Pavement Materials and Design: by Eng. Ra'Id Arrhaibeh

Pavement Materials and Design ENG.
RA'ID ARRHAIBEH
AL-ALBAIT UNIVERSITY
ENGINEERING FACULATY
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Pavement Materials and Design

(0704482)
By
ENG. RA'ID ARRHAIBEH
1st semester / 2021 – 2022
0
Pavement Materials and Design ENG. RA'ID ARRHAIBEH
CH.1
Introduction
- In general
- Pavement fields:
1. Pavement design.
2. Pavement materials.
3. Pavement construction.
4. Pavement analysis evaluation, performance and response.
5. Pavement distress, management, maintenance and rehabilitation.
- Methods of pavement design:

1. Empirical methods.
 Without soil strength test (GI method, 1929)
 With soil strength test (CBR method, 1929)
2. Limiting shear failure methods.
 Terzagi’s (1943) bearing capacity formula was applied to determine the
pavement thickness
3. Limiting deflection methods.
 Pavement thickness was determined by limiting the surface deflection
below an allowable value using Bur mister’s (1943) two layer theory
4. Regression methods.
 based on pavement performance or road tests (AASHTO, 1961)
5. Mechanistic-empirical methods.
 This method of design is based on mechanics of materials that relates an
input, such as a wheel load, to an output or pavement response, such as
stress or strain.
– Shell method, 1977
– Asphalt Institute method, 1981
- Mechanistic-empirical methods.
- These methods are based on the mechanistic analysis of the pavement.

- The pavement response (stress, strain, or deflection) is determined using a structural
modal, program, and software.
- Then, the response values are used to predict pavement performance or distress
based on laboratory tests and field performance data.
- Types of pavements
1. Flexible pavements.
2. Rigid pavements.
3. Composite pavements.
1
 Flexible pavements :
- A flexible pavement structure is typically composed of several layers of material

with better quality materials on top where the intensity of stress from traffic loads
is high and lower quality materials at the bottom where the stress intensity is low.
- Flexible pavements can be analyzed as a multilayer system under loading.
- A typical flexible pavement structure consists of the surface course and underlying
base and sub base courses. Each of these layers contributes to structural support and
drainage.
- When hot mix asphalt (HMA) is used as the surface course, it is the stiffest (as
measured by resilient modulus) and may contribute the most (depending upon
thickness) to pavement strength.
- The underlying layers are less stiff but are still important to pavement strength as
well as drainage and frost protection.
- When a seal coat is used as the surface course, the base generally is the layer that
contributes most to the structural stiffness.
- A typical structural design results in a series of layers that gradually decrease in
material quality with depth.
Figure 1-1-a: typical section for a flexible pavement.
Figure 1-1-b: typical section for a flexible pavement.
2
Figure 1-1-c: typical section for a flexible pavement.
- The following types of construction have been used in flexible pavement:
A. Conventional: are layered systems with high quality expensive

materials are placed in the top where stresses are high, and low quality
cheap materials are placed in lower layers.
Figure 1 -2: Typical cross section of a conventional flexible pavement

(1 in. = 2.54cm)
B. Full-depth: are constructed by placing bituminous layers directly on the

soil sub grade, this is more suitable when there is high traffic and local
materials are not available.
3
Figure 1 -3: Typical cross-section of a full-depth asphalt pavement (1 in. = 2.54mm) .
C. Contained rock asphalt mats (CRAM): are constructed by placing

dense/open graded aggregate layers in between two asphalt layers.
Modified dense graded asphalt concrete is placed above the sub-grade
will significantly reduce the vertical compressive strain on soil sub-
grade and protect from surface water.
- Typical layers of a flexible pavement:
1. Seal Coat: Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface
and to provide skid resistance.
2. Tack Coat: Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt
emulsion diluted with water. It provides proper bonding between two layers of
binder course and must be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very
fast.
3. Prime Coat: Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an
absorbent surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides
bonding between two layers.
 Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the
voids, and forms a water tight surface.
4. Surface course: Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads
and generally contains superior quality materials. They are usually constructed
with dense graded asphalt concrete (AC).
 The functions and requirements of this layer are:
1. It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc.
Also it will prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface
water into the underlying base, sub-base and sub-grade.
2. It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a
smooth and skid- resistant riding surface.
3. It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from
the weakening effect of water.
5. Binder course: This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure.
 Its chief purpose is to distribute load to the base course.
 The binder course generally consists of aggregates having less asphalt
and doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a
part of the surface course by the binder course results in more economical
design.
4
6. Base course: The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the
surface of binder course and it provides additional load distribution and
contributes to the sub-surface drainage it may be composed of crushed stone,
crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.
7. Sub-Base course: The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base
course and the primary functions are to provide structural support, improve
drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement
structure.
 If the base course is open graded, then the sub-base course with more
fines can serve as filler between sub-grade and the base course.
 A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a
pavement constructed over a high quality, stiff sub-grade may not need
the additional features offered by a sub-base course. In such situations,
sub-base course may not be provided.
8. Sub-grade: The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to
receive the stresses from the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-
grade is overstressed. It should be compacted to the desirable density, near the
optimum moisture content.
- Failure of flexible pavements
- The major flexible pavement failures are fatigue cracking, rutting, and thermal
cracking.
- The fatigue cracking of flexible pavement is due to horizontal tensile strain at the
bottom of the asphaltic concrete. The failure criterion relates allowable number of
load repetitions to tensile strain and this relation can be determined in the laboratory
fatigue test on asphaltic concrete specimens.
- Rutting occurs only on flexible pavements as indicated by permanent deformation
or rut depth along wheel load path. Two design methods have been used to control
rutting: one to limit the vertical compressive strain on the top of sub grade and other
to limit rutting to a tolerable amount (12 mm normally).
- Thermal cracking includes both low-temperature cracking and thermal fatigue
cracking.
Figure 1 -4: Failure of flexible pavements Rigid pavements.
 Rigid pavements:
5
- A concrete pavement is a structure comprising of a layer of Portland cement

concrete (base) which is usually supported by a sub base layer on the sub grade.
- Concrete pavements may be either unreinforced (plain) or reinforced depending on
how the designer prefers to control shrinkage cracking, which will occur in the
pavements.
Figure 1 -5: Concrete Road Pavement Structure
6
Figure 1 -6: Effect of Depth on Distribution of Wheel Loads
- Types of rigid pavements:
1. Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP).

2. Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP).
3. Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP).
4. Pre-stressed Concrete Pavement (PCP).
- Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP).

- Jointed plain concrete pavement, or JPCP, consists of unreinforced concrete slabs
3.6–6.0 m in length with transverse contraction joints between the slabs.
- The joints are spaced closely enough together so that cracks should not form in
the slabs until late in the life of the pavement. Therefore, for JPCP, the pavement
expansions and contractions are addressed through joints.
- One important performance issue with JPCP is load transfer across the joints.
- If joints become faulted, then drivers encounter bumps at the joints and experience
a rough ride.
- Two methods are used to provide load transfer across JPCP joints :
1. Aggregate interlock.
2. Dowels.
7
Figure 1 -7-a: Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP).
Figure 1 -7-b: Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP).
8
Figure 1 -7-c: Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP).
Figure 1 -8: Components of a Typical JPCP
- Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP)

- Jointed reinforced concrete pavement, is distinguished from JPCP by longer slabs
and light reinforcement in the slabs.
9
- This light reinforcement is often termed temperature steel.

- JRCP slab lengths typically range from 7.5 to 9 m , although slab lengths up to 30
m have been used. With these slab lengths, the joints must be doweled.
- The slab steel content is typically in the range of 0.10–0.25 percent of the cross-
sectional area, in the longitudinal direction, with less steel in the transverse
direction.
- Either individual reinforcing bars or wire fabrics and meshes may be used.
- Because the steel is placed at the neutral axis or midpoint of the slab, it has no
effect on the flexural performance of the concrete and serves only to keep cracks
together.
- Figure 1 -9: Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP)
- Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP).

- Heavy steel reinforcement and an absence of joints. Much more steel is used
- For CRCP than for JRCP, typically on the order of 0.4–0.8 percent by volume in
the longitudinal direction.
- Steel in the transverse direction is provided in a lower percentage as temperature
steel.
- Cracks form in CRCP approximately 0.6–2 m apart.
- The reinforcement holds the cracks tightly together and provides for aggregate
interlock and shear transfer.
- CRC pavements require anchors at the beginning and end of the pavement to
keep the ends from contracting due to shrinkage, and to help the desired crack
pattern develop.
10
Figure 1 -10: Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP).
11
 Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

- The pre application of a compressive stress to the concrete greatly reduces the
tensile stresses caused by traffic and thus decrease the thickness of concrete
required.
- Have less probability of cracking and fewer transverse joints and therefore results
in less maintenance and longer pavement life.
- Used more frequently for airport pavements than for highway pavements because
the saving of thickness for airport pavements is much greater than for highways.
Figure 1 -11-a: Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).
Figure 1 -11-b: Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).
12
Figure 1 -12: construction of Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

13
 Composite Pavements
- Where components of both flexible and rigid pavements are combined in one road
structure, composite pavements are created.
- HMA provides a smooth surface layer.
- PCC provides a strong base.
- Three typical cross sections for composite pavements:
1. HMA directly over PCC.

2. HMA over thick granular materials over PCC.
3. PCC over thick granular materials over HMA.
Figure 1 -13: Composite Pavements (PCC over HMA)
eng. Ra'id Arrhaibeh
14
CH.2
Soils and base materials in pavement design
- Soil classification and characteristics
- Soils are classified into three major groups :
1. Course soils (gravel, sand):
 Gravel and sand comprise rock fragments of various sizes and shapes that
may be either rock fragments or single minerals. In some cases there may
be only a narrow range of particle sizes present, in which case the material
is described as ‘uniform’. In other cases a broad range of particle sizes may
be present and the material is described as ‘well graded’.
 further descriptive information should be given:

a) Proportions of particle sizes.
b) The maximum particle size.
c) Grading.
d) Particle shape.
e) Particle strength/hardness.
f) Other material.
g) Color.
h) Geological information
2. Fine soils (silt, clay):
a. Silt: is intermediate between clay and fine sand. Silt is less plastic and
more permeable than clay, and displays ‘dilatants’ and ‘quick’ behavior.
Quick behavior refers to the tendency of silt to liquefy when shaken or
vibrated, and dilatancy refers to the tendency to undergo volume increase
when deformed. A simple test of patting a saturated soil sample in the
hand can be undertaken to assess these properties and distinguish silt from
clay.
b. Clay: consists of very small particles and exhibits the properties of

