THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

CVNG 1008 BUILDING SERVICES

ADDITIONAL READING MATERIALS - LIGHT
Semester 2 -

Introduction

There are a number of different approaches used for illuminating a working platform. To
make an informed decision as to what type of lighting should be employed, the
fundamentals of light, colour and lighting systems should be understood.

Aims

To examine the how light is qualitatively appraised with respect to color and intensity.
Different lighting systems will be examined, and most available types of lights will be
discussed. Examples of lighting systems will be given and analyzed with respect to

 effectiveness,
 initial cost,

 operating expense and

 longevity.

LIGHT AND COLOUR

What is light

Visible light is that part of the electro-magnetic spectrum that lies between the
wavelengths of ultraviolet and infrared (400nm-700nm).

White light is all colors

When we see a rainbow, we are seeing white light split up into it's component colours,
hence the expression "all the colours of the rainbow".

Sunlight is different in different places in the world

Sunlight contains, more or less, equal portions of all colours of sunlight. Northern
sunlight, that is, sunlight in areas north of the 40 th parallel, has more blue than equatorial
sunlight because of absorption of all other colours, or wavelengths of light, by the
atmosphere.
Blue pictures underwater

This is the same effect that causes underwater photos taken below three feet to be so blue.
Just as the atmosphere absorbs non-blue light so does water, except water absorbs non-
blue light at a much greater rate. Almost all non-blue light below three feet of water is
absorbed.

How is light measured?

Light quality is expressed and measured in many ways. Light colour can be measured in
degrees Kelvin (K) and the Colour Rendering Index (CRI) of a light source can be
measured and expressed as CRI.

Colour temperature - degrees K

White light can have different "warmths". A bit more red/yellow and white light appears
"warmer". A bit more blue and light appears "cool". This can be quantitatively assessed
by the assigning of a colour temperature, given in degrees Kelvin. Think of colour
temperature as the colour of a block or iron as it is heated to various high temperatures. A
warm, reddish light is around 3500 degrees Kelvin, and above 6000 degrees Kelvin the
light takes on a blueish tone. Sunlight is somewhere around 5000 degrees Kelvin. The
first part of the paragraph is misleading. Although people may think of blue as a "cooler"
color than red, it is actually hotter. For the physicists out there, iron is acting as a black
body here.

Colour rendering index (CRI)

The colour rendering index identifies the degree of colour shift objects undergo when
illuminated by a particular light source. In simpler terms, the CRI expresses the degree to
which a light source renders the true colour impression. The CRI is an index and ranges
from 0 to 100. A light source having a CRI of 100 means objects illuminated by it look
like they're supposed to; that is their natural color is not distorted. A light source having a
very low CRI would tend to make objects appear to be a different shade or even colour
that they really are. An example of light with a high CRI is, obviously, sunlight. Some
fluorescent tubes such as Daylight, Chroma 65 or Vita-Lite have a very high CRI. Some
light sources such as Gro-Lux or sodium vapour lamps have very low CRI's.

NATURAL SUNLIGHT

Good light, free, but hard to control

Sunlight is the certainly the cheapest way to illuminate any task, although it is unreliable
and very difficult to regulate. This, of course is subject to geographical variation.

INCANDESCENT LIGHTING
Cheap, low quality light

Incandescent lights are the ubiquitous screw-in bulbs you most likely have lighting your
home. An Incandescent bulb consists of a glass bulb, with a tungsten filament in a near
vacuum; just a small amount of argon or krypton is present. When current flows through
the filament it heats up, and glows giving off both heat and light.

