the Sublime
Ars Poetica, or The Art of Poetry, is a poem written by Horace c. 19 BCE.
He advises poets on the art of writing poetry and drama. Ars Poetica
has exercised a great influence in later ages on European literature, notably
on French drama, and has inspired poets and authors since it was written.
On the Sublime is a Roman-era Greek work of literary criticism dated
to the 1st century CE. Its author is unknown but is conventionally referred
to as Longinus or Pseudo-Longinus. It is regarded as a classic work
on aesthetics and the effects of good writing. The treatise highlights examples
of good and bad writing from the previous millennium, focusing particularly
on what may lead to the sublime.
1) Ars Poetica and On the Sublime as examples of poetics
Horace’s Ars Poetica is written in a form of an epistle, a letter of advice to young poets.
It includes comments on the characteristics of good art, its aim, and the debate
about art and genius. Horace underlines the following rules of the creation of poetry:
a) unity – it should be derived from the observation of nature
b) choice of material – writers must choose material equal to their powers; either follow
a tradition or invent a consistent story; study Greek models night and day)
c) function – poets either aim to do good or to give pleasure; whatever you advise, be brief
d) art of genius – art et ingenium – art and nature are equally important
e) maxims – ut pictura poesis – poetry resembles a painting; art should be analyzed
in the Roman manner
f) idem dormitat Homeus – even Homer sometimes sleeps; even great poets make
mistakes
g) dulce et utile – poetry should be pleasurable, instructive, sweet, and useful
h) poetry as an art: an inquiry into the laws and principles that underline a verbal work
of art and has often normative and prescriptive connotations
Pseudo-Longinus’ On the Sublime contains the definition, marks, and the source
of the sublime. It comments on the debate about nature, art, and the causes
of the deterioration of art.
2) the ancient notion of the sublime (definition, sources of the sublime, natural
and artificial roads to sublimity)
The sublime is defined as the concept of greatness, a kind of eminence and excellence,
wonder, and astonishment. It is always superior to the persuasive and pleasant
and if it is produced at the right moment, it has great power. It contains reflection
and its nature is to elevate people. There are five sources of the sublime divided
into natural and artificial roads. Natural
are grandeur of thought and strong and inspired The sublime is the greatness
emotions, and artificial are certain kinds of figures deriving from the combination
of speech and thought, noble diction (the choice of the simplicity of the message
of words), and dignified and elevated word and the elevation of the form.
arrangement.
3) Edmund Burke’s revision of the theory of sublime
Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was an Anglo-Irish statesman,
economist, and philosopher. In 1757, he published a treatise
on aesthetics titled A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin
of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful that attracted
attention of prominent Continental thinkers such as Denis Diderot
and Immanuel Kant. It was his only purely philosophical work,
and Burke wrote it before he was 19.
 This treatise was the first to separate the beautiful and the sublime into their own respective
rational categories. According to Burke, the Beautiful is that which is well-formed
and aesthetically pleasing, whereas the Sublime is that which has the power
to compel and destroy us. The preference for the Sublime over the Beautiful was to mark
the transition from the Neoclassical to the Romantic era.
THE BEAUTIFUL THE SUBLIME
more associated with the Classical more associated with the Romantic
experienced mainly through the man-made experienced also through contact
objects with nature
connected with small objects, connected with the feelings of horror
not as powerful as the sublime and terror
obscure, because the lack of knowledge
pleasurable, straightforward
increases danger
Burke’s ideas had an influence on the Romanticism: fear and pain are the ways
to delight.