‘cohesion’ and ‘plasticity’, which are not found in sand or gravel.
Cohesion refers to the fact that the material sticks together, while plasticity
is the property that allows the material to be deformed without volume
change or rebound, and without cracking or crumbling.
 the following descriptive information should be given:

a) Plasticity.
b) Presence of coarse material.
c) Color.
d) Geology.
15
3. Organic soils :
 Organic soil is distinguished as a category different from coarse or

fine soils, but should only be identified as such if the organic content
is high and the material no longer behaves like silt or clay.
 Soils containing small to moderate amounts of organic material still

retain the properties of silts or clays and should be described within
those categories.
Table 2.1: Soil classification.
- Behavior :
 Soil behavior always depends to some extent on grain size and this forms a
starting point for the engineering classification of soils.
Table 2.2: Grain Size Criteria
Figure 2.1: sieve grading.
16
Figure 2.2: Sieves for Coarse Grained Soil (Left) and Fine Grained Soil (Right).
- Soil characteristics ( that concern the highway pavement engineers) :
Figure 2.3: phase diagram.
17
1. Density (bulk or total density, dry density, and submerged density).
- Bulk or total density: is the density of complete soil sample (i.e., solids and
voids).
- The dry density: is usually calculated from the measured values of bulk
density and moisture content.
- Submerged density: When the soil is below water table it will be saturated.
As previously noted, but it will also be submerged.
Submerged density of soil = Saturated density – Density of water
2. Moisture content.
- Water Content: is the ratio of mass of water to mass of solid.
- Degree of saturation : is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of

voids
3. Shear strength.
- The shears strength of a soil mass is the internal resistance per unit area that the
soil mass can offer to resist failure and sliding along any plane inside it.
18
Figure 2.4: shear failure of soil.
Figure 2.5: shear test.
19
Figure 2.6: shear test device.
Figure 2.7: relationship between shear displacement and shear stress.
20
 Engineering properties of soils:
Figure2.8: load distribution.
1. California Bearing Ratio (CBR).
 Penetration test is used (a standard piston with an area of 3 inch², a rate

of 0.05 inch / min.)
 CBR = Ratio of the pressure for the soil material to that of a standard
crushed rock (typically 1000 and 2000 psi at 0.1 and 0.2 in- penetration
respectively).
Figure2.9 –a: penetration test.

21
Figure2.9 –b: penetration test.
2. R-Value.
 The resistance value (R-value) is typically used as a measure of the sub grade
strength (structural quality) of pavement materials.
 The R-value is a measure of the resistance to deformation of a saturated soil
under compression at a given density.
 It is measured with the stabilometer and an expansion pressure measurement
apparatus to provide an indication of the ability of a soil to carry the dead load
of the structural pavement section and the superimposed traffic live load in
pavement design.
 The device applies a vertical pressure on a wet soil sample that that is
representative of the worst possible in-situ condition (moisture and
density) of a compacted sub grade.
 The R – Value test measures the materials resistance to plastic flow.
 The R-Value is the ratio of the applied vertical pressure to the developed
lateral pressure.
3. Resilient Modulus.
 Modulus MR is the elastic modulus based on the recoverable strain

under repeated loads
 The elastic or resilient modulus of pavement materials is an important

material property in any mechanistically based design/analysis
procedure for flexible pavements. In fact, the resilient modulus (Mr) is
the material property required for design.
 Triaxial test is used (repeated dynamic loading + confinement

pressure).
22
 Deviator stress is equal to the axial stress minus the confining

pressure).
 Confined resilient modules test.
Figure 2.10: Schematic of soil specimen in a triaxial chamber according to AASHTO

T 307
 Resilient Modulus
 MR is inversely related to the deviator stress through two different

linear lines.
23
Figure 2.10: specimen response during axial loading.
Figure 2.11.: resilient modules stress state.
24
Figure 2.12: resilient modules vs. bulk stress.
Where
Where
25
Figure 2.13: pavement loading and cross section.
 MR Relationships :
 Soil testing and evaluation:
1. Slandered proctor test: hammer mass of 2.5 kg, falling height = 300
mm, mold volume = 1000 cm³ , no. of blows = 27 , and no. of layers =
3.
2. Modified proctor test: hammer mass of 4.5 kg, falling height = 450 mm,
mold volume = 1000 cm³, no. of blows = 27, and no. of layers = 5.
- For determining the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content.
- Soil material is used in pavement construction for sub grade layers.
- Proper compaction reduces the settlement of the sub grade and therefore
improves the strength of the sub grade.
- Through compaction, a maximum dry density is achieved that is directly related
to the strength of the compacted soil.
26
Figure 2.14: Proctor Compaction Test Hammer and Mold.
- Granular base and sub-base materials testing

- Granular bases are used in pavements for several purposes :
1. To increase the structural load capacity of the pavement.

2. To prevent pumping in rigid pavements.
3. To prevent volume changes in the sub grade.
4. To protect against frost action.
5. For drainage purposes.
- Resilient Modulus MR for granular materials is determined in a triaxial test.
- Mr is correlated to the bulk stress ( stress invariant ) , Ө as shown in the

following equation :
Mr = K1 Ө𝑘2
Where
K1 and K2 are material – related coefficients.
- The bulk stress Ө , the axial stress σ1 , the confining pressure σ3 , and the
deviator stress σd are correlated as :
Ө = σ1 + 2 σ3.
σd = σ1- σ3
Mr1 = K1Ө1𝑘2
27
Mr2 = K1Ө2𝑘2
- By taking the natural logarithm for both sides in the two equations :
Log Mr1 = log K1 + K2 log Ө1

Log Mr2 = log K1 + K2 log Ө2
Log K1 = log Mr1 – K2 log Ө1
- By substituting the above equation into Log Mr2 = log K1 + K2 log Ө2
Log Mr2 = log Mr1 – K2 log Ө1 + K2 log Ө2
- And therefore :
log 𝑀𝑟2−log 𝑀𝑟1

K2 =
log Ө2−log Ө1
𝑀𝑟1 𝑀𝑟2
And K1 = log 𝑀𝑟2−log 𝑀𝑟1 or K1 = log 𝑀𝑟2−log 𝑀𝑟1
Ө1(
log Ө2−log Ө1
) Ө2(
log Ө2−log Ө1
)
Figure 2.14: Triaxial Cell Diagram
28
CH.3
Super pave Aggregate Tests
- Consensus Aggregate Properties :
1. Flat and Elongated particles (F&E).

2. Coarse Aggregate Angularity (CAA).
3. Fine Aggregate Angularity (FAA).
4. Sand Equivalent (Clay Content).
- Flat and Elongated particles (F&E) Test :
 It is conducted according the test method outlined in ASTM D4791-95.
 A particle is considered a flat and elongated particles if the ratio of the maximum
to minimum dimension of the particle is 5:1 or more.
Figure 3.1: proportions between particle dimensions.
 Different agencies have used different ratios (4:1, 3:1, or 2:1).
Figure 3.2: the ratio of the maximum to minimum dimension of the particle.
29
 The test is conducted on coarse aggregate larger than 4.75 mm (retaining on no.4
sieve).
 100 particles are typically obtained for each size fraction to be tested.
 The proportional caliper shown in the following pictures is used for this test.
Figure 3.3: calipers.
Figure 3.4: using of calipers.
30
Figure 3.5: Proportional Caliper
Figure 3.6: digital calipers.
 Flatness: the larger opening of the caliper is set equal to the aggregate particle
width. If the thickness fits in the smaller opening of the caliper , then the particle
is flat
 Elongation: the larger opening of the caliper is set equal to the aggregate particle
length. if the width fits in the smaller opening of the caliper , then the particle is
elongated
 Flatness and elongation : the larger opening of the caliper is set equal to
aggregate particle length , the particle is considered flat and elongated if the
31
particle , when oriented to measure it thickness , can pass completely through

the smaller opening of the caliper
 The aggregate particle might not be specified as flat nor elongated , in other
words , there are four groups : flat , elongated , flat and elongated , or neither flat
nor elongated.
Figure 3.7: shapes of aggregate particles.
 The aggregate particles in each group are either counted or weighed. the
proportion of each group ( count or mass) is then determined
 Flat and Elongated particles have a tendency to fracture a long there week or
narrow dimension when subjected to loading
 If they are present in large enough quantity, this fracturing can lead to a change
in the gradation and reduction in VMA
 The resulting greater number of fine particles will fill existing void spaces and
reduce the VMA
 This reduction in VMA can result in less effective asphalt binder content (coating
the aggregate particles) , which result in mixture instability , rutting , and
shoving.
32
Table 3.1: super pave F&E particles criteria.

Traffic ( million ESAL’s) Maximum , %
˂ 0.3 ---
0.3 --- ˂ 1 ---
1--- ˂ 3 10
3--- ˂ 10 10
10--- ˂ 30 10
30 --- ˂ 100 10
≥ 100 10
Figure 3.8: software to compute F&E.
- Coarse Aggregate Angularity (CAA) Test :
 It is conducted according to the test method described in AASHTOO IP 61

and ASTM D5821, or in the Pennsylvania DOT test method NO.621.CAA is
the percentage of fractured in coarse aggregate.
 The CAA test estimates coarse aggregate angularity by visually inspecting a

small sample of coarse aggregate ( retaining on 4.75 mm or NO.4 sieve) and
separating the sample in to those pieces with a fractured and those without.
33
Figure 3.9: NO.4 sieve.
Figure 3.10: aggregate with angular faces.
34
 If more than one fractured face is specified , the same test can be done using
tow fractured faces as the decision …
 The CAA, therefore, determines the amount (as a percent by mass) of coarse
aggregate particles having fractured faces, the percentage of particles having
fractured faces is then compared to the super pave criteria.
 A face is considered a fractured face only if it has a projected area at least as

large as one quarter of the maximum projected area (maximum cross sectional
area) of the particle and the face has sharp and well defined edges.
Figure 3.11: fractured face of aggregate .
Table 3.2: CAA sample size.

NMAS Minimum sample mass
U.S.( inch) Metric (mm) (g)
3.5 90 90000
3.0 75 60000
2.5 63 30000
2.0 50 15000
1.5 37.5 7500
1.0 25 3000
0.75 19 1500
0.50 12 500
0.375 9.5 200
 CAA is important to ensure adequate aggregate interlock and prevent

excessive HMA permanent deformation (rutting) under traffic loading.
Table 3.3: super pave CAA criteria.
35
Traffic ( million EASL’s) Depth from surface

˂ 100 mm ≥ 100 mm
˂ 0.3 55 / --- --- / ---
0.3 --- ˂ 1 65 / --- --- / ---
1--- ˂ 3 75 / --- 50 / ---
3--- ˂ 10 85 / 80 60 / ---
10--- ˂ 30 95 / 90 80 / 75
30 --- ˂ 100 100 / 100 95 / 90
≥ 100 100 / 100 100 / 100
Figure 3.12: Software to compute CAA.
36
- Fine Aggregate Angularity FAA Test:
 It is conducted according to the test method described in AASHTO T304

and ASTM C 1252, FAA is measured by percentage of un compacted voids
in fine aggregate.
 The FAA test estimates fine aggregate angularity by measuring the loose un
compacted void content of fine aggregate sample.
 The fine aggregate ( sand ) sample is prepared as follows:
1. The un compacted void content is measured for the minus NO.4 (4.75 mm)
portion of the as received aggregate material. In this case, the measured void
content depends not only on particle shape and texture, but also on gradation.
Figure 3.13:NO.4 sieve.
Figure 3.14: FAA tester.
37
2. Pouring the fine aggregate sample in to the funnel.
Figure 3.15: Pouring the fine aggregate sample in to the funnel
3. Releasing and pouring the fine aggregate sample in to the cylindrical measure.
Figure 3.16: pouring the fine aggregate sample in to the cylindrical measure.
38
4. Leveling off the excess fine aggregate in the cylindrical measure by using a
straight edge.
Figure 3.17: Leveling off the excess fine aggregate.
5. Measuring the mass of the fine aggregate in the cylindrical measure.

