MIZORAM UNIVERSITY

BACHELOR OF COMPUTER APPLICATION

FIRST SEMESTER

INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECNOLOGY

COURSE NO: BCA/I/CC/03
INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY NOTES

UNIT – 1
Data and Information: Introduction, Types of Data, A Simple Model of a Computer, Data Processing
Using a Computer, Desktop Computer, Data storage, storage cell, physical device used as memory
cells, random access memory, read only memory, secondary storage, compact disk read only
memory (CDROM), archival store
Central Processing Memory: Introduction, The Structure of a Central Processing Unit, Specification of
a CPU, Interconnection of CPU with Memory and I/O Units, Embedded Processors

DATA AND INFORMATION

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Information Technology (IT) may be defined as the technology that is used to acquire, store,
organize, process, and disseminate processed data which can be used in specified applications.
Information is processed data that improves our knowledge, enabling us to take decisions and
initiate actions.

1.2 TYPES OF DATA

The versatility of IT comes from the ability to process a variety of data types:

1. Numerical data. Data that is measurable, such as time, height, weight, amount, and so on.
2. Text. For example, a paragraph in this book is textual data.
3. Picture or image. For example, your photograph is image data. Other types of images are a
map of India, a fingerprint, a line drawing.
4. Audio or sound. For example, speeches, songs, telephone conversations, street noise, etc.
5. Video or moving pictures. When a number of pictures are shown one after another at a rate
of about 30 to 60 pictures per second, due to persistence of vision, we have an illusion of
movement. Another example is animation used in computer games. Video is usually
combined with audio to give a better effect.

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1.3 A SIMPLE MODEL OF A COMPUTER

1. Inputting/Input unit: It is the process of entering data and instruction into a computer
system. Example of input Device: Mouse, Keyboard, Scanner, light pen, joystick etc.
2. Storing/ Storage Unit: it is the process ‘of saving data and instructions to make them readily
available for initial or additional processing as and when required.
a. Primary Storage: Primary Storage of a computer system, also known as main
memory (RAM).
b. Secondary Storage: Also known as auxiliary storage. Secondary memory is where
programs and data are kept on a long-term basis. Examples are hard disk and optical
disks.
3. Processing/ Central Processing Unit (CPU): The part of a computer in which operations are
controlled and executed.
a. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): A digital electronic circuit that performs arithmetic and
bitwise logical operations on integer binary numbers.
b. Control Unit (CU): The control unit tells the computer’s memory, arithmetic/logic
unit and input and output devices how to respond to a program’s instructions.
4. Outputting/ Output Unit: It is the process of producing useful information or result for a
user. Example: Monitor, Printer, Speaker etc.

1.4 DATA PROCESSING USING A COMPUTER

The following steps show how data is processed to obtain information:
1. Analyze the given data processing task and understand what is to be done.
2. Having understood the task to be performed finds a method to do it.
3. Express the method to be followed as a step-by-step procedure which is called an algorithm.

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4. Express the algorithm using a precise notation called a programming language obtaining
what is called a computer program.
5. Input the program to be executed and store it in the memory of the computer.
6. Order the computer to start executing the program.
7. The computer interprets the program stored in its memory.
8. At the end of the program being executed, an instruction(s) will be found to write the
result(s) via the output unit. This is the processed data, that is, the information which is
required.

1.5 DESKTOP COMPUTER

The major parts of a PC are:

1. A keyboard with 26 English letters, 10 digits, several special characters such as +, -, (, etc.,
and some extra keys called control keys and 12 function keys. It is called an input unit.
2. A Video Display Unit (VDU) (also called a monitor) is similar to a TV screen. It is normally a
colour screen and is used to display text, images and video. This is called a Graphical User
Interface (GUI, pronounced Gooyee).
3. A separate box is used to accommodate the CPU, the main memory, the secondary storage
and the power supply. This box also has a number of sockets called ports to connect printer,
loudspeaker, flash memory (popularly known as pen drive), microphone, etc., and also to
connect a communication system such as a local area network or a telephone.
4. Most PCs today are called multimedia PCs as they are capable of acquiring and processing
pictures, audio, and video data besides textual and numeric data. In order to acquire and
process multimedia data, PCs are equipped with:
i) A Scanner which is used to convert pictures placed on it to digital form for storage in
the memory of the computer.
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ii) A printer which can print pictures besides text and numbers.
iii) A microphone and an audio jack to accept audio data.
iv) An electronic circuit called a sound card which is connected to the CPU motherboard
to provide audio output.
v) A pair of speakers to provide audio output obtained from the sound card of a PC.
vi) An electronic circuit called a graphics card to display pictures and video. This card is
mounted on the motherboard.
vii) A small electronic video camera external to the PC to capture images and video.
1.6 Data Storage

1.7 STORAGE CELL

Storage in computers is made using what we call storage cells. A common characteristic of all
storage cells used in today’s computers is that they can be in one of two stable states. By a stable
state we mean that the cell remains in that state unless it is intentionally disturbed.
A typical storage cell is shown in Fig. 6.2.

This is a binary cell as it can be placed in one of two stable states. The two stable states are called
the ‘1’ state and ‘0' state. In Fig. 6.2, we have shown a storage cell with four lines—an input line, an
output line, a read line, and a write line. The input line is to feed the data to be written. The data
stored in the cell appears on the output line. When data is to be written in a cell, a control signal is
placed on the write line and the corresponding data on the input line. When data in a cell is to be a

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read, a control signal is placed on the read line and the corresponding data will appear on the
output line.

1.8 PHYSICAL DEVICES USED AS STORAGE CELLS

1. Capacitor Storage Cell. A capacitance can be in two states: a state in which it is fully charged
and another in which it is fully discharged. We can call the charged state the ‘1’ state and
the discharged state ‘0' state. If a 1 is to be written in the cell, a voltage V is applied to the
input line and a write signal is applied to the Write line. The write signal closes switch S1 and
the voltage V applied to the input charges the capacitance, thereby storing 1 in it. The state
of capacitor is read by applying a signal to the Read line. This signal closes switch S2 and the
status of C is read, either charged, in which case the voltage at the output is V, or
discharged, in which case the voltage at the output is 0.

The major advantage of using a capacitor as a cell is that it is inexpensive.

2. Flip-Flop Storage Cell If a 1 is applied to input and a write signal is applied to the Write line.
S1 closes and a 1 is written in the flip-flop. The flip-flop will remain in this state storing a 1
unless it is disturbed. If a 0 is fed to input and a write signal is applied to the Write line, a 0 is
written in the flip-flop. If the data stored in the flip-flop is to be read, a read signal is applied
to the Read line which closes S2, and the data stored in the flip-flop appears on the output
line.

