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Abstract
Purpose
Academics and practitioners around the world have shown interest in what constitutes the relevant
intellectual capital (IC) in firms. However, studies have largely neglected to examine whether IC
has identical or different structural elements in various parts of the world. This study draws on
institutional theory and suggests that country-specific institutional structures may impact the
perception of IC, and empirically analyses whether differences exist between five countries.
Design/methodology/approach
This study tests for the differences in the underlying categorizations of IC in a sample consisting
of 708 firms across five countries. Confirmatory factor analysis and comparison of different
possible IC models are conducted to empirically examine IC structure.
Findings
Results demonstrate that IC has predominantly the same underlying elements across the examined
countries. However, trust capital in Finland and renewal capital in Serbia are structurally different
compared to other countries.
Research limitations/implications
Institutional theory and multinational corporate superculture can explain the similarity in the IC
structures across countries. Specifically, globalized markets carry institutionalized rules, norms,
and expectations for the participating firms; under the influence of this superculture, the firms
begin to assimilate. Conversely, the differences suggest that some country- and culture-specific
differences remain even during the transition to global markets.
Originality/value
This study is among the first to question the assumption that IC has identical structural elements
across the world, and merges theories of IC and institutions to explain possible origins of these
differences.
Keywords: intellectual capital, intellectual capital accounting, structure, superculture
Article classification: research paper
1. Introduction
The vast majority of today’s global wealth is based on intangible factors including firms’ IC
(Edvinsson and Malone, 1997; Ferreira and Hamilton, 2010; Hamilton, 2006; Petty and Guthrie,
2000). Therefore, intellectual capital (IC) is currently a subject of vivid discussion in the realms
of academia, business practice, and government. Researchers have widely suggested that, in the
current knowledge economy, firm performance accrues primarily from intangible assets, known
as the IC of the firm (e.g. Bontis, 1998; Cabello-Medina et al., 2011; Chen et al., 2004; Edvinsson
and Malone, 1997; Hsu and Sabherwal, 2012; Inkinen, 2015; Sveiby, 1997; Youndt et al., 2004).
The concept of IC covers the intangible resources and capabilities that a company needs to
function, compete, and create value (Brooking, 1996; Drucker, 1993; Edvinsson and Malone,
1997; Grant, 1996; Nahapiet and Ghoshal, 1998; Stewart, 1997; Sveiby, 1997).
To examine the role of knowledge and intangibles in producing organizational value and
competitiveness, researchers in the field of management accounting have developed a perspective
labelled IC accounting (ICA; e.g. Roslender and Fincham, 2001; Tayles et al., 2002; Ricceri, 2008;
Guthrie et al., 2012; Dumay, 2014). This perspective focuses on identifying, measuring, and
reporting knowledge resources as well as the activities that develop such resources, and aims to
understand how a firm’s IC can be managed and measured for the purpose of improved
management control (e.g. Mouritsen et al., 2001; Bukh et al., 2005; Mouritsen and Larsen, 2005).
The ICA perspective has generated interest across the globe, spurring organizational development
and academic research activities in a wide variety of countries. An examination of the literature
concerning IC in firms in different countries revealed that many managerial-perspective IC studies
are based on a theoretical framework that divides IC into three elements related with human,
structural/organizational, and relational/social capital dimensions (e.g. Bontis, 1998; Edvinsson
and Malone, 1997; Roos and Roos, 1997; Stewart, 1997; Sveiby, 1997). This three-dimensional
categorization has been widely implemented in empirical studies concerning IC in firms across the
world, from Malaysia and Taiwan to the US and Canada, as well as from Uganda, Jordan, and
Turkey to Spain, Belgium, and Luxemburg (e.g. Bontis, 1998; Bontis et al., 2000; Bozbura, 2004;
Youndt et al., 2004; Hsu and Fang, 2009; Sharabati et al., 2010; Hormiga et al., 2011; Kamukama
et al., 2011; Mention and Bontis, 2013).
However, organization and management can differ in various national, regional, and cultural
contexts, as demonstrated by the studies on cross-cultural management (Adler, 1991; Hofstede et
al., 2010; Trompenaars, 1993) and comparative management accounting (Endenich et al., 2011;
MacArthur, 2006). Because the widely applied tripartite model of IC dimensions (i.e. human,
structural/organizational, and relational/social capital) was originally coined in the latter part of
the 1990s in reference to firms in highly developed countries (e.g. Sweden, Canada), it is fair to
assume that the key intangible assets that produce value for the organization may vary in different
conditions. Nevertheless, researchers have applied the tripartite model and other universal IC
conceptualizations (e.g. value added intellectual coefficient by Pulic, 2000; calculated intangible
value by Stewart, 1997) around the world in a rather straightforward manner, without questioning
their applicability under varying cultural contexts (Dumay, 2009).
