Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Distress
Distress
Distress
1
What is a Pavement?
2
What is a Pavement?
OR
• Highway pavement is a structure consisting of
superimposed layers of selected and processed
materials whose primary function is to distribute
the applied vehicle load to the sub grade.
OR
• It can also be defined as “structure which
separates the tyres of vehicles from the under
lying foundation.”
3
Functions of the Pavement
4
Requirements of pavement
structure
• Sufficient thickness to spread loading to a pressure
intensity tolerable by subgade.
• Sufficiently strong to carry imposed stress due to
traffic load.
• Sufficient thickness to prevent the effect of frost
susceptible subgrade.
• Pavement material should be impervious to
penetration of surface water which could weaken
subgrade and subsequently pavement.
• Pavement surface should be skid resistant.
5
Classification of
Pavements
6
Types of Pavement
PAVEMENTS
7
Comparison
Properties Flexible Rigid
Design Empirical method D e s i g n e d a n d a n a l y z e d b y u s i n g t h e e l a st i c
Principle Ba sed o n load distribution theory
characteristics of the
components
Material Granular material M a d e of C e m e n t Concr ete either plan,
reinforced or prestressed concrete
Flexural L o w or negligible flexible Associated with rigidity or flexural strength
Strength strength or slab action so the load is distributed over
a w i d e area o f s u b g r a d e soil.
Normal Elastic deformation Acts as b e a m or cantilever
Loading
Excessive Local depression Causes Cracks
Loading
Stress Tr a n s m i t s v e r t i c a l a n d Te n s i l e S t r e s s a n d Te m p e r a t u r e I n c r e a s e s
co mp r essi v e stresses to the
lower layers
Te m p e r a t u r e N o s t r e s s is p r o d u c e d S t r e s s is p r o d u c e d
Force of Less. Deformation in the Friction force is H i g h
Friction s u b grade is not transferred
to the u p p e r layers.
Opening to R o a d c a n b e u s e d f o r t r a ff i c R o a d cannot be used until 1 4 days of curing
Tr a f f i c within 24 hours 13
Surfacing Rolling of the surfacing is Rolling of the surfacing in not needed.
needed
Pavements
Comparison
Flexible pavements:
• Deep foundations / multi layer construction
• Energy consumption due to transportation of materials
• Increasing cost of asphalt due to high oil prices
Rigid pavements
• Single layer
• Generally last longer
• May require asphalt topping due to noise / comfort
issues
14
Pavements Comparison
16
Flexible Rigid
RIGID PAVEMENT
Rigid pavements are those, which contain sufficient
beam strength to be able to bridge over the localized
sub-grade failures and areas of in adequate support.
OR
Load is transmitted through beam action of slab in rigid
pavements.
OR
Rigid pavements are those, which reduces the stress
concentration and distributes the reduced stresses
uniformly to the area under the slab.
13
RIGID PAVEMENT
14
RIGID PAVEMENT
Rigid pavements, though costly in initial investment, are
cheap in long run because of low maintenance costs, The cost
of construction of single lane rigid pavement varies from 35
to 50 lakhs per km in plain area,
•Rigid pavement have deformation in the sub grade is not
transferred to subsequent layers.
•Design is based on flexural strength or slab action,Have high
flexural strength.
•No such phenomenon of grain to grain load transfer exists
•Have low repairing cost but completion cost is high
•Life span is more as compare to flexible (Low Maintenance
Cost)
15
Basic Components of Concrete
Pavement
16
Rigid
Pavements
17
Types of Concrete
Pavements
18
Un Reinforced Concrete Pavements
19
JPCP
20
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (Jpcp)
Reinforced Concrete Pavement
22
JRCP
23
Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement:
24
CRCP
25
Precast Prestressed Pavement
26
Factors Governing Design of Pavements
• Subgrade soil
➢Thickness of pavement required.
➢Stress- strain behaviour under load.
➢Moisture variation.
• Design Period .
• Design commercial traffic volume.
27
• Composition of commercial traffic in terms of single ,
tridem , tandem.
• Axle load spectrum.
• Tyre pressure.
• Lateral placement characteristics.
• Pavement component materials.
• Climatic factors.
• Required Cross sectional elements of the alignment.
28
Axle load
30
Static Load On Wheels
• This factor is used to design the thickness of slab
because the load of the axle is ultimately transfers to
wheel.