The major advantages of a flip-flop compared to a capacitor are:

1. It takes less time to store a bit in it compared to a capacitor storage cell.
2. The data stored is not lost with passage of time.
3. The readout from a flip-flop is non-destructive.

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The major disadvantages of a flip-flop compared to a capacitor are:

1. Flip-flops are more expensive.
2. Flip-flops occupy more space as they use four semiconductor switches.
3. When power fails the stored data is lost. They are thus volatile.

3. Magnetic Storage Cell If a 1 is to be written on the magnetic surface, a current is sent

through a coil wound on a magnetic write head. This current creates a magnetic field in the
gap in the write head. The field in the gap of the head magnetizes the surface in the same
direction as the field as shown in the figure. A right to left magnetization (<—) is taken as a
1. If a 0 is to be written, the current in the coil is sent in the opposite direction. In this case
the magnetic field in the gap is from left to right (—>), and the surface also is magnetized in
the same direction, which we call a 0. In order to write a sequence of 1s and 0s, the
magnetic surface is moved (in one direction). The direction of the current through the coil of
the write head is adjusted as needed to write a 1 or a 0. Bits are thus recorded on the
surface as shown in Fig. 6.5(b).

4. Polycarbonate Storage Cell This type of storage cell is used in what are known as laser disks
or compact disks. Wherever a 1 is to be written, the beam is turned on and burns a ‘pit’ up
to the reflective layer. Wherever a 0 is to be written, the laser beam is defocused and no
‘pit’ is burnt. A sequence of cells, each cell being a pit or no pit (no ‘pit' is called a ‘land'), are
traced along a spiral track on the surface while the disk is rotated. Reading is achieved by
rotating the disk and moving a laser beam along a track. Wherever there is a ‘land’, light
reflects from the reflective layer and no light gets reflected from a ‘pit’. The reflecting light is
sensed by an electronic light sensing device and converted to an electrical signal
representing a 0 or a 1.

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1.9 RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine
is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.

RAM is of two types:

1. Static RAM (SRAM) The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as
long as power is being supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down
due to volatile nature.
Characteristic of Static RAM
i. Long life
ii. No need to refresh
iii. Faster
iv. Used as cache memory
v. Large size
vi. Expensive
vii. High power consumption
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Unlike SRAM, DRAM must be continually refreshed in order
to maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that
rewrites the data several hundred times per second.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
i. Short data lifetime
ii. Needs to be refreshed continuously
iii. Slower as compared to SRAM
iv. Used as RAM
v. Smaller in size
vi. Less expensive
vii. Less power consumption

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Figure 6.7 depicts the block

diagram of a Random Access
Memory (RAM) which stores
4096, 8-bit words. The figure
shows a MAR which is 12 bits
long and MDR which is 8 bits
long. The memory control
circuits generate read/write
signal. Two parameters of great
interest to users are (i) the size
of the memory and (ii) the speed
of the memory.

1.10 READ ONLY MEMORY

ROM stands for Read Only Memory, the memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in
such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to
start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in
the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Various types of ROMs and their characteristics:

1. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) PROM is read-only memory that can be
modified only once by a user.
2. EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory) EPROM can be erased by
exposing it to ultra-violet light for duration of up to 40 minutes.
3. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory) EEPROM is
programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond).

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
1. Non-volatile in nature
2. Cannot be accidentally changed
3. Cheaper than RAMs
4. Easy to test
5. More reliable than RAMs
6. Static and do not require refreshing
7. Contents are always known and can be verified

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1.11 SECONDARY STORAGE

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main
memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. The contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example,
disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

1. Magnetic Disk Drives Magnetic disks are smooth metal plates coated on both sides with a
thin film of magnetic material. A set of such magnetic plates are fixed to a spindle one below
the other to make up a disk pack. The disk pack is sealed and mounted on a disk drive. The
disk drive consists of a motor to rotate the disk pack about its axis at a speed of around
7200 revolutions per second. Data is recorded on the surface of a disk by the magnetic
heads while the disks rotate about their common axis. A set of corresponding tracks on all
surfaces of a disk pack are called a cylinder. If a disk has n platters, there are 2n surfaces and
thus 2n tracks per cylinder. A track is divided into sectors. A sector is the smallest
addressable unit in a disk.

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2. Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) Polycarbonate storage cell is used in CDROM.
The drive is called a CDROM drive and the medium in which data is recorded is called
Compact Disk (CD). A CD is a circular shiny metal-like disk whose diameter is 12 cm. It can
store 700 MB which is equivalent of 3,00,000 pages of printed text. The data on a CD is
recorded as a sequence of lands and pits along spiral tracks. The data stored on CD is read
by inserting the disk in a drive. A motor in the drive rotates the disk at a speed of 360
revolutions per second. A sharply focused laser beam senses pits and lands on the surface of
the disk as the disk rotates. This is converted to 1s and 0s by an electronic interface unit.

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CD – R (Recordable) & CD-RW (Rewriteable)

In CD-R once data is written it is permanent, i.e., it cannot be erased and overwritten. CD-
RW are disks on which data can be written, erased and new data written. Manufacturers
claim that 1000 rewrites are possible. It depends on the quality of the disk. CD-RW are
mostly used to temporarily back up files.

Major applications of CDROMs are:

1. Distribution of software.
2. Distribution of large texts such as encyclopedias, big manuals, conference
proceedings, etc.
3. Distribution of multimedia files—that is, text, audio, graphics and video clips used in
education and entertainment. CDROMs used to record movies are often called Video
Cassette Disk (VCD).

3. Flash Memory A small variant of the Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only
Memory (EEPROM) is called a flash memory. Flash memories are semiconductor memories.
They use one transistor per storage cell and come in capacities ranging from 16 MB to 256
GB. They are non-volatile. They will retain data stored in them without a power source.

4. Archival Store By archival store we mean a storage device used to store data to be
preserved. Data archives are normally indexed so that they can be searched to locate
specific files which can be retrieved. They are kept in what are known as archival storage
units.
The main properties required for an archival storage unit are:
1. The medium used for storage should be removable from the drive.
2. It should be a writable store.
3. The size must be appropriate for the application-normally quite large-a few
terabytes.
4. It should not be volatile-it should retain data stored in it for a considerable time.
5. It should have long life, i.e., data in it should be readable for several years (normally
up to 30 years)

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CENTRAL PROCESSING MEMORY

1.12 STRUCTURE OF A CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

A block diagram of a
computer is given in Fig.
7.1. It is similar to the
figure shown in Chapter
1 but with some more
details added. The main
purpose of a CPU is to
retrieve instructions
from the memory,
interpret them, and
carry out the operations
specified in the
instruction. In order to
perform the operation,
it will need cooperation from the other units of a computer, namely, the input unit, the output unit,
the main memory, and the secondary memory. Thus the CPU has the ability to send control signals
to all these units (shown as dotted lines in Fig. 7.1) and “order" them to carry out the operations
required by a program.