In fact, IC research has typically been conducted on the assumption that IC as a phenomenon is
rather identical across regional, national, and cultural contexts. Overall, the majority of IC research
has involved firms in a single regional context, and studies comparing results from several contexts
are very rare. As a result, several scholars have called for studies that investigate the cultural aspect
of IC (Yang and Lin, 2009) and that adopt a cross-national approach (e.g. Cabrita and Bontis,
2008; Bontis et al., 2007; Delgado-Verde et al., 2011; Huang et al., 2007) in order to assess the
generalizability of the existing theoretical positions. As previously noted, in single-country studies,
the IC framework has typically been directly applied using a model originally built by Western
researchers arising from highly developed countries. Very few empirical studies to date have
addressed the issue of if and how the structure of IC of firms differs in different national contexts.
This paper argues that the literature lacks in-depth understanding of the national, cultural, or
regional differences of IC.
A country’s formal institutions, which are mainly regulatory, political, and economic, are
reflections of that country’s culture (Inglehart and Baker, 2000). Culture, in turn, is a reflection of
a socially constructed reality that is built upon informal institutions that are persistent systems,
shared meanings, and collective understandings (North, 1990; Peng et al., 2008; Scott, 1995).
Thus, as cultures differ between countries (Hofstede, 1980), these differences exist also at the
institutional level. This study integrates institutional theory and IC theory by suggesting that
country-specific institutionalized peculiarities may impact the perception of IC. In more detail,
this study claims that managerially-assessed IC is a framework that eventually builds its meaning
through a socially mediated constitution, which may vary from context to context because it is
influenced by institutional peculiarities.
To address the question of whether the structure of IC is universal (as most existing studies
implicitly assume) or varies across countries, this study empirically examines a managerial
assessment of IC across firms with more than 100 employees in five countries. The study is based
on a cross-country dataset that was collected between fall 2013 and spring 2014 during a research
project that was conducted in co-operation with partner institutions from five countries. These
countries span from developed (Finland, Spain, Italy) to developing countries (Russia, Serbia), as
well as from collectivist (Russia, Serbia) to more individualistic cultures (Finland, Italy, Spain)
(Hofstede et al., 2010; cf. Greif, 1994). First, this article suggests an extended and elaborated
categorization of IC to better understand the differences between country contexts beyond the
traditional tripartite distinction of IC. Then, it tests the differences in the underlying categorizations
in a sample consisting of structured survey responses of 708 firms across five countries.
The results indicate that IC structure is mostly similar across the five countries, but some
differences exist. This suggests that the managerial construction of IC is mostly a universal
phenomenon, with specific, notable distinctions regarding the construction of trust capital in
Finland and renewal capital in Serbia. These results provide interesting, institutionally-driven
implications for ICA research, as well as for IC research more generally. The article concludes
with a discussion of those findings and their implications for ICA research and practice.
The following section offers an overview of the relevant IC literature as well as a suggestion for a
novel seven-dimensional conceptual model of IC. The section progresses by discussing cross-
country differences in the structure of IC through the lenses of an institutional approach. Following
this discussion is a description of the data collection and methodological selections, with a focus
on the survey research strategy. The final two sections present the results of the analysis and the
conclusion with a discussion and an overview of the study’s implications.
Internal
Entrepreneurial
Relational
Capital
Capital
External
Trust Capital Relational
Capital
Renewal
Capital
4. Methods
4.1 Sample and data collection
The data utilized for this study included five survey datasets using the same research design and
items, but conducted in different countries. Survey data were collected from Finland, Italy, Russia,
Serbia, and Spain in 2013-2014. These countries were selected based on international academic
collaboration during a research project by five academic institutions from the countries. The aim
of the project was to study IC with a rather diversified set of developed and emerging market
countries. The questionnaires were developed in English and then translated into different
languages. From each country, the initial population comprised a cross-industry sample of
companies that included all firms with at least 100 employees. Country-specific databases (e.g.