• Axle Load Characteristics
Though the legal limits in India are 10.2 tonnes , 19.0
tonnes, 24.0 tonnes for single , tandem , tridem axle
respectively but a large number of axles operating on
national highways carry much heavier loads than the
legal limits. Data on load spectrum of the commercial
vehicles is required to estimate the repetitions of single
,tandem , tridem axles in each direction expected
during the design period
31
• Minimum percentage of vehicle to be weighed should be 10
percent if Commercial vehicles per day (cvpd) exceeding 6000 ,
15 percent for cpvd for 3000 to 6000 and 20 percent for cpvd for
less than 3000 . Axle load survey may be conducted at least for
48 hrs and data on axle load spectrum of the commercial
vehicles is required to estimate the repletion of single , tandem ,
tridem axles .
• If the spacing of consecutive vehicle is greater than 2.4 meters
then the each vehicle may be considered as single axle.The
interval at which axle load group should be classified :
• Single axle-10 kN
• Tandem axle -20 kN
• Tridem axle -30 kN
38
Wheel Base Characteristics
39
Truck
Configuration
5 Axle Truck
2 Axle Truck
LCV
Tridem Axle
Standard Axle
10.2 Tonnes
Standard Axle
DESIGN LIFE
• To achieve a design of low life cycle cost and in
respect of the high social cost for full depth
reconstruction,
• The design life for rigid pavement is generally
recommended as 30 years.
• Within this life span, it is expected that no extensive
rehabilitation is required under normal circumstances .
• The service life of the pavement structure can be
sustained by minor repairs.
• It is anticipated that the service life can be further
extended upon ‘expiry’ of the original ‘design life’ by
timely maintenance and localized bay replacement.
37
Commercial Vehicle Forecast
• The definition of commercial vehicle follows the one given
in the Annual Traffic Census published by Transport
Department, which includes medium /heavy goods vehicle
and bus, other light vehicles, for examples, motor cycle
,private car and public light bus, are normally ignored as
their induced structural damage on pavements is minimal.
38
• The forecast can be done with reference to on-site
traffic count data, traffic census or other available
traffic studies and planning data .
C=(365*A{(1+r)˄n -1})/r
39
Traffic consideration
Design lane
The lane carrying the maximum number of heavy
commercial vehicle is termed as design lane . each lane of
the two way lane highways are the outer lane of multi
lane highways can be considered as design lane .
• Lateral placement characteristics.
It is recommended that 25 percent of the total two –way
commercial traffic may be considered as design traffic for
two- lane two – way roads for the analysis of BUC. In
case four lanes and other multi lane divided highways 25
percent of the total traffic in the direction of predominant
traffic may be considered for design of pavement for
bottom up cracking. For TDC those vehicles with the
46
spacing between transverse joint.
Temperature Consideration
41
Concrete strength
42
Modulus of elasticity and poission
ratio of concrete
44
Environmental factors
45
Precipitation :
47
COMPONENTS AND ALSO GOVERNING
FACTORS OF PAVEMENT DESIGN
48
Subgrade
• In winkler model it is assumed that the foundation is
made up of springs supporting the concrete slabs the
strength of subgrade is expressed in terms of modulus
of subgrade reaction K .
• Which is defined as the pressure per unit deflection of
the foundations as determined by plate load test The
modulus of subgrade reaction (k) is used as a primary
input for rigid pavement design. It estimates the
support of the layers below a rigid pavement surface
course (the PCC slab). The k value can be determined
by field tests or by correlation with other tests. There is
no direct laboratory procedure for determining k value.
49
• Westergaard considered the rigid pavement slab as a thin
elastic plate resting on soil subgrade,which is assumed as
a dense liquid. The upward reaction is assumed to be
proportional to the deflection. Base on this assumption,
Westergaard defined a modulus of subgrade reaction in
kg/cm given by where is the displacement level taken as
0.125 cm and is the pressure sustained by the rigid plate
of 75 cm diameter at a deflection of 0.125 cm.
• If the diameter of plate is not 75 cm then even then we
can find the value of k by using the following equations
K750=kΦ(1.21Φ+.078)
50
• In case the plate bearing test could not be conducted,
the approximate k- value corresponding to CBR values
can be obtained from its soaked CBR value using
Table 2 (IRC:58-2011 )
51
52
Sub Base
The main purpose of the sub base is to provide the
uniform ,stable,and the permanent support to the
concrete slab laid over it .It should have sufficient
strength so that it is not subjected to disintegration and
erosion under heavy traffic and adverse environment
conditions. For these sub base of Dry lean concrete
having 7 day strength of 10 Mpa determined is
recommended. The effective k value of different
combinations of subgrade and sub base can be
estimated from table 3.