𝑴
𝑽−
𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒐𝒊𝒅𝒔 = 𝑮𝒔𝒃 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽
Where:
V: volume of cylindrical measure.

M: mass of fine aggregate sample.
Gsb: specific gravity of fine aggregate.
 Angular materials are desirable in paving mixture because they tend to lock
together and resist deformation after initial compaction.
 On the other hand, rounded materials may not produce sufficient inter
particle friction to prevent rutting.
 Fine Aggregate Angularity FAA is important because an excess rounded

fine aggregate can lead to HMA instability, rutting, and shoving.
 Uncompacted void content of fine aggregate is affected by aggregate shape,

surface texture, angularity, and specific gravity.
39
Table 3.4: super pave FAA criteria (% voids).

Traffic ( million EASL’s) Depth from surface
˂ 100 mm ≥ 100 mm
˂ 0.3 --- ---
0.3 --- ˂ 1 40 ---
1--- ˂ 3 40 40
3--- ˂ 10 45 40
10--- ˂ 30 45 40
30 --- ˂ 100 45 45
≥ 100 45 45
Figure 3.18: Software for FAA.
- Sand Equivalent SE Test :
 It is conducted according to the test method outlined in AASHTO T 176 and

ASTM D 2419.
 SE is the percent of clay materials contained in the aggregate fraction that is

passing 4.75 mm or NO.4 sieve (finer than 4.75 mm).
 The SE test is a fast test to show the relative proportion of plastic fines, dust, and
clay material in fine aggregate.
 These fine or clay materials can coat aggregate particles and prevent proper
asphalt binder – aggregate bonding resulting in stripping of asphalt binder in some
cases.
 A small sample of fine aggregate passing 4.75 mm ( NO.4) sieve is prepared in an

approximately 85 ml can ( 4 cans are needed).
40
 The sample is placed in a graduated cylinder and mixed with flocculent solution
to separate clay material from sand material.
Figure 3.19: The sample is placed in a graduated cylinder.
 A calcium chloride solution is used.
Figure 3.20-a : A calcium chloride solution.
41
Figure 3.20-b: A calcium chloride solution.
 Mechanical shaker can be used; the shaker is set for 45 seconds.
Figure 3.21: Mechanical Sand Equivalent Shaker.
42
 Manual shaker can also be used; the cylinder with the sample and solution is
shaken for 100 cycles.
Figure 3.22: manual shaking.
 The cylinder with the sample and solution is shaken by hand in a horizontal linear
motion for 30 sec.
 The sample is irrigated using a tube inserted inside the cylinder to make sure that
the fines are flushed up (381 mm mark).
 After the sample is shaken and irrigated, it is allowed to sit for 20 minutes.
 The height values of the sand and clay are measured using a weighted foot
assembly inserted in to the cylinder.
Figure 3.23: The height values of the sand and clay.
43
 They can also be measured directly from the graduated cylinder. The height to the
top of the sand material is expressed as a percentage of the height to the top of the
clay material.
𝑺𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
SE = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑪𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
 Exclusive plastic fines, dust, and clay material in HMA aggregate can contribute
to instability, rutting, shoving, stripping, and moisture damage for the HMA.
 Therefore, SE test examines whether a specific fine aggregate has enough dust
or plastic fines to make an HMA mixture unstable or susceptible to stripping.
Table 3.5: super pave SE criteria.

Traffic ( million EASL’s) SE minimum
percent
˂ 0.3 40
0.3 --- ˂ 1 40
1--- ˂ 3 40
3--- ˂ 10 45
10--- ˂ 30 45
30 --- ˂ 100 50
≥ 100 50
Figure 3.24: SE software.

CH.4
44
Asphalt Binder Testing and Evaluation

- A dark-brown to black, highly viscous material obtained from the residue of
processing suitable crude oils.
- Asphalt used in flexible pavements are classified into three groups :

1. Asphalt Cements.
2. Emulsified Asphalts.
3. Cutback Asphalts.
 Asphalt Cements :
 Asphalt Cement is obtained by the distillation process from crude petroleum

using different refining techniques.
 It is strong, sticky, durable; viscoelastic, adhesive, and water prove material.
 Asphalt Cement is graded according to their viscosities and penetration.
 Viscosity grades based on original asphalt cement include: AC-2.5, AC-5,

AC-10, AC-20, AC-30, and AC-40.
 Viscosity grades based on asphalt residue (AR) from the Rotating Thin
Film Oven (RTFO) test include: AR-1000, AR – 2000, AR–4000, AR-
8000, and AR-16000.
 Penetration grades of asphalt cements include: 40/50, 60/70, 85/100,
120/150, and 200/300.
45
 Emulsified Asphalts:
 Emulsified Asphalt (Emulsion) is admixture of asphalt cement, water, and

emulsifying agent.
 Emulsions are used to reduce the viscosity of asphalt for lower temperatures
applications.
 There are three types of emulsions :
 Rapid setting emulsions (RS): used for surface treatments.

 Medium setting emulsions (MS): used for open graded cold asphalt –
aggregate mixtures.
 Slow setting emulsions ( SS) : used for tack coat , dense graded cold
asphalt – aggregate mixtures , fog seal ( a light application of asphalt to
an oxidized pavement surface ) , slurry seal ( a homogeneous mixture of
emulsified asphalt , water , well graded fine aggregate , and mineral filler
used for surface treatment of the HMA pavement).
 Cutback Asphalt:
 Cutback Asphalts are liquid asphalts manufactured by adding back petroleum

solvents to asphalt cements.
 They are made to reduce the asphalt viscosity for lower temperatures
applications.
46
 There are three types of cutback asphalts based on the rate of evaporation of
the solvent during application of the cut back asphalt :
 Rapid Curing (RC): are produced by adding a light solvent of high

volatility (gasoline) to asphalt cement, and they are mainly used for tack
coats and surface treatments.
 Medium Curing (MC): are produced by adding a medium solvent with
intermediate volatility (kerosene) and they are used for prime coats,
patching mixtures, and road mixing operations.
 Slow Curing (SC): are produced by adding oils of low volatility (diesel)
and they are mainly used for prime coats, patching mixtures, and dust
palliatives.
- Emulsions are preferred over cutback asphalts for the following reasons :
1. Emulsions are environmentally friendly (relatively pollution – free) materials,

unlike cutback asphalts, emulsions have small amounts of volatiles other than
water to evaporate into the atmosphere.
2. When the cutback asphalts cure, the solvents are wasted into the atmosphere;
these solvents are high energy and high price products.
3. Emulsions are safer to use, a lower possibility of fire danger exists compared
to cutback asphalts.
4. Emulsions can be applied at relatively lower temperatures compared to
cutback asphalts, this leads to saving fuel costs.
5. Emulsions can also be applied to moist or wet pavements, whereas cutback
asphalts can only be applied to dry pavements.
- The asphalt binder tests are classified in to different groups :
a. Consistency Tests.
b. Durability Tests.
c. Purity Tests.
d. Safety Tests.
e. Other Tests.
 Consistency Tests:
 Describes the fluidity of asphalt cement at any particular temperatures.
 Absolute Viscosity at 60ºC ( 140ºF)
 Viscosity is resistance to flow.
 The time required for asphalt binder to flow between two timing marks in
seconds multiplied by a calibration factor for the viscometer tube is the
viscosity in poises.
47
 Viscosity grading is based on viscosity measurements at 60ºC (140ºF).
 The temperature of 60ºC (140ºF) is selected because it represents

approximately the maximum surface temperature during summer in USA.
 Two types of viscometers are commonly used for absolute viscosity test:
1. The cannon – manning vacuum viscometer.

2. The asphalt institute (AI) vacuum viscometer.
 In absolute viscosity test , a partial vacuum is applied to the small side of the
viscometer tube to cause the asphalt binder to flow because the asphalt cement
is too viscous to flow at this temperature under gravitational forces alone.
 Kinematic Viscosity at 135ºC (270ºF)
 The Kinematic Viscosity Test is done using a Zeitfuchs cross arm viscometer.
 In this case, no partial vacuum is applied to the asphalt cement and only
gravitational forces alone drive the asphalt cement to flow.
 The kinematic viscosity in centistokes is obtained by multiplying the time

required for asphalt cement to flow between two timing marks in the
viscometer in seconds by the calibration factor of the viscometer tube (supplied
by the manufacturer).
 The temperature of 135ºC (270ºF) is chosen because it represents

approximately the mixing and lay down temperatures used in the construction
of HMA pavements.
48
𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚
Where:
Kinematic viscosity in stoke.
Absolute viscosity in poise.
Density in g/cm³.
49
50
 Penetration Test at 25ºC (77ºF) :
 The penetration test is an empirical test used to measure the consistency of

asphalt cement typically at 25ºC (77ºF).
 This temperature is selected because it approximately the average service

temperature of HMA pavements.
 A sample of asphalt cement is placed under a standard needle with a total load
of 100 g, the needle allowed to penetrate the sample for 5 seconds when the
penetration measurement is taken.
 Penetration is recorded in 0.1 mm units called penetration units.
 Softening Point Test:
 It defined as the temperature at which asphalt cement cannot support the weight
of a standard steel ball (3/8 inch in diameter and 3.5 g in weight) and start
flowing.
 A brass ring is filled with asphalt cement and suspended in a beaker filled with
water, glycerin, or ethylene glycol at distance of 1 inch from a bottom plate, a
steel ball is placed in the center of the asphalt sample.
 The bath is heated at a controlled rate of 5ºC / minute.
 The temperature is recorded at the instant when the softened asphalt cement
touches the bottom plate; this is the softening point of the asphalt cement.
51
 Ductility Test at 25ºC (77ºF) :
 Ductility test measures the tensile properties of asphalt cement.
 It measure the distance in centimeters that a standard briquette of asphalt cement

will stretch (elongate) before failure ( breaking).
 The two ends of the sample are pulled a part in a water bath of a temperature of
25ºC (77ºF) at a rate of 5 cm / minute until failure.
 Salt or alcohol is added to the water to increase or decrease the specific gravity
to prevent the stretched sample from sinking or floating in to the water bath.
 The test could be conducted at lower temperatures such as 4ºC and 16ºC (39.2ºF
and 60ºF), the rate is lowered at lower temperatures, for example at 4 º C the rate
is 1 cm / minute.
52
 Durability Tests
 They measure the ability of material to resist weathering (the natural

deterioration of the material due to environmental factors).
 Factors that affect durability are :
1. Oxidation.
2. Volatilization.
3. Temperature.
4. Age hardening.
 Asphalt cements undergo short – term aging (hardening) when they are mixed
with mineral aggregate at HMA mixing.
 They also experience long term aging during the life of HMA pavements due
to environmental and other factors.
 Rotating Thin Film Oven (RTFO) Test :
 RTFO Test simulates the short term aging that occurs in asphalt binders during
mixing and lay down of HMA.
 A 50 g sample of asphalt cement is placed in a cylindrical flat – bottom pan