The CPU is designed to interpret and carry out a number of operations, called its instruction set.
The instruction set consists of a variety of operations required to solve problems. A representative
set of instructions is given in Table 7.2.

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1.13 SPECIFICATIONS OF A CPU

The characteristics of CPU are based on:

1. The variety of instructions it is designed to interpret and execute.

2. The number of bits of data which are accessed from the main memory in one cycle.
3. The architecture, i.e., the internal structure of a processor.
4. Clock speed of CPU
5. Mips rating of a CPU
6. SPEC rating of a CPU.

1.14 INTERCONNECTION OF CPU WITH MEMORY AND I/O UNITS

Instructions to be executed by a CPU are retrieved from the main memory interpreted by it and
executed. CPU coordinates the execution of instructions. The CPU is connected to the main
memory by a set of parallel wires called a bus. Bits are transferred from the memory to the CPU
and back via a bus. There are two buses which connect the CPU to the memory. One is the address
bus which carries the address bits to the Memory Address Register (MAR) of memory from the CPU
and the other is called the data bus which carries the data/instructions from the CPU to the
Memory Data Register (MDR) of the memory. Besides these two buses, there is also one more bus
called the control bus which controls a large number of operations such as Read/Write from or to
the memory and also input/output operations. The number of parallel wires constituting a bus is
called the bus width. If a MAR has 24 bits (16 MB memory), the address bus width is 24. Normally
we retrieve an instruction from the memory and place it in the CPU in one memory read cycle. Thus
the size of the data bus from the memory to the CPU equals the number of bits in an instruction,
also called the CPU word length. The number of bits in the control bus depends on the signals
required to coordinate input/output units as well as the main memory. It is normally around 16.
The interconnection of CPU, memory and I/O units with buses is shown in Fig. 7.4.

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1.15 EMBEDDED PROCESSORS

Embedded processors are used for many other jobs such as washing machine control, fuel and
other controls in cars, and also to control microwave ovens. These processors have a simpler
structure and are designed to interpret and execute a small instruction set. They are also
inexpensive as they are used in consumer goods which have to be sold at competitive prices.

There are two major categories of embedded processors. One of them is called microcontroller
which is primarily used for controlling appliances such as washing machines. The other is called
digital signal processor. Digital signal processors are used to process audio and video signals and are
used in CD players, mobile phones, digital cameras, etc. These processors are called embedded
processors as they are integrated as a part of the system in which they are employed.

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SUMMARY

1. Information Technology may be defined as the technology which is used to acquire,

store, organize, and process data as well as disseminate processed data which can be
used in specified applications.
2. Information is processed data based on which decisions can be taken and actions
initiated. It also improves our knowledge which enables us to do our work better.
3. There are five types of data which are processed. They are numbers, text, images (or
pictures), audio, and video.
4. In order to process data, first the processing task is understood and a step-by-step
method (known as an algorithm) is evolved to carry out the task.
5. The algorithm is expressed more precisely using a programming language. This is called a
program.
6. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the “brain" of a computer and processes data fed to
it from the main memory.
7. The instructions that can be directly interpreted by the CPU hardware are known as
machine language instructions.
8. The processor speed is often quoted by vendors as mips (million instructions per
second).
9. A more realistic measure of the speed of processors is what is known as its SPEC rating.
SPEC is an abbreviation of System Performance Evaluation Corporation, which is a group
of professionals and processor manufacturers. This rating is based on time taken to
execute a set of what are known as benchmark programs on a processor. Higher speed
processors have higher SPEC marks.
10. There are two broad classes of processor architecture. They are called CISC (Complex
Instruction Set Computer) and RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer). RISC processors
have a simpler internal structure and are often used in faster, more expensive
computers. Intel processors used in PCs are CISC processors. The trend is to integrate
multiple processing cores in a microcomputer chip. These cores work in parallel to speed
up computing.
11. There are three broad classes of processors. One class is employed in general purpose
computers used for data processing in offices, banks and most organizations.
12. The second class of processors is used in specialized applications such as those used in
instruments, consumer goods, appliances, cars, etc. They are called microcontrollers.
Microcontrollers are used primarily in consumer goods such as washing machines and
microwave ovens.
13. The third class of processors is used in audio/video products, e.g., radio, TV and mobile
phones. They are called Digital Signal Processors (DSPs). They process real-time
continuous signals.

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UNIT 3

Software concepts: Definition, types of software: system & application software packages,
hardware & software. Data Organisation: Introduction, Organizing a Database, Structure of a
Database, Database Management System, Example of Database Design, Non-text Databases,
Archiving Databases

SOFTWARE CONCEPTS

1.1 DEFINITION

A computer cannot do anything on its own. We need to give instructions to it to make it do a job
desired by us. A sequence of instructions written in a language understood by a computer is called
a computer program. A program controls a computer’s processing activity, and the computer
performs precisely what the program wants it to do. When a computer is using a program to
perform a task, we say, it is running or executing that program. The term software refers to a set
of computer programs, procedures and associated documents (flowcharts, manuals, etc.)
describing the programs, and how they are to be used. A software package is a group of programs
that solve a specific problem or perform a specific type of job.

1.2 TYPES OF SOFTWARE

Software is mostly classified into two categories:

 System Software
 Application Software

System software: It is a set of one or more programs, which controls to the operation and or
extends the processing capability of a computer system. Commonly types of System software are-

1) Operating System: OS Software takes care of effective and efficient utilization of all
hardware and software components of a computer system.
2) Programming language Translator: PLT transform the instructions prepared by programmers
m a programming language into a form that can be interpreted and executed by a computer
system
3) Communication software: In a network environment (where multiple computers are
interconnected together by communications network) communications software enables
transfer of data and program from one computer system to another.
 Utility Programs: Utility programs (also known us utilities) are a set of programs that help
users in system maintenance tasks, and in performing tasks of routine nature. Examples of
utility software includes- Antivirus software, Disk management tools, File management
tools, Compression tools, Backup tools

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Application Software: Application software is a set of one or more programs, which solves a
specific problem, or does a specific task. Some commonly known application software are -

1) Word Processing Software: It enables us to make use of a computer lot creating, editing,
viewing, formatting, storing, retrieving, and printing documents. (Written material, such as
letters, reports, books etc.)
2) Spreadsheet Software: It is a numeric-data-analysis tool that allows us to create a kind of
computerized ledger. A manual ledger is a book having rows and columns that accountants
use tor keeping a record of financial transactions and for preparing financial statements.
3) Database Software: A database software is a set of programs that enables us to create a
database, maintain id (add, delete and update its records), organized its data in desired
information from it
4) Graphic Software: Graphic software enables us to use a computer system tor creating,
editing, viewing, storing, retrieving and printing of designs, drawings, pictures, graphs, etc.
5) Personal Assistance Software: It allows us to use personal, computers for storage and
retrieval of our personal information, as well as planning and management of our schedules
contacts, finances and inventory of import items.
6) Education Software: It allows a computer to be used as a teaching and learning tool. A few
examples of such software include those used for teaching mathematics, grammar,
language or any other subject.
7) Entertainment Software: It allows a computer to be used as an entertainment tool.
Computer video games belong to this category of software.