53
Drainage layer /Filtration
layer
• Entrapped water in the subgrade and granular sub base
may cause erosion of the foundation material since
pore water pressure generated by the tandem and
tridem is substantially high.
• To facilitate quick disposal of water that is likely to
enter subgarde, a drainage layer together with filter/
separation layer may be provided beneath the subbase
throughout the road width. The filtration layer also
prevents fines from pumping up from the subgrade to
the drainage layer.
54
Debonding layer
• To reduce the friction between concrete slab and
DLC.
• Generally 125 micron thin sheet .(polythene).
55
RIGID PAVEMENT
DESIGN
56
Modulus of sub-grade
reaction
57
Relative stiffness of slab to sub-grade
58
Equivalent radius of resisting
section
59
Critical load positions
60
Wheel load stresses - Westergaard's
stress equation
• The cement concrete slab is assumed to be
homogeneous and to have uniform elastic properties
with verticalsub-grade reaction being proportional to
the deflection.
• Westergaard (1926) developed equations for solution
of load stresses at three critical regions of the slab
– interior, corner and edge
• Interior -Load in the interior and away from all the
edges
• Edge – Load applied on the edge away from the
corners
61
Corner – Load located on the bisector of the corner
angle Westergaard developed relationships for the stress at
interior, edge and corner regions, in kg/cm2
62
where h is the slab thickness in cm, P is the wheel load in
kg, a is the radius of the wheel load distribution in cm, l
the radius of the relative stffiness in cm and b is the
radius of the resisting section in cm
63
Temperature stresses
64
65
Warping stress
•Temperature differential between the top and the bottom
surfaces of a cement concrete slab is a common
phenomenon whether its day or night. Expansion and
contraction of the slab as a result of temperature
difference causing geometric deformation – either curling up
or down. Warping or temperature stresses will
produced in the slab when geometric deformations are
completely restrained by its self weight.
•Two critical conditions of warping stresses in a cement
concrete slab are presented in figure (next slide). Due to
curling of the slab , tensile and compressive stresses are
produced in its bottom fibers during the day and night
respectively . maximum warping stress is observed at the
interior of the slab than towards its edges since the interior
part o7f1the slab is more restrained against curling than the edges.
Warping stress in concrete slab when
curling is restrained at different times
72
Based on the plate theory, westergaard (1926)
developed formula for calculating the warping stresses
• in the concrete slab . In 1938 , Bradbury modifies his
formulae and developed the following equations for
calculating the maximum warping stress at the interior
and edge of the slab having finite dimensions
73
Frictional stresses
Slab movement are restrained by its self weight caused by
the inter surface frictional forces between the slab and the
supporting layer ( sub – base layer ). For example
when the slab contracts its movement are restrained by
frictional forces and tensile stresses are developed
69
Critical Combination of
Stresses
The cumulative effect of the different stress give rise to
the following three critical cases.
• Summer, mid-day: The critical stress is for edge
region given by σcritical =σe + σte -σ f.
• Winter, mid-day: The critical combination of stress is
for the edge region given by σcritical = σe+σte +σf.
• Mid-nights: The critical combination of stress is for
the corner region given by σcritical = σc + σtc.
70
Design of slab thickness
Critical stress condition
The severest combination that induce the maximum
stress in the pavement will give the critical combinations .
The flexural stress due to the combined action of traffic
loads and temperature differential between the top and
the bottom fibers of the concrete slab is considered for
the design of pavement thickness
The flexural stress at the bottom layer of the concrete
slab is maximum during the day hours when the axle
load act mid ways on the pavement slab while there is
positive temperature gradient . as shown .
This condition is likely to produce Bottom- Up
cracking(BUC). 76
•Location of the points of maximum flexureal stresses
at the bottom of the pavement slab without tied
concrete shoulder for single , tandem , tridem axle as
shown . the tyre imprints the longitudinal to the
edges. For tied shoulder same stress will be produced
at same location. Single axle cause highest stress
followed by tandem and tridem axles respectively.
87
88
During the night hours the top surface is cooler than the
bottom surface and the ends of the slab curl up
resulting in loss of support for the slab as shown . Due
to the restrained provide by the self weight of concrete
and by the dowel connections, temperature tensile.
stresses are caused at top
89
• Figure shows the placement of axles load close to
transverse joint when there is negative temperature
gradient during night period causing high flexural
stress at the top of the slab leading to the Top – down
cracking (TDC)
90
Calculation of flexural stress
. 81
Analysis has been done for the following
cases
BOTTOM – UP CRACKING
93
• Similarly for assessing the TDC fatigue damagef
caused by repeated cycles of axle load and negative
temperature , flexural stress can be estimated in same
manner.