(140 mm inside diameter and 9.5 mm deep).
 The pan is placed on a shelf in a ventilated oven maintained at a temperature

of 163ºC (325ºF), the shelf rotates at 5 to 6 rotations per minute.
 The sample is kept for 5 hours, and then transferred to suitable containers to
measure penetration or viscosity and then the loss in weight of the aged asphalt
cement (residue).
53
 Purity tests:
 They measure the amount of impurities (insoluble materials) in asphalt cement.
 Solubility test:
 It measures the solubility of asphalt cement and provides an idea of the purity of
the asphalt cement.
 A sample of asphalt cement is dissolved in a trichloroethylene and then filtered

through a glass fiber pad.
 The materials retained on the pad is washed, dried, and weighed.
 Specification requires a minimum of 99% solubility.
 Safety Tests:
 At high temperatures, the volatile materials and vapors coming out of the asphalt
cement flash and ignite in the presence of a flame or spark.
 Flash and Fire Points Test:
 The flash and fire points test is conducted using Cleveland open cup apparatuses.
 It measures the temperatures at which enough vapors are released from the
asphalt cement to produce flash in the presence of an open flame (flash point)
and the temperature at which it burns (fire point).
54
 A sample of asphalt cement in an open cup is heated at a specified rate , when

the temperature reaches approximately 28ºC below the flash point , a test flame
is applied to the surface of sample at 2ºC (5ºF) intervals.
 The test flame is passed across the center of the cup 2 mm above the edge of the
cup.
 The temperature that the thermometer reads at the time when a flash appears on
the surface of the sample is recorded (flash point).
 Heating is continued and the application of the test flame is also continued until
the sample ignites and continues to burn for at least 5 seconds , the temperature
at this point is recorded ( fire point).
55
 Other tests :
 Specific gravity test:
 Specific gravity is the ratio of a mass of a specified volume of the material

to the mass of the same volume of water at a given temperature.
 The pyconometer method is used to determine the specific gravity of

asphalt cement.
𝑪−𝑨
𝒔𝒑. 𝒈𝒓. =
(𝑩 − 𝑨) − (𝑫 − 𝑪)
Where:
A = weight of pycnometer.
B = weight of pycnometer filled with water.
C = weight of pycnometer partially filled with asphalt cement.
D = weight of pycnometer plus asphalt cement and water.
 Spot test:
 It determines whether asphalt cement has been damaged during processing

due to overheating.
 Overheating can result in cracking.
 The test involves a visual evaluation of a spot of asphalt cement dissolved

in a solvent (naphtha).
 A drop of the asphalt cement solvent mixture is placed on a spatial paper.
56
 If the drop produces a spot of a uniformly brown stain, the test is reported
as negative and asphalt cement is acceptable.
 If there is a darker area at the center of the spot, the test is reported as
positive and the asphalt cement is unacceptable.
57
CH.5
Super Pave Asphalt Binder Tests
 Durability tests :
- They measure the ability of the material to resist weathering ( the natural
deterioration of the material due to environmental factors ).
- Factors that affect durability are :
1. Oxidation.
2. Volatilization.
3. Temperature.
4. Surface area.
5. Age hardening.
- Asphalt cements undergo short term aging ( hardening ) when they are mixed with
mineral aggregates at the HMA mixing facility .
- They also experience long term aging during the life of HMA pavements due to
environmental and other factors.
- Durability tests includes :
1. Rolling Thin Film Oven (RTFO) test.

2. Pressure Aging Vessel (PAV) test.
Rolling Thin Film Oven (RTFO) test.
- Determination of the resistance of bituminous binder to hardening under the

influence of heat and air –“Rolling Thin Film Oven Test” ( RTFO ).
- TANDARDS : ASTM D2872 ; AASHTO T240
- RTFO test simulates the hardening that affects binder during the mixing with
aggregates in the plant and during the finishing and rolling of the bituminous layers
(Short Term Ageing ).Provides the binder sample ready for change in mass
determination and for other tests that characterize the binder about the resistance to
short term ageing.
- Bottles of asphalt cement ( 35 gm in each ) are placed in a rack in the RTFO

maintained at a temperature of 163ºC ( 325ºF ) , the rack rotates at a specified rate
in vertical plane.
58
Figure 5.1: Rolling Thin Film Oven (RTFO) tester.
59
Pressure Aging Vessel PAV test :
- The PAV test simulates the long term aging that occurs in asphalt binders as a result
of (5 – 10 ) years of HMA pavement service.
- The PAV test was adopted by the super pave to simulate the effects of long term
asphalt binder aging that occurs during the life of HMA pavement.
- The PAV is oven pressure vessel combination that takes RTFO aged samples and
exposes them to high air pressure ( 300 psi) and temperature ( 90ºC , 100ºC , or
110ºC ) depending on expected climate conditions for (20 hours).
Figure 5.2: Pressure Aging Vessel PAV tester.
60
Rotational Viscosity (RV) test :
- The Rotational Viscosity RV is the super pave test for high temperature viscosities.
- The RV test is conducted at 135º C ( 275ºF) .
Figure 5.3: Rotational Viscosity (RV) tester.
61
- The basic RV test measures the torque required to maintain a constant rotational
speed ( 20 RPM) of a cylindrical spindle while submerged in an asphalt binder at
a constant temperature.
- This torque is then converted to a viscosity and displayed automatically by the

RV.
𝝉
ƞ= 𝜸
𝑇
𝜏= 2𝜋𝑅𝑠²𝐿
2𝜔𝑅𝑐²𝑅𝑠²
𝛾= 𝑥² ( 𝑅𝑐 2 −𝑅𝑠 2 )
Where :
ƞ ∶ 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑝𝑎. 𝑠).
𝑁
𝜏 ∶ 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ( 2 ).
𝑐𝑚
𝛾 ∶ 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (sec¹)
T : torque (N.m).
L : effective spindle length (m).
Rc : container radius (m).
Rs : spindle radius (m).
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝜔 ∶ 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 ( )
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
X : radial location where shear rate being calculated (m).
- The RV high temperature viscosity simulates binder workability at mixing and lay
down temperatures.
- Since the goal is to ensure the asphalt binder is sufficiently fluid for pumping and
mixing , super pave specifies a maximum RV viscosity ( 3 pa.s).
62
- The RV is more suitable than the capillary viscometer ( used for kinematic viscosity
) for testing modified asphalt binders because some modified asphalt binders can
block the capillary viscometer and cause faulty readings.
Table 5.1: typical dynamic viscosity for some materials.
Material Temperature (ºC) Dynamic viscosity (pa.s)

Water 25 0.001
Oil 25 0.088
Honey 25 2
Mayonnaise 25 5
PG 64-22 135 0.570
PG 76-22 135 1.800
- typical dynamic viscosity for asphalt binder at 135 ºC are ( 0.2 to 2 pa.s).
Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) test:
- The dynamic shear rheometer DSR is the super pave test for medium to high
viscosities.
- The DSR test is conducted at temperatures between (5 ºC to 85 ºC).
- The basic DSR test uses a thin asphalt binder sample sandwiched between two
plates.
- The lower plate is fixed while the upper plate oscillates back and forth across the
sample at 1.59 Hz ( 10 rad/sec) to create a shearing action.
Figure 5.4: dynamic shear rheometer DSR test.
63
Figure 5.5: dynamic shear rheometer DSR tester.
64
- The following equations are used to determine the value of the complex shear
modulus (G*) and the phase angle ( δ ) :
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙
|𝑮 ∗|= 𝜸𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝜹 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑔.
2𝑇
τ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜋𝑟ᵌ
𝜃𝑟
𝜸𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
ℎ
Where :
𝝉 ∶ 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠.
T: maximum applied torque.
r: radius of binder specimen ( 4 or 12.5 mm).
𝜸𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∶ 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛.
𝜃 ∶ 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒.
h: specimen height ( 1 or 2 mm).
G*: complex shear modules.
𝜹 ∶ 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒.
- The time lag expressed in radians , between the maximum applied shear stress and
the maximum resulting shear strain.
- The asphalt binders in the medium to high temperatures range behave like viscoelastic
material.
- The elastic part ( deformation due to loading is recoverable ) indicates that the asphalt
binder behave like an elastic solid and is able to return to it is original shape after a load is
removed.
- The viscose part ( deformation due to loading is non recoverable ) indicates that the asphalts
bid behaves like a viscous liquid and cannot return to its original shape after a load is
removed.
- Thus , the DSR , by measuring G* and 𝜹 , is able to determine the total complex shear
modulus as well as its elastic and viscous components.
65
Figure 5.6: elastic and viscous portions.
- Super pave specifies a maximum value for G*/ sin 𝜹 of 5000 kpa at 10 rad / sec.
for the PAV residue.
- Super pave specifications for G*/ sin 𝜹 are a minimum of 1 kpa at 10 rad / sec. for
the original asphalt binder and 2.2 kpa at 10 rad / sec. for the RTFO test residue.
Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR) test :
- The bending beam rheometer test (BBR) is used in super pave to test the PAV
residue at low temperatures ( thermal cracking).
- The BBR test basically subjects an asphalt simple beam to a small (100 gm) load
over 240 seconds.
- Using basic beam theory , the BBR calculates beam stiffness (S(t)) and the rate of
change of that stiffness ( m – value ) as the load is applied.
𝑷𝑳³
𝑺(𝒕) = 𝟒𝒃𝒉³𝜹(𝒕)
Where :
66
S(t) : creep stiffness at a specific time , t.
P : applied constant load , in unit of force.
L: distance between beam supports (102 mm ).
b: beam width (12.5mm).
h: beam thickness (6.25 mm).
δ(t) : deflection at specific time , t.
- The m-value is simply the rate of change of the stiffness at time , t=60 seconds.
S (t) = A + B log (t) + C [log (t)]²
Where:
S(t) : asphalt binder stiffness at a specific time.
t: time in seconds.
A , B , and C : empirically determined constants.
- The BBR test simulates asphalts binder stiffness after two hours of loading at the
minimum HMA pavement design temperature.
- Creep stiffness S(t) is related to thermal stresses in an HMA pavement due to
shrinking while the m-value is related to the ability of an HMA pavement to relive
these stresses.
- Thus , super pave binder specifications require a maximum limit on creep stiffness
of 300 MPA and a minimum limit on m-value of 0.300 .
Figure 5.7: BBR tester.
67
Figure 5.8: BBR mixture beams.
68
Figure 5.9: Bending Beam Rheometer with thin asphalt mixture .
Figure 5.10: Double step loading in BBR.
69
Figure 5.11 : Schematic of the Bending Beam Rheometer.
70
Figure 5.12 : deflection of asphalt beam with time .
71
Figure 5.13: BBR Data-Relaxation .
Figure 5.14: Typical Test Report .
72
Direct Tension Tester ( DTT):
- The direct tension tester (DTT) is used in the super pave system to complement the
BBR in testing asphalt binders at low temperatures.
- The DTT is used because creep stiffness S(t) as measured by BBR is not sufficient
to predict thermal cracking in some asphalt binders that exhibit high creep stiffness.
- A high creep stress BBR test value implies that the asphalt binder will have high
thermal stresses in cold weather as a result of shrinkage.
- The assumption is that the asphalt binder will crack because of these high thermal
stresses.
- However , some asphalt binders ( especially modified asphalt binders ) may be able
to stretch far enough before breaking ( they can absorb these high thermal stresses
without cracking ) .
- The DTT identifies these asphalt binders.
- The test only used for testing asphalt binders with high BBR creep stiffness ( 300
– 600 Mpa ) .
- Asphalt binders with BBR creep stiffness values below 300 Mpa are assumed
satisfactory and the DTT is not needed.
𝑃𝑓
σ𝑓 = 𝐴
where :
σf : failure stress (Mpa).
Pf : failure load ( N).
A : original cross sectional area ( m²).
𝜹𝒇 ∆𝑳
𝜺𝒇 = =
𝑳𝒆 𝑳𝒆
Where :
73
𝜺𝒇 ∶ 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛.
𝜹𝒇 ∶ 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑚𝑚).
𝑳𝒆 ∶ 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (33.8 𝑚𝑚).
∆𝑳 ∶ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔.
- Super pave specifies a minimum failure strain 𝜺𝒇 of ( 1%) at rate of (1 mm/ min )
for the PAV residue to ensure that the asphalt binder with higher stiffness value will
stretch enough before failure.
Figure 5.15: Direct Tension Tester.
74
Figure 5.16: Direct Tension Tester Apparatuses.
75
Figure 5.17: Direct Tension Testing.
76
CH.6
Marshall Mix Design Method
- Overview
- The mix design determines the optimum bitumen content. There are many methods
available for mix design which vary in the size of The test specimen , compaction
,and other test speciation's. Marshall method of mix design is the most popular one
and is discussed below
Figure 6.1: Marshall mix design method basic.
77
- Stability :
 The ability to withstand traffic loads without distortion or deflection, especially