4. Ancient (classical) sources (Greek and Roman period): philology

a. the rise of philology in the Library of Alexandria
Philology was born in the library of Alexandria which was founded
by Ptolemy I around the 3rd century BCE. The goal of the founder
was to collect all the books in the world there. Zenodotus was the first
librarian and he invented the idea of the alphabetical order of texts.
He also produced the first standard collection of Homer’s works.
The library was seen as an ambition of developing human knowledge.
Philological methods started in the library of Alexandria, so it can be
called a nursery of textual philology. It was a place to practice
scholarship and had lecture halls. It was also the first medical school.
The library was destroyed, partially by fire and as the outcome of Julius Caesar’s war.
This was seen as the loss of cultural knowledge as the library was a collection of thousands
of documents.
b. the aims and methods of the ancient philology
Ancient philology aimed to explain the evolution of languages. It also tried to explain the
unfolding of cultures and examine folklore and poetic tradition. The term “philology” was first
used by Plato.
The methodology of philology encompassed phonetics and dialectology, comparative
method, and ethnology.
c. the rise of the modern philology
Modern philology was born in the 17th century out of the desire to imitate the Ancient classics.
Scholars divided themselves into two groups: the ancients and the moderns. The ancients
wanted to revive the ancient rhetoric, claiming that ancient heritage is the heart and soul
of learning, thus it is people’s highest achievement. The moderns wanted to recover the whole
ancient teaching and culture, but they were convinced that people can go beyond the ancient
heritage.
1) the origin: “Phalaris controversy”
The subject of this controversy was the genuineness of certain letters attributed
to Phalaris, the half-legendary ruler of Agrigentum, who roasted his enemies in a brazen
bull. An idle comparison between ancient and modern learning begun in France, had spread
to England; and Sir William Temple (1628-1699), then eminent as a man of letters,
published an essay in 1690, in which he gave preference to ancient literature and praised
the letters of Phalaris as superior to anything since written of the same kind.
The essay attracted the attention of Charles Boyle (1674-1731),
who published a new edition of the letters in 1695. In his preface,
the editor made an insulting reference to Richard Bentley (1662-
1742), who was an English classical scholar and critic. Boyle
also complained about his discourteous conduct
in refusing the use of a manuscript of Phalaris kept
in the royal library. Bentley wrote once to Boyle,
explaining that there had been a mistake and that he intended
no discourtesy. Boyle, though, refused to make any amends.
Richard Bentley could not swallow this insult and had to do something.
In another book he wrote an appendix in which he briefly stated
his proofs that the letters of Phalaris were false, and then gave the true version
of the affair of the manuscript. But he went further: using harsh language, he pointed
out errors in Boyle’s edition, blaming his teachers for them more than “the young gentleman”
himself.
Boyle and his teachers decided to reply to this outrageous accusation and wrote a book
against Bentley. In a polished and pleasant style, it exhausted every art
of the controversialist in throwing ridicule on Bentley as a dull pedant without
the manners of a gentleman or the taste of a genuine man of letters. Public opinion took Boyle’s
side and Bentley was ridiculed by other authors as well (Swift and his Battle of the Books).
Bentley’s full reply appeared in 1699. The Dissertation did not instantly covert public opinion
to Bentley’s side; but competent scholars, not, at that day, a large company, saw at once
that Bentley had not only disproved forever the authenticity of the letters of Phalaris,
but had also made large additions to the sum of existing knowledge on every subject
which he had occasion to discuss.
 Later research has proven that the letters are not legitimate. They could not fit their
alleged place and time, Pseudo-Phalaris referred to cities not yet founded, cited texts not yet
written, and wrote his letter in the Attic dialect, while he was a Dorian speaker.
2) Richard Bentley as a founder of modern philology and his methods of the study
of classics
Richard Bentley (1662-1742) is claimed to be the first great philologist
and the founder of historical philology. He was considered a classicist-
modern scientist and what made him modern was his approach
to the ancient texts. He found new methods of textual reading:
a) tracing the meaning of words and phrases through cross-
referencing within the text to the authors, works, and period
b) contextualization with reference to the extra-textual culture
of coins, busts, frescos, etc., e.g. Dr Bentley’s Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris
Examined
Procedure: collating all existing copies, the emendation of corruptions, glossing obscure words
and phrases, description of metrical patterns and variations, annotations

5. The republic of letters

a. the definition of the republic of letters
The republic of letters was the long-distance intellectual community in the late 17th
and 18th centuries in Europe and the Americas. It fostered communication among the intellectuals
of the Age of Enlightenment, or philosophes as they were called in France. The republic of letters
emerged in the 17th century as a self-proclaimed community of scholars and literary
figures that stretched across national boundaries but respected differences in language and
culture. These communities that transcended national boundaries formed the basis
of a metaphysical Republic. Because of societal
constraints on women, the republic of letters consisted
mostly of men. As such, many scholars use “republic
of letters” and “men of letters” interchangeably.
b. the aims and ideals of the republic of letters
The aims of the republic of letters were to advance knowledge, especially of ancient texts.
Members of the society were men of deep erudition, e.g. Renaissance humanists. Their ideas were
on learning, including a common language (classical Latin), a common view of the Christian
past, a devotion to the literary tradition essential for communication and meaningful
disputes between contemporaries and between “ancients and moderns”
c. the practices of the republic of letters
The republic of letters had no religious program and praised egalitarianism (social class was
not important). They promoted moderation, civility, and sociability. They organized disputation
and learned pilgrimages beyond the university. While looking for sources, they held book-
hunting travels. One of the most important practices was epistolary exchange (writing letters
to one another). It stressed the importance of contact with other scholars to exchange ideas.
WARM-UP

Match the ancient texts with the ideas presented in them.

1. The Frogs a. good poetry should follow certain rules, e.g. unity with nature

2. Poetics b. poetry is inferior to philosophy, which is the source of wisdom

3. Ion c. great poetry should elevate and move people

4. Republic d. tradition in poetry is more important than modernity

5. Phaedrus e. good poetry should be the imitation of the reality

6. Ars Poetica f. poetry is dangerous because it operates on emotions

7. On the Sublime g. speech is superior to writing, which should not be used

EXAM PRACTICE

1. What is the main ancient source of literary studies in terms of literature? What does the author
say about the nature of literature there? Present the conflict between the ancients
and the moderns visible in this work.
2. Discuss Plato’s and Aristotle’s perspectives on the nature of poetry. In what areas do these two
philosophers not agree? Consider the notion of mimesis and the representative nature of poetry.
3. In what ways does Poetics influence narrative theory, formalism, and reader-response criticism?
Discuss these concepts with reference to Aristotle’s claims.
4. What is the main point of Plato’s Phaedrus? What concept does he criticize there? Place
this example in the broader discussion of media shifts in literary studies, providing some
examples.
5. What are the five canons of rhetoric? What are Plato’s and Aristotle’s views on the nature
of rhetoric? In what aspects do they disagree?
6. Discuss Ars Poetica and On the Sublime as texts on poetics. What advice do they give to a reader
who wants to compose poetry?
7. What is the change that Edmund Burke introduced in the concept of the sublime? Present
its main premises.
8. What are the origins of philology? How did it use to look in ancient times?
9. What is the Phalaris controversy? Present its course and discuss its importance for the rise
of modern philology.
10. What was the republic of letters? Discuss this concept and present its ideas and practices.
In what ways did it contribute to the rise of literary studies?