1.3 HARDWARE VS SOFTWARE

Sr. Key Hardware Software

No.

Type Hardware is a set of physical parts of Software is a program or

computers which actually executes set of instructions which
1 the instruction. are to be executed by
CPU to do the intended
task.

Development Hardware is manufactured in Software is developed,

2 factories. engineered by software
development companies.

Dependency Hardware cannot do any task with Software cannot execute

3 software instructing it. if underlying hardware is
not present.

4 Tangible Hardware can be touched being a Software being digital

physical electronic device. can be seen but cannot

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Sr. Key Hardware Software

No.

be touched.

Categories Hardware categories: Input Devices, Software categories:

Output Devices, Storage Devices, Programming Software,
5
Internal components of CPU and Application Software,
motherboard. Operating Systems.

Virus impact Hardware remains unaffected by Software is affected by

6 viruses. virus being primary
target.

Digital Hardware can be only physically Software can be

7
Transfer transferred. transferred electronically.

Replacement If hardware gets damaged, it is If Software gets

8
replaced with new one. damaged, it is reinstalled.

DATA ORGANISATION

1.4 INTRODUCTION
A collection of related data that is used in an application is called a database. Databases are
normally organized as a set of relations or flat files. A relation consists of a number of rows,
each row representing a record. Each record (i.e., relation row or tuple) has a number of
attributes. Each attribute has a name and a value. Each attribute with a value is called a field of
the record. A collection of relations containing all data of relevance to an organization is called
the organization’s database.

1.5 ORGANIZING A DATABASE

While designing a database, it is essential to avoid unnecessary duplication. Besides
unnecessary data entry and wasted storage, duplication also may lead to different copies of the
data having different values. The database must be organized in such a way that the required
data is retrieved conveniently and rapidly. It may be necessary sometimes to intentionally
duplicate data to speed up retrieval. To summarize, the motivation for a proper organization of
a database is to ensure that:

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1. Data is not unnecessarily duplicated.

2. All necessary data for current and foreseeable applications are included in the database.
3. Retrieval of data from the database is easy and fast.

1.6 STRUCTURE OF A DATABASE

A database is a collection of related data. It may be organized in the form of a number of tables,
each table having rows and columns. Such a table is also known as a relation or a flat file. For
example, one relation specifying data on students in a college may have a structure shown in
Table 11.1.

Each row of the table (or relation) is called a tuple or a record. A record has data on a number of
attributes describing a student. For example, in the above example, Roll no., name, degree,
subject and student's class_year are the attributes of a student. An attribute of a record is also
called a field of the record. A collection of records is a relation. A collection of relations
containing all data of relevance to an organization is called the organization's database.

The First step in designing a database is to define the Fields. The fields to be included in the
database depend on the type of information you need from the database.

Every record in a relation must have one field which uniquely identifies the record. This is called
a key field. In Table 11.1 Roll No. is the key field. It uniquely identifies each student's record.

The next step is to define the data type (e.g., numeric) of each field and its maximum length
(i.e., the number of characters to be used). Such a description of all the data fields of all
relations in a database is called a data dictionary. For example, the data dictionary
corresponding to the relation of Table 11.1 is given in Table 11.2.

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1.7 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

A DBMS assists users in carrying out the following operations:

1. Creating a database. Creating a database includes creating relations, defining the type of fields
and their range. Depending on a set of applications relevant to an organization, a set of
relations is defined, which constitutes the database of the organization.
2. Storing a database. Databases are normally stored in a hard disk which allows easy access.
While storing a database in a disk, it is necessary to be concerned with efficient storage (i.e.,
minimizing storage space) and fast retrieval when queries are asked. These tasks are carried out
by a DBMS.
3. Accessing a database. If we want to access a specified record based on its key field value, a
DBMS provides the facility to transform a key value to an address in the disk where the record is
stored.
4. Editing a database. This is the operation of changing the values of one or more fields in the
database. This is a very useful operation to correct values of fields.
5. Updating a database. Updating is normally somewhat different from editing. Editing is normally
used to correct a few records whereas updating is used to change a specified value in all
records.
6. Querying a database and obtaining relevant record or records using what is known as a
Structured Query Language (SQL). All database management systems have an associated query
language which can be used to obtain answers from the database for specified questions.

1.8 EXAMPLE OF DATABASE DESIGN

We will now create an address book database. Before we decide what fields are to be included, we
should ask: "What is the main purpose of the address book?" In other words, what are the different
ways we intend to use the address book and what kinds of queries we will ask from this database?
Normally, we will be asking the following types of queries:

1. Given the name of a person, find his/her address or phone number or email id.

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2. Find phone numbers of public utilities such as the Railways, the Airlines, BSNL, electricity
supplier, etc.
3. Find all your relatives living in a specified city.
4. Find all ladies in the address book.
5. Find all gentlemen in the address book.

We should also remember while creating the database that not everyone may have a phone or an
email id.

From the queries list we see that it would be advantageous to plan two distinct address databases:
one for personal use with names of relatives, friends, etc. and the other having address of public
utilities, shops, etc., which are for a different purpose. Let us first look at personal use database.
The fields needed arc:

1. Name
2. Street address
3. City
4. Pin code
5. Relationship
6. Sex
7. Landline phone number
8. Mobile phone number
9. Email id

A question which arises next is what should be the key field? The name looks logical but if you have
too many friends whose names are Rao or Singh, what do you do? One way of ensuring uniqueness
is to use initials, e.g., P.V. Rao, M.A.R. Rao, L.P. Singh, P.R. Singh, etc. If two Raos have the same
initials, e.g., you may know two P.V. Raos, you have to make them distinct by appending a unique
identification such as P.V. Rao Jr. and P.V. Rao Sr.

Having decided name as the key field, the next step is to see how many characters are to be
assigned to each field. For name field, normally 25 characters will suffice. If full names are used
such as PALGHAT SIVARAMAKR1SHNAN SANKARAN, then the number of characters will exceed 25.
In such cases, we normally use initials, for example, P.S. SANKARAN. For the street address, 50
characters should suffice. For city name, normally 15 characters should suffice. Pin code is 6 digits in
India. If it is a foreign address, the postal code may be alphanumeric. About 8 characters should
suffice for most places in the world. Relationship may be codified as follows:

1. Close relation (CR)

2. Distant relation (DR)
3. Close friend (CF)
4. Acquaintance (AQ)
5. Business friend (BF)
6. Business acquaintance (BA), etc.