at higher temperatures.
 To get good stability, use strong, rough, dense-graded, cubical aggregate with
just enough binder to coat the aggregate particles.
 Excess asphalt cement lubricates the aggregate particles and lets them slide past
each other more easily (which reduces stability).
 But a thick asphalt coating provides good flexibility to resist cracking, which is
desirable.
- Workability :
 The ability to be placed and compacted with reasonable effort and without
segregation of the coarse aggregate.
 Too much asphalt cement makes the mix tender.
 Too little asphalt cement makes it hard to compact.
 Too much natural sand can also make the mix tender because natural sand has
smooth, round grains.
- Skid Resistance :
 Proper traction in wet and dry conditions.

 To get good skid resistance, use smaller aggregate so there are lots of contact
points, use hard aggregate that doesn’t polish and make sure you have enough
air voids to prevent bleeding.
 Some states now use an open-graded friction course (OGFC) that allows water
to drain to the sides of the pavement, eliminating hydroplaning. But OGFC is
not very durable because of the open pores.
- Durability :
 The ability to resist aggregate breakdown due to wetting and drying, freezing
and thawing, or excessive inter-particle forces.
 To get good durability, use strong, tough, nonporous aggregate and enough
asphalt cement to completely coat all of the aggregate particles (to keep them
dry) and fill all of the voids between particles (to slow the oxidation of the
asphalt cement). But this reduces stability.
 Stripping:
 Separation of the asphalt cement coating from the aggregate due to water
getting between the asphalt and the aggregate.
 To reduce stripping, use clean, rough, hydrophobic aggregate and add
enough asphalt cement to provide a thick coating of asphalt on every
aggregate particle. This improves durability but decreases stability !.
78
 Bleeding:
 The migration of asphalt cement to the surface of the pavement under

wheel loads, especially at higher temperatures.
 To prevent bleeding, incorporate enough air voids so the asphalt can
compress by closing air voids rather than by squeezing asphalt cement
out from between the aggregate particles.
 Fatigue Cracking:
 Cracking resulting from repeated flexure of the asphalt concrete due to

traffic loads.
 To minimize fatigue cracking, use the proper asphalt cement grade and
have a thick asphalt cement coating to make the concrete flexible. This
improves durability but decreases stability.
 Thermal Cracking :
 Cracking that results from an inability to acclimate to a sudden drop in

temperature.
 To minimize thermal cracking, use the proper asphalt cement grade.
 Rutting :
 A rut is a surface depression in the wheel paths. Pavement uplift may

occur along the sides of the rut, but, in many instances, ruts are noticeable
only after a rainfall when the paths are filled with water.
 Rutting stems from a permanent deformation in any of the pavement
layers or sub grades, usually caused by consolidated or lateral movement
of the materials due to traffic load.
 To minimize Rutting, use the proper asphalt cement grade and have a
thick asphalt cement coating to make the concrete flexible.
Mix Design Basics:
 The right grade of asphalt cement (Relates to fatigue cracking, thermal cracking,
rutting , and stability ).
 The right type of aggregate ( Relates to stability, durability, stripping, and skid
resistance ).
 The right mix volumetric ( Relates to stability, durability, stripping, bleeding,
and skid resistance ).
- Marshall mix design:

- The Marshall stability and flow test provides the performance prediction measure
for the Marshall mix design method.
- The stability portion of the test measures the maximum load supported by the test
specimen at a loading rate of 50.8 mm/minute.
79
- Load is applied to the specimen till failure, and the maximum load is designated as
stability During the loading, an attached dial gauge measures the specimen's plastic
flow (deformation) due to the loading.
- The flow value is recorded in 0.25 mm (0.01 inch) increments at the same time
when the maximum load is recorded.
Figure 6.2: Marshal Specimens.
Figure 6.3: Marshall hammer.
80
- Specimen preparation:
1. Approximately 1200gm of aggregates and filler is heated to a temperature of
175ºC – 190ºC .
2. Bitumen is heated to a temperature of 121ºC - 125ºC with the first trial
percentage of bitumen (say 3.5% or 4% by weight of the mineral aggregates).
3. The heated aggregates and bitumen are thoroughly mixed at a temperature of
154ºC - 160ºC.
4. The mix is placed in a preheated mould and compacted by a hammer with 50
blows on either side at temperature of 138 ºC -149 ºC3.
5. The weight of mixed aggregates taken for the preparation of the specimen may
be suitably altered to obtain a compacted thickness of 63.5 ± 3 mm.
6. Vary the bitumen content in the next trial by +0.5% and repeat the above
procedure.
7. Number of trials are predetermined .The prepared mould is loaded in the
Marshall test setup as shown in the following figure.
Figure 6.4: Marshall test setup.
- Properties of the mix :
Figure 6.5: phase diagram of a bituminous mix.
81
- The properties that are of interest include :
1. Theoretical specific gravity ( Gt ) : the specific gravity without considering

air voids.
Where :
W1 : weight of coarse aggregate in the mix.
W2: weight of fine aggregate in the mix.
W3: weight of filler in the mix.
Wb: weight of bituminous in the mix.
G1: apparent specific gravity of coarse aggregate.
G2: apparent specific gravity of fine aggregate.
G3: apparent specific gravity of filler.
Gb: apparent specific gravity of bitumen.
2. Bulk (Actual) specific gravity of the mix ( Gm ) : the specific gravity

considering air voids.
Where :
Wm: weight of mix in air.
Ww: weight of mix in water.
 Wm – Ww = volume of the mix.
3. Percent air voids ( Vv ): percent of air voids by volume in the specimen.
Where :
Gt: theoretical specific gravity of the mix.

Gm: bulk specific gravity of the mix.
82
4. Percent volume of bitumen ( Vb ): percent of volume of bitumen to the total

volume.
Where :
W1 : weight of coarse aggregate in the mix.
W2: weight of fine aggregate in the mix.
W3: weight of filler in the mix.
Wb: weight of bituminous in the mix.
Gb: apparent specific gravity of bitumen.
Gm: bulk specific gravity of the mix.
5. Percent void in mixed aggregate ( VMA ) : the volume of voids in the

aggregates, and is the sum of air voids and volume of bitumen.
Where :
Vv: percent air voids in the mix.

Vb: percent bitumen content in the mix.
6. percent voids filled with bitumen ( VFB): the voids in the mineral aggregate
frame work filled with the bitumen.
Where :
Vb: percent bitumen content in the mix.
VMA: percent voids in the mineral aggregate.
- Determine Marshall stability and flow :

- Marshall stability of a test specimen is the maximum load required to produce
failure when the specimen is preheated to a prescribed temperature placed in a
special test head and the load is applied at a constant strain (5 cm per minute).
- While the stability test is in progress dial gauge is used to measure the vertical
deformation of the specimen. The deformation at the failure point expressed in units
of 0.25 mm is called the Marshall flow value of the specimen.
83
Figure 6.6: Stability and Deflection.
- Apply stability correction

- It is possible while making the specimen the thickness slightly vary from the
standard specification of ( 63.5 mm) , Therefore, measured stability values need to
be corrected to those which would have been obtained if the specimens had been
exactly ( 63.5 mm) This is done by multiplying each measured stability value by an
appropriated correlation factors as given in Table below.
Table 6.1: correction factors for marshal stability values.
84
- Prepare graphical plots:

1. Binder content versus corrected Marshall stability.
2. Binder content versus Marshall flow.
3. Binder content versus percentage of void (Vv) in the total mix.
85
4. Binder content versus voids filled with bitumen (VFB).
5. Binder content versus unit weight or bulk specific gravity (Gm).
- Determine optimum bitumen content

- Determine the optimum binder content for the mix design by taking average value
of the following three bitumen contents found form the graphs obtained in the
previous step.
1.Binder content corresponding to maximum stability
2.Binder content corresponding to maximum bulk specific gravity (Gm).
3.Binder content corresponding to the median of designed limits of percent air voids
(Vv) in the total mix (i.e. 4%) .
86
- The stability value, flow value, and VFB are checked with Marshall mix design
specification chart given in Table below.
- Mixes with very high stability value and low flow value are not desirable as the
pavements constructed with such mixes are likely to develop cracks due to heavy
moving loads.
Table 6.2: Marshall mix design specification.
Table 6.3: Marshall mix design ( Asphalt Institute Criteria).
- Ways to Increase VMA :

1. Reduce the dust content
2. Open the aggregate gradation
3. Gap-grade the aggregate blend
4. Increase manufactured sand
5. Reduce flat-and-elongated particles
Example :1
87
Example 2:
88
Example 3 :
89
CH.7
Flexible Pavement Distress , Performance ,
Response , and Analysis
 Major Distresses in Flexible Pavements :
- The three major distresses that are of significance to flexible pavement design are :
1. Fatigue ( alligator ) cracking.
2. Rutting.
3. Thermal ( low temperature / transfer ) cracking.
Figure 7.1: Fatigue ( alligator ) cracking.
90
Figure 7.2: Rutting.
Figure 7.3: Thermal ( low temperature / transfer ) cracking.
91
 Performance of flexible pavements :
Functional Behavior : it is related to :

1. The ability of the pavement to satisfy the needs of the travelling public and the
drivers.
2. Skid resistance.
3. Safety.
4. Visual appearance.
Etc…
Structural Behavior : it’s the ability of the pavement to resist the damaging effects
of traffic loading and environmental conditions.
- The serviceability of a highway pavement : is the ability of the pavement to serve

traffic in its existing conditions.
- There are three ways to determine the serviceability of highway pavement :
1. Pavement Condition Index. PCI.