Intellia in Finland and SABI in Spain) were utilized in identifying companies. All eligible firms
were contacted; for practical reasons, the method of contact varied slightly between countries. For
example, an external research company contacted firms in Finland by telephone. In other countries,
researchers conducted the data collection via telephone, face-to-face interviews, and online
surveys. To reduce the possibility of bias resulting from these various data collection modes, all
of the data collection procedures strictly followed the similar survey design format and data
collection guidelines to minimize any variation in the respondents’ assessment of the items.
Furthermore, recent method literature has suggested that the mode of data collection does not
matter in terms of reliability of the findings (see e.g. Hair et al., 2006; Maguire, 2009; Szolnoki
and Hoffman, 2013; Dodou and de Winter, 2014). Based on this assessment, this study has no
major risk of bias in terms of data collection modes across countries. Confidentiality was
emphasized, and the respondents were promised a summary of the results.
Following the initial contacts, 708 usable responses were received from Finland (259), Spain
(180), Italy (102), Russia (87), and Serbia (80). In all countries, the study followed the key
informant approach in that most of the respondents held positions such as a human resources (HR)
director or manager, other director or manager, or managing director, indicating their expertise and
key position regarding the issues regarding IC. In order to examine whether there were differences
between different groups of respondents within each country, a one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) comparison of means was performed for each individual item. No notable differences
were found in how respondents with different positions evaluated the existence of IC dimensions.
The companies in the sample represented a wide variety of industries, including manufacturing,
wholesale and retail trade, miscellaneous services, and transportation and storage. The next sub-
section discusses the characteristics of samples from different countries in more detail.
4.2 Descriptive statistics
In terms of age, some differences existed among the studied countries. The average age of the
firms in the Finnish, Spanish, and Italian samples was around 30 years. The companies from Serbia
and Russia were younger, around 20 years. The oldest companies were found in Spain (mean value
31 years) and the youngest in Russia (19 years). In all countries, most of the companies were
established 11-50 years ago. It should be noted that the percentage of young companies
(established 0-5 years ago) was low in the samples from Serbia (0%), Spain (0.6%), Italy (2.9%),
and Russia (4.9%).
The company size was assessed by two means; by the number of employees and the volume of
annual sales. In the Spanish (65.7%), Finnish (53.7%), and Italian (47.5%) samples, most of the
companies had 100-249 employees, whereas Russian (50.6%) companies employed more than
1000 people. This discrepancy is shown also in the mean values for employees, as the average
Russian company had about 7000 employees, whereas Spanish and Finnish companies employed
an average of 337 and 446 people, respectively. Utilizing the annual sales metric, this study found
that quite large variations existed between countries. The biggest average sales figures were found
in Italy (820 million euros) and in Russia (627 million euros). The smallest companies in terms of
sales were Spanish (92 million euros) and Serbian (98 million euros). Finnish companies were
positioned in between, with average sales of 157 million euros.
Table 1 presents the four biggest industries of the sample from each country. In most of the
countries, manufacturing was the biggest industry among the studied companies. The percentage
varied from Serbia’s 50% to Italy’s 34%. Only in Russia was wholesale and retail trade (22.4%)
represented more than manufacturing (20%). Other industries that were among the four biggest in
most of the countries were services (Finland, Russia, and Serbia) and information and
communication (Italy, Russia, Serbia, and Spain).
Table 1. Descriptive statistics.
Finland Spain Serbia Russia Italy
N 259 180 80 87 102
Age (mean;
sd) 28.5; 25.09 31; 22.1 21.24; 13.14 18.99; 14.09 28.9; 21.28
Personnel
(mean; sd) 445.53; 734.44 336.92; 542.17 761.85; 1243.6 7037.1; 23192.4 2411.15; 13928.40
Sales 1000
eur (mean; 819755.44;
sd) 156775; 400034 92017.99; 230594 97667; 128329.31 627205; 1556125 4844279.27
Age (%):
0-5 years 8.5 0.6 0 4.9 2.9
6-10 years 11.2 5 13.8 20.7 8.8
11-50 years 66.4 83.3 80 69.5 73.5
50+ years 13.9 11.1 6.3 4.9 14.7
Personnel
(%):
100-249 53.7 65.7 34.7 22.4 47.5
250-499 23 22.5 26.7 20 18.8
500-999 10.7 8.4 18.7 7.1 12.9
1000+ 9.4 3.4 20 50.6 20.8
Industry
(%):
Largest Manufacturing Manufacturing Manufacturing Wholesale and
(37.8) (43.9) (50) retail trade (22.4) Manufacturing (34)
2nd largest Information and
communication Wholesale and Manufacturing Wholesale and
Services (9.7) (28.3) retail trade (13.8) (20) retail trade (16)
3rd largest Information and Administrative and
Transportation and communication support service
storage (8.1) Other (8.3) Services (11.3) (15.3) activities (9)
4th largest Professional.