• The flexural stress is divided by the design flexural
strength of the cement to obtain the stress ratio ( SR)
94
95
Recommended procedure for slab
design
96
• Step-5: Estimate the axle load repetitions in the
specified six hours period during the day time . the
maximum temperature differential is assumed to be
remain constant during the 6 hrs for analysis of bottom
Up cracking.
• Step-6: Estimate the axle load repetitions in the
specified six hours period during the night time .
• The maximum negative temperature differential during
night is taken as half of day time maximum
temperature differential. Built in negative temperature
differential of 50 ˚c developed during the setting of the
concrete to be added to the temperature differential for
the analysis of top – down cracking . only those
vehicle whose front and first rear axle come between 87
transverse joints are considered.
• Step-7: compute the flexural stresses at the edge due to
single and tandem axle load for the combined effect of
axle load and positive temperature differential during
ay time determine the stress ratio and evaluate the CFD
for single and tandem axle loads. Sum of the two CFD
should be less than 1.0 for the slab to be safe against
bottom up cracking.
• Step-8: compute the flexural stresses at the centre area
of transverse joint and the rear axle close to the
following joint in the same panel under negative
temperature differential. determine the stress ratio and
evaluate the CFD for single and tandem axle loads.
Sum of the two CFD should be less than 1.0 for the
slab to be safe against bottom up cracking . 88
JOINTS IN RIGID
PAVEMENT
99
Load Transfer At The
Joints
•It is important that the load applied on the slab is shared by
adjacent slab also for better performance of pavement.
•If load transfer across the slab is poor, distress such as
faulting pumping, and corner break occur.
•Load transfer occurs through different mechanism.
•The ability of the pavement to transfer load at joint is called
“load transfer efficiency”.
•Granular interlocking is expected along the cracks that form
at transverse joints.
•For low volume road the load transfer is expected to be
provided by interlocking.
•For higher traffic volume thicker higher dowel bars are
provided.
100
101
Types Of
Joints
93
Expansion Joints
97
Longitudinal joints
99
Distress In Rigid Pavement
101
cracking Transverse cracking
Longitudinal cracking
Advantages of Concrete
Pavement
115
• Can be constructed over poor subgrades.
• Thinner overall pavement thickness = lower
consumption of raw materials.
• Resistant to abrasion from turning actions.
• No affected by weather, inert to spills and fire.
• High abrasion durability.
• Profile durability.
• Use of waste products like flyash and slag.
• Riding quality does not deteriorate.
• Saving of fuel costs of at least 1.1% over asphalt .
• Light colour enhances night visibility
116
Disadvantages of Rigid
Pavement
118
REFRENCES
119
Rigid Pavement
Distress
1-Blowup (Buckling)
Blowup (Buckling)
Blowup (Buckling)
Description:
A localized upward slab movement and shattering at a
joint or crack. It is the result of insufficient room for
slab expansion during hot weather.
Problem:
Roughness, moisture infiltration, in extreme cases (as in
the second photo) can pose a safety hazard
Possible Causes:
During cold periods (e.g., winter) PCC slabs contract
leaving wider joint openings. If these openings become
filled with incompressible material (such as rocks or
soil), subsequent PCC slab expansion during hot periods
(e.g., spring, summer) may cause high compressive
stresses. If these stresses are great enough, the slabs
may buckle and shatter to relieve the stresses.
2-taulting
Faulting
Faulting
Faulting
Description:
A difference in elevation across a joint or crack. Usually the
approach slab is higher than the leave slab due to
pumping, the most common faulting mechanism.
Faulting is noticeable when the average faulting in the
pavement section reaches about 2.5 mm (0.1 inch).
When the average faulting reaches 4 mm (0.15 in), some
rehabilitation measures should be considered.
Problem:
Roughness (an expression of irregularities in the pavement surface that adversely
affect the ride quality of a vehicle)
Possible Causes:
Most commonly, faulting is a result of slab
pumping. Faulting can also be caused by slab
settlement.
3-Linear (Panel) Cracking
Linear (Panel) Cracking
Linear (Panel) Cracking
Linear (Panel) Cracking
Description:
Linear cracks not associated with corner breaks or blowups
that extend across the entire slab. Typically, these cracks
divide an individual slab into two to four pieces.