o Halogen bulbs

A variation of the incandescent bulb is the halogen bulb. This is an improvement to

incandescent bulbs invented by GE in 1958 for the wing tip navigation lights of the
Boeing 707. In a regular incandescent bulb, the tungsten filament evaporates, and over
time the inside of the bulb is coated with a fine coat of tungsten from condensed tungsten
vapour. This coating will severely limit the light output of the bulb. In a halogen bulb, a
small amount of one of the halogens (Iodine or Bromine are used) is present and
combines with the evaporated tungsten. This Tungsten Iodide or Tungsten Bromide
molecule has an affinity for the tungsten filament, and returns there and splits. The
tungsten from this molecule returns to the filament while the halogen returns to the
atmosphere inside the bulb. This process does not work unless the bulb jacket is at least
200 degrees Celsius. This is why halogen lamps are so hot, and must be taken into
consideration on using them. Halogen lamps are 25-30% brighter than regular
incandescent bulbs. The halogen cycle, as it is called, takes place in a very small capsule,
as it is easier to maintain the high temperature required for the halogen cycle to operate in
a smaller space. This capsule is placed inside another glass capsule which serves as the
bulbs outer casing and although is still plenty hot, is not as hot as 200 degrees Celsius.

o Output spectra is biased towards the red

The output spectrum of incandescent light, halogen or regular, is biased heavily toward
the red. Non halogen bulbs have a colour temperature of 2700K, while halogen bulbs
have a colour temperature of 3000K - they are a slightly more whitish light. Both have a
CRI of 100. A diagram of the spectra looks rather like a triangle, starting with almost no
output in the green and rising at an almost linear rate to the far red and infra red.
Although incandescent bulbs are very inefficient, they are a very good source of near and
far red light which is certainly very important. They are sometimes used as supplements
in systems which are deficient in the red end of the spectra.

o Efficiency

The two great disadvantages to incandescent lights are their inefficiency - you don't get a
lot of light compared with how much energy you put apply. One saving grace in this
respect is that the efficiency increases proportionally to the wattage, for example a single
100 watt bulb is much brighter than two 50 watt bulbs. The energy that does not get
converted to light is wasted by being given off as heat. All but the smallest wattage bulbs
can generate an awful lot of heat, and this must be taken into consideration. Another
point to consider is, because the heat is so great, a splash of water on a hot bulb can
shatter it.

Halogen bulbs are more efficient than "regular" incandescent bulbs by virtue of
remaining brighter, longer; they still give off 95% of their initial light output at the end of
their lives, which are about twice as long as regular incandescent bulbs. They are also
more expensive.

The great advantage of non halogen bulbs is of course their extreme low cost for initial
purchase, and of course their great availability; you can buy them anywhere. Halogen
bulbs are on the average 5 to 10 times as expensive as their non halogen counterparts and
can usually be found at larger hardware stores. Since their primary market is yuppie track
lighting they are usually found as spot or flood lights. Of potential interest to aquarist is
the low voltage bulbs used in some track lighting systems. Operating as 12V, these bulbs
are quite small and would be good to use a supplemental light augmenting a fluorescent
setup. They are also the cheapest of halogen bulbs. While I have seen them at $30 each in
fancy designer light stores, I have also seen them in Price Club at 3 for $12. Sylvania
makes a series of bulbs called Capsylite that come in "regular" bulb shapes plus the large
parabolic reflectors sometimes used to illuminate the outside of houses. Osram makes a
large array of different shapes and sizes, most of which look like the vacuum tubes. They
are probably the most useful to aquarists because of their smaller size and wide range of
wattages; from low power bulbs all the way up to 150 watts. They are however not cheap
and can be quite a challenge to find somewhere that stocks them.

Longevity

Incandescent bulbs have a lifespan of about 1000 hours. Halogen bulbs have a life of
about 2000 hours. One interesting personal note here; although regular incandescent
lights are rated at 1000 hours, we've all had some bulbs that seem to burn on forever. The
Guiness book of world records lists the longest lasting light bulb as being an incandescent
bulb in a fire house in, I believe Boston that is some 70+ years old; it is never turned off,
which is a key point. This is why your parents always gave you hell for flicking the lights
on and off really quickly, the wear on the filament from having current suddenly shot
through it is quite great. If you'll notice, most bulbs fail when turned on, not in the middle
of operation, or when they are turned off. The halogen bulbs I have throughout my home
seem to be on a timer; when 2000 hours is up *poof*, they expire. I curse them out, do a
rough calculation and come to the conclusion that their 2000 hours just expired.