2. Present Serviceability Index PSI.
3. Roughness Index RI.
- Pavement condition rating : is related to several factors :
1. Structural integrity.
2. Structural capacity.
3. Roughness.
4. Skid resistance/hydroplaning potential.
5. Rate of deterioration.
- Pavement condition index ( PCI ) : a scale measures the pavement’s structural

integrity and surface operational condition (0 to 100).
- The Present Serviceability Index ( PSI ) : was developed by AASHTO road test
( US National Pavement Research Project ) , and is based on :
1. pavement roughness.
2. distress conditions ( rutting , cracking , and patching).
- The roughness index ( RI ) is based on roughness only.
92
Figure 7.4: PCI rating.
- Present Serviceability : it is the ability of a section of pavement to serve high speed

, high volume , and mixed traffic in its existing conditions.
- Individual Present Serviceability Rating : it is rating by an individual of the

present serviceability of a pavement section from 0 – 5.
Figure 7.5: PSI rating.
93
- Present Serviceability Rating ( PSR ) : it is the mean of the individual ratings

made by the members of a panel.
- Present Serviceability Index ( PSI ) : it is an index based on mathematical

calculations of physical measurements formulated to predict the PSR of a pavement.
- Performance Index ( PI ) : it is the PSI versus time , it can be represented by the

area under the curve ( PSI vs. Time ).
Figure 7.6: Performance Index ( PI ).
- Differences between PSR and PSI :

1. PSR is subjective measure of the pavement serviceability ( condition ) , while
PSI is an objective measure of the PSR (pavement serviceability or condition).
2. PSR is based on panel ratings , on the other hand , PSI is not based on panel
ratings but rather it is based on physical measurements.
PSI is calculated using the following equations :
 For flexible pavements :
PSI = 5.03 – 1.91 log ( 1+SV ) – 0.01(𝐂 + 𝐏)0.5 - 1.38 RD²
 For rigid pavements :
PSI = 5.41 – 1.71 log ( 1+SV ) – 0.09(𝐂 + 𝐏)0.5

Where :
94
SV : mean slope variance ( 10−6 ).

C: cracking length ( ft / 1000 ft² ).
P: patching area ( ft² / 1000 ft² ).
RD : mean rut depth ( inch).
- Slope Variance : it is an indication of wheel path roughness of a pavement and

measured by the road test longitudinal profileometer.
Figure 7.7: longitudinal profileometer.
- The slopes are generally sampled at ( 1 ft ) intervals over the length of the section
, the slope variance is given in the following equation :
∑𝒏 ̅ 𝟐
𝒊=𝟏(𝑺𝒊−𝑺)
𝑺𝑽 = )
𝒏−𝟏
Where :
Si : the ith slope.
𝑆̅: average of all slope.
n: number of samples.
95
Figure 7.8: Dipstick Profiler.
Figure 7.9: Profiler.
Figure 7.10: Profilograph.
- Cracking and patching ( C + P ) : they are combined in a single variable in the

PSI equation , cracking in ( ft / 1000 ft² ) and patching in ( ft² / 1000 ft² ).
- Rut Depth RD : it is measured by the differential elevation in the wheel paths , rut
depth normally measured at 20 ft intervals for both wheel paths find the average rut
depth used in the equation.
96
Figure 7.11: rut depth measurement.
Roughness
- Roughness ( longitudinal profile ) provides the major correlation variable for

computing PSI , distress data does not add much to the correlation , therefore many
agencies use only roughness to determine PSI.
- Skid Resistance :
 Adequate surface friction should be provided for a pavement so that

slippage or loss of control doesn't happen particularly when the
pavement is wet.
 Skid resistance is considered the basic measure of pavement safety.
- Factors affecting skid resistance :

1. bleeding of asphalt.
2. polished aggregate ( smooth micro texture).
3. rutting ( holds water in the wheel paths).
4. inadequate cross slopes.
5. smooth macro – textures.
- Surface friction ( skid resistance ) is measured by various methods , a skid number

is used as shown below :
𝑭
𝑺𝑵 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾
Where :
F: the traction force ( frictional resistance to motion ) applied to the tire.
W: the dynamic vertical load on the tire.
97
Table 7.1: skid number.
Skid number comments

Less than 30 Take measures to correct.
30 or more Acceptable for low volume roads.
31 -34 Monitor pavement frequently.
35 or more Acceptable for high volume roads.
Figure 7.12: locked wheel skid tester.
 Response and Analysis of flexible pavement
Transfer Function :
- Fatigue cracking models :
1. the AI Model:
𝑁𝑓 = 0.0796(𝜀𝑡)−3.291 (𝐸1)−0.854
2. the shell model:
𝑁𝑓 = 0.0685(𝜀𝑡)−5.671 (𝐸1)−2.363
3. the Illinois department of transportation (IDOT) Model " Thompson 1987":
𝑁𝑓 = 5 ∗ 10−6 (𝜀𝑡)−3
4. the transportation and research laboratory (TRL) Model " powel 1984" :
𝑁𝑓 = 1.66 ∗ 10−10 (𝜀𝑡)−4.32

5. the Belgian road research center (BRRC) Model " verstraeten 1982" :
𝑁𝑓 = 4.92 ∗ 10−14 (𝜀𝑡)−4.76
98
General format for fatigue models :
𝑁𝑓 = 𝐾1(𝜀𝑡)𝐾2 (𝐸1)𝐾3
𝑁𝑓 = 𝐾1(𝜀𝑡)𝐾2
- Rutting models :
1. the AI model :
𝑁𝑑 = 1.365 ∗ 10−9 (𝜀𝑐)−4.477

 Rut depth at failure = 0.5 inch.
2. The shell model ( 50% reliability ) :
𝑁𝑑 = 6.15 ∗ 10−7 (𝜀𝑐)−4

3. The shell model ( 85% reliability ) :
𝑁𝑑 = 1.94 ∗ 10−7 (𝜀𝑐)−4

4. The shell model (95% reliability ) :
𝑁𝑑 = 1.05 ∗ 10−7 (𝜀𝑐)−4

5. The Belgian road research center (BRRC) Model :
𝑁𝑑 = 3.05 ∗ 10−9 (𝜀𝑐)−4.35

6. The UK transportation road research laboratory ( UKTRRL) Model ( 85%
reliability ) :
𝑁𝑑 = 6.18 ∗ 10−8 (𝜀𝑐)−3.95

 Rut depth at failure = 0.4 inch.
7. Al-Khateeb Model , Jordan University of Science and Technology , 2007:
𝑁𝑑 = 1 ∗ 10−9 (𝜀𝑐2)6.761 (𝜀𝑐3)−2.339

 Rut depth at failure = 0.5 inch ( 12.7 mm ).
99
General format for rutting models :
𝑁𝑑 = 𝐾1(𝜀𝑐2)𝐾2 (𝜀𝑐3)𝐾3
𝑁𝑑 = 𝐾1(𝜀𝑐)𝐾2
- Low – temperature ( thermal cracking ) models :
Figure 7.13:thermal stresses.
Response of One layered systems
- Response ( stresses , strain , and deformations ) in flexible pavement are based on

many factors including :
1. wheel load.
2. Radius of loaded area.
3. Depth.
4. Offset.
5. Modulus.
6. Temperature.
7. Dual spacing.
8. Thicknesses of layers.
100
 Foster and Ahlvin , 1954 : presented charts for pavement respons ( v= 0.5 ) and
stresses are obtained from these charts , and strains ( vertical , radial , and
tangential ) are obtained using the following equation :
𝟏
𝜺𝒛 = [𝝈𝒛 − 𝒗 (𝝈𝒓 + 𝝈𝒕)]
𝑬
𝟏
𝜺𝒓 = [𝝈𝒓 − 𝒗 (𝝈𝒕 + 𝝈𝒛)]
𝑬
𝟏
𝜺𝒕 = [𝝈𝒕 − 𝒗 (𝝈𝒛 + 𝝈𝒓)]
𝑬
𝒒∗𝒂
W= F
𝑬
Where :
W: deflection.
q: contact pressure.
a: contact radius.
E: layer elastic modulus.
F: deflection factor.
- Ahlvin and ulery (1962) presented equations and tables but for different poisons
ratios.
- Flexible plate analysis : the deflection is different from point to point under the
plate but the pressure distribution is uniform.
- Rigid plate analysis : the deflection is the same at all points on the plate but the
pressure distribution is not uniform under the plate.
Figure 7.14: difference between flexible and rigid plate.
101
Response of two layered systems
Figure 7.15:two layer system.
- Burmister (1943) developed layered theory for pavement solutions that can be used
for two – layered systems.
- Burmisters assumptions used in a multi – layered system are :
1. Each layer is homogeneous , isotropic , and linearly elastic with an elastic