Administrative and scientific and Information and
support service technical activities communication Information and
activities (7.7) (7.8) (7.5) Services (14.1) communication (9)
5. Results
5.1 The structure of intellectual capital
As the comprehensive conceptualization of IC introduced in this study is quite novel, several
analyses were performed to test whether the suggested structure for the IC dimensions exists
universally in all countries and, if not, to determine what differences exist between countries. Thus,
the objective of the following section is to test the validity and applicability of the proposed
conceptual model of IC in different countries, and to identify the similarities or possible differences
in the structure (different dimensions) of IC between countries.
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to test the dimensionality of the structure for
the concept of IC dimensions. According to the theoretical conceptualization, the structure of IC
should exhibit a latent structure with seven factors. A total of 708 cases were processed by means
of LISREL 8.50. PRELIS 2.50 was used to compute the covariance matrix, and the maximum
likelihood estimation method was applied. The analyses were conducted separately for the datasets
from each country.
First, CFA was conducted separately for each factor (i.e. each IC dimension separately) to verify
that the items were, in fact, grouped together. During this phase, a few items were removed (one
item at a time) because of the large standardized residuals with the other items.
In the next phase, all seven factors were tested together. In the analysis for all samples, the initial
model fit indices indicated that the original model needed to be re-specified to fit better with the
sample data. Then items were gradually removed according to the values of the standardized
residuals. From each pair of items with a large standardized residual, the one with a lower squared
multiple correlation was removed and the one resulting in greater improvement in the model fit
was retained. As a result of the above steps, several items were removed. The lowest number of
items removed was from the Finnish data (6 items) and the highest from the Serbian data (16
items).
Appendix 1 presents the final models and model fit indices for the structure of IC in different
countries. The following three absolute-fit measures were obtained: the likelihood-ratio chi-square
value, the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and the goodness-of-fit index (GFI).
Even though all the measures fell within acceptable levels, incremental measures i.e. the non-
normed fit index (NNFI), the comparative fit index (CFI), and incremental fit index (IFI) were
needed to ensure acceptability of the models from other perspectives.
In sum, the various measures of overall goodness-of-fit gave sufficient support to deem the results
an acceptable representation of the hypothesized construct (see Appendix 1). The cross-validation
(see e.g. Hair et al., 2006; Conroy and Motl, 2003) revealed that there are differences in how IC is
perceived to exist in various countries. In the Finnish sample, all seven hypothesized dimensions
remained, while at the opposite extreme the Serbian sample retained only five dimensions. The
most significant findings were that trust capital was found as a dimension of IC only in the Finnish
sample, and renewal capital did not differentiate as a dimension of its own in the Serbian sample.
These findings will be further elaborated in the discussion section.
In addition, some observations can be made regarding item-level consistency between countries in
terms of the retained IC dimensions. In general, in all countries where a specific IC dimension
existed, the structures were alike. For example, both external relational capital and entrepreneurial
capital were evaluated with three items that seemed to work in all countries. Also in internal
relational capital, structural capital, human capital, and renewal capital, the structures were, if not
alike, at least quite consistent between different countries. Only a few one-item differences were
observed.
The structure of IC may be different than suggested in this study. For example, one could claim
that there are no distinct dimensions of IC (i.e. IC can be conceptualized as a one-dimensional
construct), or that the relationship-related dimensions (i.e. internal and external relational capital)
should not be examined separately as suggested here. Thus, in order to further establish the
dimensionality and validity of the suggested novel structure of IC, the study compared the initial
model with competing models. The developed model outperformed competing models on all
model fit indices, providing additional support for the chosen model.
Discriminant validity
The discriminant validity was evaluated by two methods. The first method assessed whether the
AVE was greater than the variance shared between that construct and the other constructs in the
model (i.e. the squared correlation between two constructs; Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Almost all
constructs for all countries of the study fulfilled this condition. In all samples, the model’s AVEs
were greater than the squared correlation between constructs. In addition, the discriminant validity
was evaluated with the method recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988). Two models were
compared for each possible pair of constructs. In the first model, constructs were allowed to
correlate freely, and in the second model, the correlations were fixed as equal to one. All chi-
square difference tests in all samples were significant, which indicates that all pairs of constructs
correlated at less than one. In sum, these two tests offer evidence of a sufficient level of
discriminant validity.
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