FLUORESCENT LIGHTING

Cheaper To Run, More Expensive To Install

Fluorescent lights are very common in our day to day lives. They are cheap to operate as
they emit about four times as much light per unit of electricity as incandescent lights do.
On the other hand they are more complicated to install because they require a ballast to
operate. You may be familiar with the regular "cool white" and "warm white" tubes sold
in hardware stores but what you may not know is that fluorescent tubes come in hundreds
of shapes, sizes and spectral output.

How They Work

Fluorescent lights work by placing an anode and a cathode at opposite ends of a glass
tube. Inside the tube is a partial vacuum and a small amount of mercury vapour. When
energized, the mercury vapour is ionized and emits ultraviolet radiation. The inside of the
tube is coated with a phosphor - a powder that "fluoresces" (gives off light) when
stimulated by ultraviolet radiation, thus producing visible light. The chemical
composition of the phosphor determines the spectra or colour of the emitted light.

Replace Tubes Every Six Months

Although fluorescent lights are very energy efficient, there is a particularly nasty
phenomenon known as "cathode decay" that causes, over time, less energy to be
transferred through the mercury vapour. The net effect is that the tube will emit less and
less light as it gets older. To all appearances, the tube will put out the same amount of
light until it suddenly stops dead one day, (which can take years), but for all practical
purposes, because the drop off in light output is an exponential decay, the tube should
optimally be replaced every six months or at the very least once a year. Writing the
installation date on the tube itself with a permanent magic marker can be a big help here.

Types of Fluorescent Tubes

There are many different types of fluorescent tubes. They differ in the physical size,
composition of the phosphor and the wattage. When fluorescent tube is mentioned the
standard T12 four foot tubes usually comes to mind. This tube has a diameter of 1.5
inches and is available in 18", 24" 36", 48", 72" and 96" lengths. The T8 or "slimline"
fluorescent has a 1" diameter tube and is available in 24", 36" and 48" lengths. T12 tubes
are also available in U-shaped, that is a four foot tube is bent back on itself so it forms a
large U, and is about 24" long. Circular tubes are available with several different radii,
and in several different types. In the last few years, compact fluorescent tubes have
become very popular mostly as replacements for incandescent bulbs. These tubes come in
all sizes, from a 3" 5 watt bulb to much larger bulbs that replace 40W four foot tubes, yet
are just one third of the size. The phosphor chemistry is what makes the difference
between a cool white and a daylight tube and every tubes is available with a dizzying
array of choices in this area. Some of the most useful tubes for aquarists with small tanks
are the 5000K compact fluorescent tubes. T12 tubes are available in HO (High Output) or
VHO (Very High Output) which draw more and much more current respectively, but
reduce more light than regular T12 tubes. As the composition of the phosphor changes so
does the spectra of the visible light being emitted by the tube. For aquarium use, whether
for illumination for plant growth or to simply be able to see inside the tank only a small
percentage of the dozens of available tubes are appropriate. They fall into the following
broad categories: industrial, full spectrum, daylight, plant growth, actinic, tri-phosphor,
special purpose and HO/VHO.
Use Four Foot Tubes

Although fluorescent tubes come in many sizes, volume of scale dictates that there is
really only one size - the T12 four foot length. Some ninety percent of all fluorescent
tubes made are this size, and because of this volume, this is the cheapest size, although
this needs to be qualified. If you are buying tubes through normal retail channels, the
markup is generally high enough that they can play with prices and a 24 inch tube costs
less than a 48 inch tube but more than an 18 inch tube. If however you are buying tubes
through other channels, such as lighting distributors, you may find that the four foot tube
is cheaper than any other size. T12 tubes that are smaller or larger will cost you more.
Additionally, the four foot size has the longest lifespan and also the highest ratio of
lumens (light output) per watt. Thus, where space allows, use four foot tubes. If there is
not enough space for these, individual compact fluorescents may be called for.