modulus ( E ) a poisons ratio ( v ).
2. Each material ( in each layer ) is weightless and infinite.
3. Each layer has a finite thickness ( h) except the lowest layer has infinite
thickness.
4. The applied pressure is uniformly distributed over a circular area of radius (a).
5. Continuity conditions are satisfied at the layer interface ( bounded layer are used
, in case of frictionless interface , a zero shear stress at each side of the interface
replaces the continuity ).
- Interface deflection in two – layered systems is from :
𝒒∗𝒂
W= F
𝑬𝟐
Where :
W: interface deflection.
a: contact radius.
E: layer 2 elastic modulus.
F: deflection factor.
102
- Surface deflection in two – layered systems is from :
𝟏.𝟓𝒒∗𝒂
Wo = F2
𝑬𝟐
Where :
W: surface deflection.
F2: deflection factor.
- Vertical stresses and vertical interface stresses in two – layered systems are
determined from charts .
- Critical tensile strain in two layered systems is determined as :
𝒒
ε = 𝑬𝟏 Fε
where :
ε : tensile strain.
𝑬𝟏: lyer1 elastic modulus.
Fε : strain factor for single wheel.
Responses of three – layered systems:
Figure 7.16:three layer system.
- Jones ( 1962) presented tables for determining stresses in three – layered systems .
- Peattie ( 1962 ) also presented solution by charts for three – layered systems ( these
charts are plots of jones's tables).
103
- Jones 's tables are used to determine the stresses factors
ZZ1 , ZZ2 , ZZ1-RR1 , ZZ2 – RR2
using k1 = E1/E2 , k2 = E2/E3 , A = a/h2 and H = h1/h2
then the stresses and strains and calculated as shown below :
σz1 = q ( ZZ1 )
σz2 = q ( ZZ2 )
σz1 - σr1 = q ( ZZ1 – RR1 )
σz2 – σr2 = q ( ZZ2 – RR2 )
- Since the poisons ratio is assumed to be 0.5 and the radial and the tangential stresses are
equal on the axis of symmetry , the following equations are obtained for the strains :
𝟏
𝜺𝒛= ( 𝝈𝒛 − 𝝈𝒓 )
𝑬
𝟏
𝜺𝒓= ( 𝝈𝒓 − 𝝈𝒛 )
𝟐𝑬
𝜺 𝒛 = −𝟐 𝜺 𝒓
- From the continuity of horizontal deformation at the interface , it implies that the
radial strain at the bottom of one layer is equal to that at the top of the next layer ,
therefore :
𝜺 𝒓 = (𝜺′ 𝒓1)(𝜺𝒓2) = 𝜺′ 𝒓2
𝟏
𝜺 𝒓𝟏 = ( 𝝈𝒓𝟏 − 𝝈𝒛𝟏 )
𝟐𝑬𝟏
𝟏
𝜺 𝒓𝟐 = ( 𝝈𝒓𝟐 − 𝝈𝒛𝟐 )
𝟐𝑬𝟐
𝟏
𝜺′ 𝒓𝟏 = ( 𝝈′𝒓𝟏 − 𝝈𝒛𝟏 )
𝟐𝑬𝟐
𝟏
𝜺′ 𝒓𝟐 = ( 𝝈′𝒓𝟐 − 𝝈𝒛𝟐 )
𝟐𝑬𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
( 𝝈𝒓𝟏 − 𝝈𝒛𝟏 ) = ( 𝝈′ 𝒓𝟏 − 𝝈𝒛𝟏 )
𝟐𝑬𝟏 𝟐𝑬𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
( 𝝈𝒓𝟐 − 𝝈𝒛𝟐 ) = ( 𝝈′ 𝒓𝟐 − 𝝈𝒛𝟐 )
𝟐𝑬𝟐 𝟐𝑬𝟑
104
( 𝝈𝒛𝟏 − 𝝈 𝒓𝟏)
𝝈𝒛𝟏 − 𝝈′ 𝒓𝟏 =
𝑘1
( 𝝈𝒛𝟐 − 𝝈 𝒓𝟐)
𝝈𝒛𝟐 − 𝝈′ 𝒓𝟐 =
𝑘2
105
Appendix of ch.7
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
Examples of ch.7
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
Equations of ch.7
126
127
128
129
CH.8
Rigid Pavement Distress , Performance ,
Response , and Analysis
 Major distresses in Rigid Pavements
- Major distresses in rigid pavements are :

1. Joint Faulting.
2. Joint Spalling.
3. Linear Cracking.
4. Pumping.
Figure 8.1: Faulting distress.
- Main causes of joint faulting are :

1. Settlement due to Week foundation.
2. Curling of the slab edges due to temperature and moisture changes.
3. Erosion in sub grade soils.
4. Sever pumping.
- Main causes of joint spalling are :

1. Lack of joint sealant.
2. Weak concrete at the joints.
3. Incompressible materials in joints.
4. High stress at the joints due to high traffic load.
5. Freeze / thaw cycles at the joints..
6. Improper dowel alignments.
130
Figure 8.2: joint Spalling.
- Main causes of linear cracking are :
1. Repeated traffic loading.

2. Repeated moisture loading.
3. Curling stresses due to thermal gradient.
Figure 8.3: linear cracking.
131
- Main causes of pumping are :

1. Water.
2. Fines.
3. Improper load transfer.
4. Repeated traffic loading.
Figure 8.4: pumping.
 Performance of rigid pavement :
Functional Behavior : it is related to The ability of the pavement to satisfy the

needs of the travelling public and the drivers.
Structural Behavior : it’s the ability of the pavement to resist the damaging effects
of traffic loading and environmental conditions.
- Present serviceability rating ( PSR ) :

 The best way to predict PSR for a given rigid pavement is by using roughness.
 It is the mean of the individual ratings made by the members of panel.
 The present serviceability index ( PSI) developed by the AASHTO road test is an
index to predict the PSR of the pavement and it based on specific distresses
conditions.
Figure 8.5: PSI rating.
132
- Performance index ( PI) : it’s the PSI versus time , it can be represented by the
area under the curve.
Figure 8.6: Performance Index ( PI ).
- PSI For rigid pavements :
PSI = 5.41 – 1.71 log ( 1+SV ) – 0.09(𝐂 + 𝐏)0.5
Where :
- Roughness ( longitudinal profile ) : provides the major correlation variable for

computing PSI , many agencies use only roughness to determine PSI.
 Response and Analysis :
- Curling stress :
- During the day, when the temperature on the top of the slab is greater than that at
the bottom, the top tends to expand with respect to the neutral axis, while the bottom
tends to contract . However, the weight of the slab restrains it from expansion and
contraction ; thus, compressive stresses are induced at the top, tensile stresses at the
bottom .
133
- At night, when the temperature on the top of the slab is lower than that at the bottom,
the top tends to contract with respect to the bottom ; thus, tensile stresses are
induced at the top and compressive stresses at the bottom .
Figure 8.7: Curling of slab due to temperature gradient during the night.
Figure 8.8: Curling of slab due to temperature gradient during the day.
 Westergaard (1926) developed equations for determining the curling stresses in

concrete pavements based on the plate theory.
 The maximum interior stress at the center of the slab in the X-direction :
 The maximum interior stress at the center of the slab in the Y-direction :
134
Where :
Cx and Cy: are correction factors for a finite slab .
E : modulus elasticity of the concrete slab ( 4000000 psi ).
V: poisons ratio ( 0.15).
Figure 8.9: finite slab.
Where :
135
Figure 8.10: Stress correction factor for finite slab .
 The edge stress at the mid span of the slab in the x-direction ( v = 0).
 The edge stress at the mid span of the slab in the y-direction ( v = 0).
- Bending stresses :
 The total stresses in the X- direction due to both bending in the x-direction and
bending in the y-direction :
136
- Interior loading stresses :
 Westergaard (1926) developed formulas to determine the tensile stress in

interior of a slab under a circular loading of radius (a) as follows :
 For v = 0.15
Where :
137
- Corner loading stresses :
 Westergaard (1926) presented equations for the tensile stresses on top of the
slab ( σc ) and the corner deflection ( ∆c ) in case of ( a ) circular load applied
near the corner of the slab as follows :
Where :
σc = the tensile stresses on top of the slab .
- Edge loading stresses :
 Westwergaard (1948) presented solutions for the maximum stress ( σe ) and

deflection ( ∆e ) for a circular and semicircular loaded area as shown below :
138
 For (v= 0.15) :
Where :
σe = the stresses due to edg loading .
∆e = the deflection at the edge of the slab.
- Stresses for single vs. dual wheels :
 Westwergaard formulas are used but an equivalent radius contact area ( a )

is determined first as shown below :
Where :
Pd : applied load on one tire.
Sd: the spacing between two tires.

139
 Joints :
- Joints are provided in concrete ( rigid ) pavements to prevent premature cracks

due to temperature and moisture changes from occurring.
- There are four common types of joints used in rigid pavements :

1. contraction joints.
2. expansion joints.
3. construction joints.
4.longiudal joints.
- Contraction joints :
 Contraction joints are transfer joints used to relieve tensile stresses .

 Joint spacing is recommended not to exceed twice the slab thickness (2h) .
 Another general goodness for the ratio of slab width to length should not
exceed 1.25 according to AASHTO.
Figure 8.11: Typical contraction joints .
 dummy groove : is formed by placing a metal strip on the fresh concrete, which is
later removed, or by sawing after the concrete is set .
 The groove : is then sealed with a plastic material .
140
 If the joint spacing is small, the load transfer across the joint can be achieved by the
aggregate interlock and no dowels may be needed .
 dowels are needed if the joint spacing is large or if the short panels are located near
the end of the pavement .
 joints can be formed by placing a felt, asphalt ribbon , or asphalt board strip in the
fresh concrete and leaving it there permanently, as shown in Figure 8.11.
 The sealant used in the joints must be capable of withstanding repeated extension
and compression as the temperature and moisture in the slabs change .
 Sealants can be classified as field molded and preformed .
 Field-molded sealants are those applied in liquid or semi liquid form.

 preformed sealants are shaped during manufacturing
Figure 8.12: Design of joint sealant reservoir.
 To maintain an effective field-molded seal, the sealant reservoir must have the
proper shape factor or depth to width ratio. The common practice is to have the
ratio between 0 .5 to 1 .
 Table 8.1 shows the reservoir dimensions for field-molded sealants, and Table
8.2 shows the joint and sealant widths for preformed seals as recommended.
141
Table 8.1: Reservoir Dimensions for Field-Molded Sealants.
Table 8.2: Joint and Sealant Width for Preformed Seals.
- Expansion Joints:
 Expansion joints are transverse joints for the relief of compressive stress.
 Because expansion joints are difficult to maintain and susceptible to pumping ,

they are no longer in use today except at the connection between pavement and
structure.
 The minimum width of joint is 3/4 in (19 mm).
Figure 8.13: Expansion joint.
142
- Construction Joints :
 If at all possible, the transverse construction joint should be placed at the location
of the contraction joint, as shown by the butt joint in Figure 8.14.
Figure 8.14: butt joint at construction joints.
 If the work must stop due to an emergency or machine breakdown, the key joint
shown in Figure 8.15 may be used . This joint should be placed only in the middle
third of a normal joint interval . Key joints have not performed well and many
failures have occurred .
Figure 8.15: key joints for emergency.
- Longitudinal Joints :
 Longitudinal joints are used in highway pavements to relieve curling and warping
stresses.
 Different types of longitudinal joints are used, depending on whether the

construction is full width or lane-at-a-time .
 In the full-width construction, as shown in Figure 8.16, the most convenient type is
the dummy groove joint, in which tie bars are used to make certain that aggregate
interlock is maintained, as shown in Figure 8.16.a. These bars may be shoved into
the wet concrete before the final finishing and placement of the dummy groove. The
joint can also be formed by inserting a remolded strip into the fresh concrete and
143
leaving there permanently as an integral part of the warping joint, as shown in

Figure 8.16.b. Another method is to install deformed steel plates and tie bars at the
center line before the pour of concrete, as shown in Figure 8.16.c .
Figure 8.16: Longitudinal joints for full-width construction.
 Lane-at-a-time construction is used when it is necessary to maintain traffic on

the other lane . To insure load transfer, key joints are usually used, as shown in
Figure 8.17 . In most cases, the keyed joints are tied together with tie bars.
However, tie bars may be omitted if the longitudinal joint is at the interior of a
multilane pavement and there is very little chance that the joint will be wide
open.
Figure 8.17: Longitudinal joints for lane-at-a-time construction.
144
Appendix of ch.8
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
Examples of ch.8
153
154
155
156
Equations of ch.8
157
158
159
CH.9
Design of Flexible Pavements
- Methods of design :
1. Empirical methods.
2. Mechanistic – Empirical methods.
3. Mechanistic methods.
4. Other methods.
- Needed data to design :