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The landline phone number has country code, STD code (or area code), and local number. A total of
5 + 5 + 8 = 18 digits should suffice. Almost everyone has a mobile phone number. We should have a
separate field for a mobile phone number and allocate 15 digits for it: email id would require about
30 characters. Thus, finally, we have arrived at the design given in Table 11.4.

You should remember that not everyone may have email, phone or mobile phone. In such cases
you should use a standard entry. You may use all 0s for mobile phone or phone number if the
mobile or telephone number is not known (or they do not exist). If the person has no email address,
use XXXX in the email field.

Having designed the personal address database, let us now look at the address database of public
utilities. We will have the following fields: A key field specifying the particular utility, fields for
address, telephone number and email id. For example, one may use as key field an alphabetic field
which is descriptive of the utilities to be included in the database. For example, we could use the
following as key fields: AIRINDIA, JETAIR, INDIGO, TELBSNL, TELAIRTEL, TELSPICE, ELECBNG,
WATERBANG, POLICEMER, POLICEYEL, HOSPIISC, HOSPBAPT, PLUMBERMAHA, etc. Observe that
each of the keys is descriptive of the record in the database. The other fields are similar to the
personal use database. It is given in Table 11.5.

Observe also that this is a simpler relation with fewer fields. Phone numbers will be mostly local,
but we have still allocated 17 digits for some cases which may not be local. A typical relation row
(or record in the database) will be:

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If the email address is not known, then XXXX is entered as field value.

1.9 NON-TEXT DATABASES

Picture Database

Let us see how we can specify the attributes of a relation to identify pictures stored in files. The
parameters which occur to us are:

1. Name of a person in the picture.

2. The place where the picture was taken.
3. Date of the picture, namely, the day, month and year it was taken.
4. Occasion when it was taken (e.g., birthday, marriage, anniversary, prize giving
ceremony, etc.).
5. Nature of picture, e.g., family, group, business, associates, etc.
6. Property of picture, monochrome, colour.
7. Format of picture files e.g., bmp, tiff. jpeg.

The picture itself will be stored as a file, e.g., pictureXX.jpg. One way of storing the database is to
give a serial number for each picture file. The serial number can be retrieved based on a description
of picture (as specified by the retrieval query). Using this serial number the actual picture file can be
retrieved and the picture displayed.

A description of the fields is given in Table 11.6.

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Music Database

Suppose we have a collection of cassette tapes and we want to create a digital music library- of
these tapes and store it in a magnetic medium. The analog audio tapes are converted to MP3
compressed digital format for storing in a computer readable file. The audio output of an audio
cassette recorder is fed to an A/D converter of a multimedia PC which digitizes it. This digital data is
fed to a ready-made compression program which converts it to MP3 format. In order to be able to
retrieve the song, we have to specify the song. The specification used will depend on the type of
music. For example, if it is film song, one possible specification is:

1. Name of film
2. Song name
3. Solo/duet/group
4. Playback Singer
5. Music Director
6. Composer or Lyricist
7. Year of film
8. Time required to play song
9. Serial No. of song

As in the case of pictures, each song will be given a serial number. A separate database will be
created with the serial number of a song and its MP3 file. This is the content of database.

In Table 11.7 we show- the structure of the music database.

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Video Database

Video tapes can be stored on a disk using an idea similar to audio tapes. The first step is to break up
a long video into a sequence of scenes. For example, a typical Indian movie will have music scenes,
fight scenes, dance scenes, etc. We may index these scenes appropriately, digitize and store the
video which can be thought of as a sequence of video clips. A possible indexing scheme is given in
Table 11.9 for each video clip.

1.10 ARCHIVING DATABASES

Databases are important resources of any organization. With more dependence on computers to
run organizations, it is imperative to protect this resource from vandals, thieves and disasters.
Databases are protected by well-designed procedures in organizations to systematically back up
data in day-to-day use and archive old data which may be needed for legal or other important
purposes. It is also necessary for all organizations to protect their data resource from being lost in
disasters such as earthquakes and floods. Disaster recovery procedures include keeping backups in
different locations and locking up archival data in safe deposit lockers.

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UNIT – 5

Some Internet Applications: Introduction, E-mail, Information Browsing Service, The World Wide
Web, Information Retrieval from the World Wide Web, Other Facilities Provided by Browsers, Audio
on the Internet, Pictures, Animation and Video via Internet

SOME INTERNET APPLICATIONS

5.1 EMAIL

Email (electronic mail) is a way to send and receive messages across the Internet. Current email
systems provide the following facilities:

1. Send a message to a specified recipient or a group of recipients.

2. Send a message that includes as an attachment text, spread sheet, power point
presentations, audio, images, or video file.
3. Send a message along with a program which can be executed at the recipients' computer.
4. Forward a message received from a person to another person or persons.

To send or receive emails, you will need an email account and an email address. Email addresses
are always written in a standard format that includes a user name, the ‘@’ (at) symbol, and the
email provider's domain.

Email example: john_cashh@gmail.com

The user name is the name you choose to identify yourself. E.g. john_cashh is the username

The email provider is the website that hosts your email account. E.g. gmail.com is the email
provider. Some common email providers are: gmail, yahoo, hotmail, outlook etc.

5.2 INFORMATION BROWSING SERVICE - WEB BROWSERS

A web browser is an application program that runs on a user's computer called a client. It is used to
access, retrieve and present information available in the World Wide Web. The most popular
browsers are the Internet Explorer of Microsoft. Google's Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, and
Safari bundled with Apple computer.

5.3 THE WORLD WIDE WEB

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British computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee is the inventor of the Web. The World Wide Web (www,
W3) is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by URIs,
interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. It has become known simply as
the Web. Hypertext documents are commonly called web pages, which are primarily text
documents formatted and annotated with the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). Webpages may
contain links to images, video, and software components that are rendered to users of a web
browser application, running on the user’s computer, as coherent pages of multimedia content.
Embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. When multiple web pages are
published with a common theme or within a common domain name, the collection is usually called
a web site. A web page in the World Wide Web is accessed by specifying what is called a Universal
Resource Locator (URL)

5.5 INFORMATION RETRIEVAL FROM THE WORLD WIDE WEB

Currently, the most popular method of retrieving documents from the World Wide Web is to use
what are known as search engines. Four popular search engines are:

1. Google.com Google allows you to write a request for information in normal language. For
example, if you want to gather information on the seventeenth century history of India, you
can just type it in the Google's search box. The search engine will retrieve ALL web pages
where any one of these words, seventeenth, century, history, India, appears.
2. Altavista.com AltaVista search engine is similar to Google except that it allows Boolean
Operators of AND, OR, NOT, and also an operator called NEAR which is not really a binary
operator. It uses a closeness index to retrieve documents similar to the ones you specify.
3. Ask.com Ask.com search engine answers queries of the type: What is the capital of Serbia?
It expects similar queries.
4. Bing.com Bing is a search engine developed by Microsoft. It provides a standard web search,
as well as specialized searches for images, videos, shopping, news, maps, and other
categories.