Problem:
Roughness, allows moisture infiltration leading to erosion of
base/sub−base support.
Possible Causes:
Usually a combination of traffic loading, thermal changes,
moisture stresses and loss of support.
4-Popouts
Popouts
Popouts
Description:
Small pieces of PCC that break loose from the surface leaving small
divots or pock marks. Popouts range from 25 −100 mm (1 −4 inches)
in diameter and from 25 −50 mm (1 −2 inches) deep.
Problem:
Possible Causes:
Pumping in action
Pumping damage
Broken slabs with pumping evidence
Pumping
Description:
Movement of material underneath the slab or ejection of material
from underneath the slab as a result of water pressure. Water
accumulated underneath a PCC slab will pressurize when the slab
deflects under load. This pressurized water can do one of the
following:
• Move about under the slab.
• Move from underneath one slab to underneath an adjacent
slab. This type of movement leads to faulting.
• Move out from underneath the slab to the pavement
surface. This results in a slow removal of base, subbase and/or
sub−grade material from underneath the slab resulting in
decreased structural support.
Problem:
Decreased structural support of the slab, which can lead to
cracking and faulting.
Possible Causes:
Water accumulation underneath the slab. This can be caused by
such things as:
• a high water table,
• poor drainage,
• and panel cracks or
• poor joint seals
which allow water to infiltrate the underlying material.
Distresses in
Flexible Pavements
Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking
Alligator Cracking
Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking
Description:
• Series of interconnected cracks caused by fatigue failure
under repeated traffic loading.
• In thin pavements, cracking initiates at the bottom
asphalt layer where the tensile stress is the highest then
propagates to the surface as one or more longitudinal
cracks. This is commonly referred to as "bottom−up" or
"classical" fatigue cracking.
• In thick pavements, the cracks most likely initiate from
the top in areas of high localized tensile stresses
resulting from tire−pavement interaction and asphalt
binder aging (top−down cracking). After repeated
loading, the longitudinal cracks connect forming many−
sided sharp−angled pieces that develop into a pattern
resembling the back of an alligator or crocodile.
Problem:
Indicator of structural failure, cracks allow moisture
infiltration, may further deteriorate to a pothole
Possible Causes:
Inadequate structural support, which can be caused
by many things. A few of the more common ones
are listed here:
• Decrease in pavement load supporting
characteristics
– Loss of base, subbase or subgrade support (e.g., poor
drainage or thaw resulting in a less stiff base).
• Increase in loading (e.g., more or heavier loads
than anticipated in design)
• Inadequate structural design
• Poor construction (e.g., inadequate compaction)
Potholes
Potholes
Description:
Small, bowl−shaped depressions in the pavement surface that penetrate all
the way through the layer down to the base course. They generally have
sharp edges and vertical sides near the top of the hole. Potholes are
most likely to occur on roads with thin asphalt surfaces (25 to 50 mm (1
to 2 inches)) and seldom occur on roads with 100 mm (4 inch) or deeper
asphalt surfaces.
Problem:
Roughness (serious vehicular damage can result from driving across
potholes at higher speeds), moisture infiltration. Pavement roughness is generally
defined as an expression of irregularities in the pavement surface that adversely affect the ride quality of a
vehicle (and thus the user).
Possible Causes:
Generally, potholes are the end result of alligator cracking. As alligator
cracking becomes severe, the interconnected cracks create small chunks
of pavement, which can be dislodged as vehicles drive over them. The
remaining hole after the pavement chunk is dislodged is called a pothole.
Potholes
Pothole
Rutting
Rutting
Description:
The depressions all along the length of the road are called ruts.
Surface depression in the wheelpath. Pavement uplift
(shearing) may occur along the sides of the rut. Ruts are
particularly evident after a rain when they are filled with
water.
There are two basic types of rutting:
i. mix rutting
ii. subgrade rutting
Mix rutting occurs when the subgrade does not rut yet the
pavement surface exhibits wheelpath depressions as a
result of compaction/mix design problems.
Subgrade rutting occurs when the subgrade exhibits
wheelpath depressions due to loading. In this case, the
pavement settles into the subgrade ruts causing surface
depressions in the wheelpath.
Problem:
Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle hydroplaning, can
be hazardous because ruts tend to pull a vehicle
towards the rut path as it is steered across the rut.
Possible Causes:
• Insufficient compaction of pavement layers during construction. If
it is not compacted enough initially, pavement may continue to
densify under traffic loads.
Construction Practices
&
Quality Control