1. pavement performance.
2. Traffic data.
3. Sub grade soils.
4. Materials of construction.
5. Environmental data.
6. Drainage data.
7. Design reliability.
 Pavement performance :
1. Structural performance ( behavior) : it is related to
a. the ability of the pavement to satisfy the needs of the travelling public
and drivers.
b. Skid resistance.
c. Safety.
d. Visual appearance.
2. Functional performance ( behavior): it is related to the ability of the pavement

to resist the damaging effects of traffic loading and environmental conditions.
- Serviceability performance : it is the a concept developed to quantify pavement

performance.
- Present serviceability index PSI : it is a pavement index based on mathematical

calculations of physical measurements formulated to predict the serviceability
rating of a pavement.
PSI = 5.03 – 1.91 log ( 1+SV ) – 0.01(𝐂 + 𝐏)0.5 - 1.38 RD²

Where :
160
- The initial serviceability index ( pi ) : it is the serviceability index immediately

after the construction of the pavement. ( AASHTO recommended pi = 4.2 )
- The terminal serviceability index ( pt) : it is the minimum acceptable value before
reconstruction or resurfacing of the pavement become necessary. ( AASHTO
recommended pt = 2.5 or 3 for major road , 2 for lower class , and may be 1.5 for
economic cases.).
 Traffic :
- The traffic load applications are given in terms of the number of 18000 lb ( 80 KN
) single axle loads ( ESALs ) as shown below :
ESALi = ( AADTi ) ( 365 ) ( fd ) ( Gjt ) ( Ni ) ( fei)
Where :
( ADT)o : is the average daily traffic at the start of the design period.
T : is the percentage of trucks in the ADT.
Tf : ( truck factor) is the number of 18-kip (80-kN) single-axle load applications per
truck.
G : is the growth factor.
D : is the directional distribution factor, which is usually assumed to be 0.5 unless the
traffic in two directions is different
L : is the lane distribution factor which varies with the volume of traffic and the number
of lanes.
Y: is the design period in years .
Where :
r: annual growth rate.
161
162
163
164
 Sub grade soils :
- AASHTO uses the resilient modulus MR for the sub grade soil property.
MR = 1500 CBR " psi " for CBR ≤ 10

MR = 1000 + 555 R value " psi " for R ≤ 20
Materials of construction :
- Materials of sub base construction ( a3)

- Materials of base construction ( a2 ).
- Materials of surface construction ( a1 ).
Where : a1 , a2 , and a3 are layer coefficients.
165
166
167
168
169
 Environment :
- Temperature.
- Rainfall.
- The resilient modulus of a sub grade materials may vary during the year due to
freeze – thaw periods.
- This variation in resilient modules during the year is determined by a procedure that
determines the effective annual resilient modulus of the sub grade soil.
- Two methods are suggested by the AASHTO design guide to determine this value
, one of them based on the relationship between resilient modulus and moisture
content.
170
 Drainage :
- The quality of free water removal from the water pavement structure has an effect
on the performance of asphalt pavements and therefore is considered in the
pavement design.
- A factor ( m's drainage coefficients ) is incorporated for the base and sub base
layer coefficients a2 and a3 to account for this effect.
171
 Reliability :
- The use of reliability factor was proposed by AASHTO design guide to consider
the possible uncertainties in traffic prediction and performance prediction.
172
 Structural design :
Where :
SN : structural number of pavement.
a l , a2, and a3 : are layer coefficients for the surface, base, and sub - base,
respectively.
D1 , D2 , and D3 : are the thicknesses of the surface , base, and sub base, respectively
( inch ).
m2 and m3 are : the drainage coefficient of base course and the drainage coefficient
of sub base course respectively.
173
174
 Selection of Layer Thicknesses
175
- General Procedure :
The procedure for thickness design is usually started from the top, as shown in Figure
11 .28 and described as follows :
1. Using E2 as MR, determine from Figure 11 .25 the structural number SN1
required to protect the base, and compute the thickness of layer 1 from:
2. Using E3 as MR, determine from Figure 11 .25 the structural number SN2
required to protect the sub base, and compute the thickness of layer 2 from:
3. Based on the roadbed soil resilient modulus MR, determine from Figure 11 .25
the total structural number SN3 required, and compute the thickness of layer 3
from :
176
177
178
179
180
181
Examples
182
183
184

185
CH.10
Design of Rigid Pavements
- The main objective of rigid pavement design is to determine the thickness of the
concrete slab that will be adequate to carry the anticipated traffic load for the design
period.
- Inputs :
1. pavement performance.
2. Traffic .
3. Sub grade strength.
4. Sub base strength.
5. Concrete properties.
6. Drainage.
7. Design reliability.
 pavement performance:
- it is a concept developed to quantify pavement performance.

- Present serviceability index PSI : it is a pavement index based on mathematical
calculations of physical measurements formulated to predict the serviceability
rating of a pavement.
- PSI is calculated using the following equation :
PSI = 5.41 – 1.71 log ( 1+SV ) – 0.09(C + P)0.5

Where :
- The initial serviceability index (pi) : it is the serviceability index immediately after
the construction of the pavement ( 4.5 ).
- The terminal serviceability index ( pt) : it is the minimum acceptable value before
reconstruction or resurfacing of the pavement become necessary. ( 2.5)
 Traffic :
- The traffic load applications are given in terms of the number of 18000 lb ( 80 KN
) single axle loads ( ESAL's) as shown below similar to that for flexible pavements:
Where :
( ADT)o : is the average daily traffic at the start of the design period.
186
T : is the percentage of trucks in the ADT.

Tf : ( truck factor) is the number of 18-kip (80-kN) single-axle load applications per
truck.
G : is the growth factor.
D : is the directional distribution factor, which is usually assumed to be 0.5 unless the
traffic in two directions is different
L : is the lane distribution factor which varies with the volume of traffic and the number
of lanes.
Y: is the design period in years .
Where :
r: annual growth rate.
187
188
Note . 1 lb = 4 .45 N
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
 Sub base strength :
- AASHTO recommends specifications for six types of sub base materials , the first
five types ( A through E ) can be used for the upper 4 inch layer of the sub base and
type F can be used beneath that.
- The pavement may be subjected to frost action , the percentage of fines in the sub
base material should be reduced to a minimum.
- Sub base thickness is usually not less than 6 inches and should be extended 1 to 3
ft outside the edge of the pavement structure.
196
 Sub grade strength :
- It given in terms of the westergaard modulus of sub grade reaction , k , obtained

from a plate bearing test conducting according to the AASHTO T222 test method.
- If the slab is placed on the sub base The composite modulus of sub grade reaction
is estimated by charts founded below.
197
- If the slab is placed directly on the sub grade without a sub -base, AASHTO
suggested the use of the following theoretical relationship based on a n analysis of
a plate-bearing test ( psi) :
- The effective modulus of sub grade reaction is also an important input in the
AASHTO design method.
- There are some factors used to reduce the effective modulus of sub grade reaction.
- The effective modulus of sub grade reaction is further modified to account for the
effects of rigid foundation ( bedrock ) within 10 ft of the surface .
198
199
 Concrete properties :
- The concrete properties is provided in terms of flexural strength ( modulus of

rupture ) at 28 days that is determined from a three point loading test conducted
according to the AASHTO T97 test method.
Where :
Ee : the concrete elastic modulus in psi .
f 'c : the concrete compressive strength in psi as determined by AASHTO T22, T140,
or ASTM C39 .
- Concrete Modulus of Rupture The modulus of rupture required by the design

procedure is the mean value determined after 28 days by using third-point loading,
as specified in AASHTO T97 or ASTM C78. If center-point loading is used, a
correlation should be made between the two tests
- .Load Transfer Coefficient The load transfer coefficient J is a factor used in rigid
pavement design to account for the ability of a concrete pavement structure to
transfer a load across joints and cracks . The use of load transfer devices and tied
concrete shoulders increases the amount of load transfer and decreases the load-
transfer coefficient .
200
 Drainage :
- The drainage is considered in the AASHTO design method by introducing a factor

Cd in to the performance equation , this factor depends on the quality of drainage
and the percent of time the pavement structure is exposed to moisture level.
 Design Reliability :
201
- Reliability considerations for rigid pavements are similar to those of flexible

pavements , reliability levels R% and the overall standard deviation So are used in
the design.
202
203
204
205
‫‪Pavement Materials and Design‬‬ ‫‪ENG. RA'ID ARRHAIBEH‬‬
‫جامعة ال البيت االردنية‬

‫كلية الهندسة‬
‫قسم الهندسة المدنية‬
‫مــواد و تصميم رصفـــــات الطــرق‬

‫)‪(0704482‬‬
‫للمهندس ‪ :‬رائد محمد الرحيبة‬

‫الفصل الثاني ‪5102-5102 /‬‬
‫الطبعة الثانية‬
‫‪206‬‬

Pavement Materials and Design: by Eng. Ra'Id Arrhaibeh

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Pavement Materials and Design: by Eng. Ra'Id Arrhaibeh

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pavement Materials and Design: by Eng. Ra'Id Arrhaibeh

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pavement Materials and Design ENG.

Pavement Materials and Design

1st semester / 2021 – 2022

- Methods of pavement design:

- These methods are based on the mechanistic analysis of the pavement.

- A flexible pavement structure is typically composed of several layers of material

Figure 1-1-a: typical section for a flexible pavement.

Figure 1-1-b: typical section for a flexible pavement.

Figure 1-1-c: typical section for a flexible pavement.

- The following types of construction have been used in flexible pavement:

A. Conventional: are layered systems with high quality expensive

Figure 1 -2: Typical cross section of a conventional flexible pavement

B. Full-depth: are constructed by placing bituminous layers directly on the

Figure 1 -3: Typical cross-section of a full-depth asphalt pavement (1 in. = 2.54mm) .

C. Contained rock asphalt mats (CRAM): are constructed by placing

- Typical layers of a flexible pavement:

- Failure of flexible pavements

Figure 1 -4: Failure of flexible pavements Rigid pavements.

- A concrete pavement is a structure comprising of a layer of Portland cement

Figure 1 -5: Concrete Road Pavement Structure

Figure 1 -6: Effect of Depth on Distribution of Wheel Loads

- Types of rigid pavements:

1. Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP).

- Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP).

Figure 1 -7-a: Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP).

Figure 1 -7-b: Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP).

Figure 1 -7-c: Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP).

Figure 1 -8: Components of a Typical JPCP

- Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP)

- This light reinforcement is often termed temperature steel.

- Figure 1 -9: Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP)

- Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP).

Figure 1 -10: Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP).

 Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

Figure 1 -11-a: Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

Figure 1 -11-b: Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

Figure 1 -12: construction of Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

- HMA provides a smooth surface layer.

- PCC provides a strong base.

- Three typical cross sections for composite pavements:

1. HMA directly over PCC.

Figure 1 -13: Composite Pavements (PCC over HMA)

eng. Ra'id Arrhaibeh

- Soils are classified into three major groups :

1. Course soils (gravel, sand):

 further descriptive information should be given:

2. Fine soils (silt, clay):

b. Clay: consists of very small particles and exhibits the properties of

 the following descriptive information should be given:

 Organic soil is distinguished as a category different from coarse or

 Soils containing small to moderate amounts of organic material still

Table 2.1: Soil classification.

Table 2.2: Grain Size Criteria

Figure 2.1: sieve grading.

- Soil characteristics ( that concern the highway pavement engineers) :

Figure 2.3: phase diagram.

1. Density (bulk or total density, dry density, and submerged density).