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5.6 OTHER FACILITIES PROVIDED BY BROWSERS

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The most important services are:

1. ftp—a program to transfer files from any computer connected to the Internet, provided free
access to the file is allowed.
When you transfer a file from a server to your computer, it is called downloading a file. On
the other hand, if you send a file from your computer to another computer connected to
the network, you are said to upload a file. Ftp is an application that allows you to access any
computer connected to the Internet and download file(s) from it.

2. Telnet—a program that allows you to log in to a remote computer connected to a network
from your desktop or mobile computer provided, of course, you have access privileges.
3. Email—sending/receiving mail on your client. Google's free email service is gmail which
gives to its users a large mailbox which can store 15 GB. You can send up to 25 MB in
attachments. If your file is greater than 25 MB, Gmail automatically adds a Google Drive link
in the email instead of including it as an attachment. Currently, emails allow attachments
which could be images, audio, video, ppts., programs, spreadsheets, etc. SMTP is not
appropriate for this. Thus a new protocol called MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail
Extension) has been standardized.
4. Other services called web services.

5.7 AUDIO ON THE INTERNET

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In order to send audio (i.e. sound) from one computer to another computer connected to the
Internet, we need the following:

1. Sound cards on both the computers. A sound card has the electronic circuit to convert
continuously varying audio signals to bits. This is called A/D conversion. It can also convert
digital data received to audio. This is called D/A conversion.
2. Microphone and loudspeakers. Often a microphone is built into the chassis of the computer.
Else a small microphone which you can clip on to your dress is needed.
3. Software for compression/decompression. If you want to send/receive MP3 compressed
audio.
4. Software called plug-ins to your browser. Popular plug-ins are: Real Network Player, MS
Windows media player and Apple Quick Time.

There are four different applications we describe below:

1. Voice attachment to email. Voice attachment to email is sending and receiving audio
messages between a sender and a receiver.
2. Downloading audio, for example, music files from a music server to your PC.
3. Listening to a radio broadcast using the Internet. Many Internet radio stations are now
operating.
4. Carrying on a conversation with another person whose PC is connected to the Internet. This
is called Internet telephony or IP telephony.

5.8 PICTURES

If we have a low resolution colour photo and scan at 300 lines/inch and 300 pixels/inch, a 6" x 4"
colour photo will require 300 x 300 x 6 x 4 x 3 bytes = 6.48 MB, assuming we use 3 bytes to store
each pixel in colour. We should compress this if we want to transmit it on the Internet. Using jpeg
and aiming for moderate quality, we can compress a picture by a factor of 64. Thus the number of
bits to be transmitted is:

(6.48/64) MB = 101.25 KB = 810 kbits

Time taken to receive the photo on your home PC with 50 kbps ISP connection = 810/50 = 16.2
seconds, which is reasonable. If a higher quality picture is to be sent, the size will be 2430 kbits and
time taken will be 48.6 seconds, which is still acceptable. Thus sending pictures using the Internet
with a dial-up telephone connection is quite feasible. If you have a broadband connection with 200
kbps bandwidth, the time will be reduced to 12.15 seconds.

5.9 DOWNLOADING VIDEO

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When you download video from a video server, it is stored in your disk. TCP/IP protocol is used as
the video will not be viewed in real time.

Let us calculate the storage and time required to download video. Assuming (640 x 480) pixels
resolution, 24-bit colour and 30 frames per second, the storage required for 1 hour video is 640 x
480 x 3 x 30 x 60 x 60 = 99.55 GB. This is very large. If we compress it for medium quality using
MPEG4 compression, a 60-fold compression is possible. In this case, the storage required is
approximately 1.66 GB. If we have a 250 kbps "broadband" connection, the time taken to download
this video is (1.66 x 8 x 109)/(250 x 103 x 60 x 60) = 14.75 hours.

Video Streaming

Downloading video is slow. The video is stored in your hard disk. It is assumed that you are not
violating any copyright and you are allowed to download and make copies if you desire.

Streaming of video is different in the following respects compared to downloading:

1. You view the video in real time. In other words, you continuously view the video while it is
played from the video server. Video normally starts a few seconds after you log on to the
server.
2. Video may not be perfect. You may miss some frames. It may stop and resume if the
bandwidth suddenly reduces (which often happens in the Internet).
3. After the streaming video is played, no copy will be left in your computer as small portions
of the video are stored temporarily in a buffer and played from it. Thus there is no copyright
violation.
4. Without a broadband connection (i.e., connection with bandwidth of at least 250 kbps)
streaming will be very poor. If you are satisfied with a very small frame size (6 cm x 8 cm),
streaming may be done using a dial-up modem connection (56.6 kbps).

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SUMMARY

1. For sending/receiving email, you need an email account with an Internet Service Provider
(ISP) who will give you an email id, a password, and an email address. Using a mailing
application program in your PC, you can connect to the ISP and send/receive email from
anyone who has an email address.
2. Hypertext is a method of organizing a collection of textual data in such a way that they are
linked by specified keywords.
3. In hypertext-based search if a keyword is selected, it allows you to retrieve all texts which
are linked to this keyword.
4. World Wide Web (WWW) is an application program which uses the Internet infrastructure
to organize and link hypertext called web pages.
5. The World Wide Web consists of:
i) Documents called web pages in which keywords are marked and linked to other web
pages. A language called Hypertext Markup Language (html) is used to describe web
pages.
ii) Websites maintained by organizations or individuals and stored in servers. Each
website hosts a collection of related web pages.
iii) A protocol called Hypertext Transfer Protocol (http) for accessing hypertext data
from remote computers.
iv) A unique address for each website called Uniform Resource Locator (URL). URL
consists of www followed by the domain name of the server hosting the website and
a path name to the requested page in the website.
6. A program called a browser allows you to view the contents of specified URLs. Browsers
have very good graphical user interface to simplify retrieval of information available in the
World Wide Web.
7. Tools called search engines are available to search for information on the World Wide Web.
An expression consisting of keywords of interest to you is used to specify to the search
engine your information requirement. Search engines have many features to assist you in
your search.
8. There are numerous search engines such as Google, Bing. Yahoo, and Ask. There are also
meta-search engines which combine search results provided by several search engines.
9. Speech files use much less bandwidth and are smaller files. They can be attached to email
using software called MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension).
10. Images files are normally sent on the Internet using jpeg compression. File sizes are small
and it is feasible to download them on your home PCs connected to the Internet using a
telephone line.