Manufacturers

In North America the "Big Three" in fluorescent tube manufacturing are General Electric
(GE), Sylvania and Philips. They all make, almost without exception, the same tubes,
under different trade names although there are some notable exceptions. Smaller and off-
shore manufacturers include Duro-test in the US and Osram who make some tubes in
North America and some in Europe.

Industrial Tubes

These tubes include the ubiquitous "cool white" and "warm white" usually used in home
and industrial lighting applications. These tubes are tuned to produce the brightest
possible illumination for the least amount of electricity. Since the human eye is most
sensitive to green, these tubes peak in the green portion of the visible spectrum. In fact
they rise and fall quite sharply either side of the green peak. Warm white is shifted a bit
toward the red end of the spectrum thus accounting for the "warmer" appearance.

Daylight

Daylight tubes are the next big improvement in more natural, (that is a more closer
approximation of sunlight) fluorescent tubes as a result of an improved phosphor
formulation. Although daylight tubes output a spectra that although does not fully
emulate sunlight, it is significantly better than earlier cool white and warm white tubes.
These tubes are occasionally available at hardware and department stores. They are not
uncommon and any lighting supplier should have them or be able to order them. They
cost a bit more than cool white, but are not expensive. Figure about $3 to $4.

Full Spectrum

Full spectrum tubes imitate, as closely as possible, natural sunlight by emitting light in
every spectral range. All the different colours of visible light and a very small amount of
ultraviolet is emitted. The Duro-Test Company produces "Vita-Lite" tubes. GE produces
"Chroma 50", Philips produces "Colortone 50", Sylvania produces "Designer 5000K".
All these tubes have an output spectrum that is similar to sunlight - about as close as
modern chemistry can bring us. These tubes try to imitate equatorial sunlight at noon,
which has a colour temperature of around 5000K.

Noonday sunlight from northern climes has a larger amount of blue in the spectrum, as
has a colour temperature of 7500 Kelvin. Since the red pigment in plants is limited by
blue light these are sometimes useful. Duro- Test sells a "Vita Lite 75", GE sells a
"Chroma 75" and Philips sells a "Colortone 75".

There is quite a disparity in availability and price of these tubes. The Vita Lites have very
good distribution. They can be found in most aquarium stores (and many pet stores as
they are also used for illuminating lizards who need the Vitamin D from the ultraviolet
light). The downside of this is like anything you buy in a pet store that you can buy in a
hardware store, they price can be quite high when buying them from a pet store: $15 -
20+. The same Vita-Lite tube from a lighting supplier is about $7, and the Chroma 75 I
have obtained for less than $5. They are nearly identical.

Tri-Phosphor

Philips makes the most popular range of T12 tri-phosphor tubes, the "Ultralume" series.
Recognizing that the primary light colours are red, green and blue, Philips made a tube
that fluoresces very sharply only in these three narrow wavelengths. The light emitted
appears white, and very bright. They are used primarily in clothing stores because they
completely lack emitted ultra-violet, which bleaches clothes. Ultralumes come in colour
temperatures of 3000, 3500, 4000, 4500, and 5000 which is accomplished by varying the
amounts of red, green and blue phosphors. Since red is the most difficult colour light to
obtain from fluorescent tubes and the Ultralume 35 has the most red, this is probably the
most interesting tube from our perspective. Ultralumes are in the $7 range and can be
found at better pet/aquarium stores. Philips tubes seem to be difficult to find in some
areas, notably the West coast although I have occasionally seen Ultralumes on sale in
department stores there. Again, a lighting supplier can usually get any of these tubes.