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Societal Impacts of Information Technology: Introduction, Privacy, Security and Integrity of

Information, Disaster Recovery, Intellectual Property Rights, Careers in Information Technology

SOCIETAL IMPACTS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

5.10 PRIVACY, SECURITY AND INTEGRITY OF INFORMATION

By privacy we mean providing confidentiality to your personal data. For example, you may not like
your medical history to be made public or your personal correspondence with friends to be leaked
out. You may not also like everyone to know which websites you visit often and what are your
private buying preferences. All the above data should be kept confidential. Unfortunately, in the
Internet age, it is very easy for unscrupulous persons who are bent upon using your personal
information to gain access to it. Thus, privacy laws are required to protect your personal data from
being used without your written consent. Many countries are enacting such laws. India does not
have a law which explicitly protects privacy.

By security we mean protecting your data and programs against accidental or intentional
destruction or disclosure by unscrupulous persons. You should take proper precautions to prevent
theft or corruption of data such as your password, and in case you do lose data, you should be able
to recover it.

Information integrity is concerned with the information provided to you being complete,
trustworthy, timely, being up to date, and relevant. In other words, it is concerned with the quality
of information and not with its privacy or safety. If the input data is corrupted or there is an
undetected error in the processing rules, or there is tampering of processed data, there is a loss of
integrity in the information. As this information is used to take decisions and initiate actions, it is
extremely important to ensure its integrity.

18.3.1 Computer Security

If you are using a computer at home or in the office, you should take special precautions to protect
your password and files from being stolen or corrupted. It is advisable to use the following rules to
create a password:

1. Do not use a short password. Use at least 8 characters in the password.

2. Use at least one special character and some digits in the password.
3. Use a set of random characters.
4. Change your password at least once a month.

An example of a secure password is: rj;42mn$.

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Another serious danger all computer users face today are malware (i.e., programs with malicious
intent). Malware get attached to emails you receive, or gets into your computer with a file you
download from a website, or via a CD or a pen drive you borrow from friends (who themselves are
often not aware that their CD or pen drive has a malicious program or a corrupted file). Such
malicious programs or malware are known as:

1. Virus
2. Worm
3. Trojan

Virus: A computer virus is a small program which is written with the intention of affecting badly
the working of your computer. It may erase tiles, corrupt files, display nasty messages, slow down
your computer, or fill up your disk space with unwanted or unknown files. The reason such a
program is called a virus is that it can attach itself to a useful program without your knowledge and
replicate itself. Viruses are spread via the attachments to email that you receive or through a
program which you may download from the web. It may spread from your computer to another
computer through a CD or a pen drive which hosts the infected program or file and is copied by the
borrower.

Worm: A worm is also a malicious program and has the characteristics of a virus. It spreads to other
computers using the network. It can thus spread very fast using the Internet. It uses the
vulnerabilities in an operating system to infect a computer. It is worse than a virus as it is more
sophisticated in three ways: (i) it is harder to detect and erase, (ii) it tries to steal data from your
disk, and (iii) it sends a message such as “I lost my passport and am stranded. Please send me
money” to all the addresses in your email address book.

Trojan:A Trojan comes into your system disguised as a useful application program but turns out to
be malicious in intent. When opened, the Trojan starts executing and tries to destroy your files, file
allocation table in the hard disk, and even the disk system itself by repeatedly moving the disk head
to cause damage. Trojans allow hackers to gain control of your whole system and steal confidential
information. The name ‘Trojan' comes from Trojan War in which Greeks hid soldiers in a huge
wooden horse they sent to Troy. These soldiers came out of the horse and opened the gates of Troy
to let in their army who captured Troy.

How Do You Know That You Are Infected?

First, you should know that a virus has infected your computer. You should suspect a virus infection
if:

1. Some word files or spreadsheet files get corrupted or unreadable.

2. Free space in the disk and/or the main memory suddenly starts reducing for no obvious
reason.
3. Strange messages start appearing on your screen.
4. You hear strange sounds and unusual pictures appear on your monitor.

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5. Your computer hangs frequently.

6. Your computer suddenly slows down while doing normal jobs.
7. Unknown files appear in your directory.
8. Some of your files get duplicated without your knowledge.
9. You cannot connect to the Internet for no obvious reason.

Preventing Malware Attacks

The rules you should follow to protect you from malware attacks are:

1. Do not open an email attachment if it is from a stranger.

2. Look for suspicious subject lines such as "I love you'’, "This is a very important mail—open
it", "Hi. I need your advice", etc.
3. There are programs called antivirus programs such as Norton antivirus, McAfee antivirus
and K7 antivirus. This software will normally detect and remove the virus. To protect you
from worms, use software called a firewall.
4. Download it and keep your antivirus software up to date.
5. Many viruses, if you are infected, spread to persons in your email address book. Keep your
address book short.
6. Update your OS as soon as you receive such an update. If you have a pirated copy of an OS,
you will not get updates and your system will be vulnerable to worm attacks.
7. To prevent viruses infecting your computer when you want to download any file from the
web, instruct your antivirus software to scan it before downloading.
8. Some commonly used application programs are notorious for allowing viruses to invade
your system. Some of the application programs which are culprits in allowing viruses are:
a. Microsoft Outlook Express for email
b. Microsoft Excel and Word
Use legal copies and keep them updated.
9. Periodically back up all your files to a pen drive. If a virus infects your system, you can delete
the infected file and copy your old files from the pen drive.

Recovering from Malware Attacks

1. Delete suspected emails and attachments.

2. Delete any suspected files.
3. Scan with a virus scanner to detect and delete or isolate the infected file.

5.11 DISASTER RECOVERY

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Organizations are becoming extremely dependent on computers to run their businesses. Paper
documents are slowly disappearing. All crucial data are stored in on-line disks and are readily
available. Thus, any serious disruption of the operation of a computer system will lead to enormous
losses. Some businesses may face closure if the disruption is not set right within a day or two.
Imagine our railway reservation system becoming non-operational for 2 days!

A disaster can be defined as an unforeseen event which causes a total failure of the computer
systems in an organization. Disasters can be due to acts of God like floods and earthquake or man-
made such as fire, terrorist attack, or a concerted attack by vandals (often called hackers)
corrupting suddenly all files. If any disaster strikes an organization, it must have a business recovery
and continuity plan which they should implement immediately. A recovery plan should enable the
organization to restart critical business functions without significant interruption. The most
important aspect of such a plan is to have a single point backup of all crucial databases, software
and that day's transactions so that operations can be restarted. The kind of backup methods used
will vary, depending on how important it is to restart the business without break and assessment of
risk. At one extreme is a major fire which wipes out all the computers in the organization and at the
other end a serious corruption of files due to sabotage/ virus attacks, disk failure, etc. If a business
is a large one which cannot tolerate any disruption (such as a major bank), they may decide to have
a duplicate server in a different location which is connected to the machine at the main office and
which duplicates instantaneously all transactions. Thus business can be restarted with very little
delay. If it is a small business and cannot afford the expense of 100% duplication, they should have
a backup of all files till the previous day in a different location and up-to-date backup of all
transactions of a day in the operational site. If there is a major disaster, they would lose only one
day’s transaction and in minor disruption, only a few most recent transactions.