Actinic

These tubes emit light only from the blue end of the spectrum and are used in marine
setups to supply the blue that is missing from normal aquarium lighting but is required by
marine algae, anemones and corals. They are usually only available from specialty
aquarium stores and are not cheap. They have little or no application for growing
freshwater aquarium plants.

Reflector and Aperture

Aperture and reflector fluorescent lamps differ from standard fluorescent lamps in that
they allow a certain amount of control over the direction in which the light is being sent.
A reflective coating is placed between the outer glass and the phosphor coating. This
reflective coating provides the direction control by reflecting most of the incident light
and directing it through the uncoated surface or clear window of the aperture lamp."

"The total light output of reflector lamps is actually less than that of standard lamps.
These lamps are intended for applications which can best utilize their special light
distribution. The light is often too bright for direct illumination, but when used with
reflectors it can be a very effective means of controlling the light."

Reflector tubes have a reflective coating covering 235 (or 135) degrees of the interior.
Over that, they have a phosphor covering the entire inside of the bulb.

Reflector lamps are available with a 235 degree or 135 degree internal reflector.

Aperture lamps have a 330 or 300 degree reflective coating. They have a phosphor
coating covering 330 or 300 degrees of the lamp. There is a 30 or 60 degree clear glass
opening or "aperture".

"The aperture lamp has a lower light output that standard fluorescent lamps, because
some of the phosphor, which converts ultra violet to visible light, has been removed. But
when these lamps are used with reflectors or lenses, they provide a very concentrated
beam, closely projected in one direction. This allows more light to be delivered to a small
area.

"Applications of the lamp are bridge lighting from the rails, aircraft landing strips,
highways and approach ramps, billboards and sign lighting, sport areas and marina
lighting."

The aperture lamps are only available in 3 models: 4 foot 30 degree aperture cool white,
4 foot 60 degree cool white, and 8 foot HO 30 degree cool white.

Special Purpose

Beginning in 1990, specialty aquarium supply companies began selling fluorescent tubes
aimed specifically for the aquarium market. These tubes are sold primarily for the marine
trade, as corals and anemones have even more exacting requirements than freshwater
aquarium plants. The manufacturer claims the spectral output of the tube degrades less
than 10% over 7000 hours, a time period in which a Gro-Lux type tube will have lost
about 60 % of it's light output. Also, unlike a regular fluorescent tube, a triton will just
refuse to start or light up when it's life has expired (about 2 years). These features are
meant to address the cathode decay problem and eliminate the need to change tubes.

HID LAMPS

HID or High Intensity Discharge are the big bright lamps you see in grocery stores, street
lighting and industrial lighting. They can be very large and draw a lot of power. Indeed
2000 watt and 6000 watt lamps exist, however small ones, down to 70 watts are
available.

Sodium vapour lamps

These lamps come in two varieties, high pressure sodium and low pressure sodium,
although this is rather a moot point, as the light they output is monochromatic (pure)
yellow, and is all but useless in terms of aquaria. It's rather a shame, as they are a full ten
times more efficient then incandescent bulbs, in fact these are the most efficient bulbs
made, and have a 24,000+ hour lifespan..

Metal Halide

Like sodium vapour, these lamps come in two versions, regular and colour corrected
(HQI) versions. The HQI versions have a uniform, sunlight like output spectra, whereas
the standard halide bulb has a lot of yellow, some blue and not much red. Unlike sodium
vapour, these lamps are very useful to the aquarist needing a lot of light. They can be
found nominally in 250, 400, and 1000 watt sizes, from most manufacturers, but Osram
also makes a 70 watt and a 150 watt size. These bulbs range in life from 6000 to 10,000
hours.

Summary and conclusions

For most people, fluorescent light will be the reasonable compromise between cost and
quality of light (Refer McMullan 1992) for more information

References

http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/4742/lighting1.html 1998

McMullan (1992) Environmental Science in Buildings, Third Edition. MacMillan