Individuals should not be careless. If you have a computer in your office or home, it is wise to back
up the main disk storage in CDROMs once a week and any important work you did during the day in
either a pen drive or a CDROM.

5.12 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

Intellectual property rights (IPRs) are the rights which accrue to an individual or an organization for
a creative work. The types of creative works recognized by governments of various countries
include trademarks, new gadgets (an example often cited is “a better mousetrap"), new designs,
works of art such as music, movies, cartoons, paintings, books (both fiction and non-fiction),
computer programs, firmware, new medicines, new plant varieties (created in the laboratory by
genetic engineers), etc. Broadly these fall into three classes:

1. Books, computer software, music, etc., which are governed by copyright laws.
2. New gadgets, new processor chips, firmware, medicines, etc., which are governed by patent
laws.

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3. Trademarks, brand identity, industrial designs, etc., governed by trademark laws.

Copyright

Copyright is the IPR provided by governments to authors of original works including literary,
musical works, movies, art, computer programs, web pages, and similar creative works and
governed by international agreements. The protection is available to authors of these works.
Normally the sign © is used in printed works to indicate that they are copyrighted. One copy of the
work may be filed in the Copyright office as evidence to establish the rights of the author. Copyright
protection is normally available for 60 years from the date of creation. The copyright provides the
following rights to the author:

1. To prepare a derivative work based on the original work.

2. Give a performance based on the work if it is a drama.
3. Exhibit the work if it is a work of art.
4. Translate the work to any language.
5. To make a movie based on the work.

No one else can violate any of the above rights of the copyright holder without a written permission
given by him/her. Willful violation of copyright is a criminal offence and the offender may be sent to
jail or fined or both.

There are some exemptions given in copyright law to allow the so-called "fair use” of the
copyrighted material. These provisions are included to promote education and encourage scholarly
work. Fair use includes:

1. Criticizing or reviewing a work by quoting portions of it.

2. Distributing copies of portions of the work in a class to teach students.
3. Doing research using it or quoting portions of it in an article giving due credit.
4. Using it for public good by non-profit making organizations or governments.

The interpretation of "public good" is somewhat subjective. The general intention is to provide
authors with reasonable rights. A balance is to be struck between public good and private gain.

The following are clearly violations of copyright law:

1. Copying parts of several web pages, cut and paste, and give it as your article or term paper.
Copying portions of several books and creating a "new" book.
2. Copying verbatim substantial portions of a book, adding a little bit of your own work and
publishing it as your own. This is called plagiarism.
3. Making several Xerox copies of a book and selling them.
4. Xeroxing an entire book borrowed from a library cover to cover even for your personal use.
5. Borrowing a music CD or a movie CD from a friend/store and making a copy. Such violations
of copyright are known as audio/video piracy.

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Software Copyright

Most computer software which is licensed for use by vendors is protected by copyright. You are
allowed to make a copy as a backup for your use in case the software gets corrupted. You are not
allowed to distribute it or allow anyone to copy it from you. Software such as MS Windows and MS
Office has a licensing policy which restricts use on one computer only.

Some software developers feel strongly that intellectual creations such as software should be freely
made available to all. Thus they place the source code of their programs in the World Wide Web for
anyone to download and use. This is called public domain software or Free Open Source Software
(FOSS). It is legal to use public domain software in some products you make and sell provided you
give due credit to the original developer(s). Widely used public domain software includes:

1. Linux operating system for PCs and other computers. Linux is free, it has fewer hugs
compared to Windows OS, and is not normally attacked by viruses as it has better security. A
version of Linux called Ubuntu is now widely used as it has a good user interface and drivers
are available for most peripheral devices for Ubuntu.
2. Open Office software is similar to MS Office. It is a set of programs for word processing,
spreadsheet, database, etc. It is also gaining many users.

5.13 CAREERS IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

We can broadly divide the career opportunities into four areas:

1. Use of IT in daily work.

2. Specialized applications of IT and careers which are emerging to provide services using these
applications. They are called IT enabled services industry.
3. IT professionals who provide software services such as testing programs and developing
sophisticated applications software and software products.
4. IT professionals who maintain both the hardware and the software of customers and sell
systems and upgrades.

Users of Information Technology

Computers are being installed and used everywhere—all offices, banks, shops, courts, etc. use
computers. Employees such as clerks in offices, stenographers, all managers, bank employees will
have to use computers in their work.

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Besides non-technical persons, other professionals such as engineers, doctors, lawyers, and
accountants also must have good knowledge of applying IT effectively in their respective disciplines.
Musicians and composers use computers with MIDI interface to synthesize music and experiment
with tunes. Authors find word processors invaluable and artists use paintbrush software to assess
various patterns and colours. Thus today all educated persons must have a working knowledge of
IT.

IT Enabled Services and Careers

1. Printing and publishing

2. Music production
3. Photo studios
4. Movie production
5. Computer games designers
6. Call centre operators
7. Medical transcription
8. Developers of computer-based lessons
9. Multimedia presentations

Careers for IT Professionals

By IT professionals we mean persons who are directly employed in developing software, managing
computer systems, maintaining computers and networks, designing computers, etc. They are
normally computer professionals with B.E. degree in Computer Science or IT or MCA degrees. We
will now list some of the major job designations and explain what they do.

Systems Analysts: They find out from organizations their requirements in IT and prepare a System
Requirements Specification document, perform feasibility study, develop high level design of a
system and prepare a plan to test the system. They also estimate resources required to develop the
system, time and cost estimates. Their role is similar to that of an architect in building construction.

Programmers: There are two types of programmers: systems programmers and applications
programmers. Systems programmers write programs such as Operating System tools, language
compilers, utility programs, and various software products. Application programmers write
primarily data processing programs for organizations such as inventory control programs,
accounting programs, and examination results processing, etc. Programmers also write programs
for many of the IT enabled services. They test programs and maintain/improve programs.

Embedded System Designers: These designers write programs in low level languages (assembly
language) for microprocessors which control appliances of various types. They should normally be
electronics engineers with good programming knowledge.

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VLSI Designers: Electronic engineers with knowledge of semiconductors and a programming

language such as C++. They create programming tools for designing Very Large Scale Integrated
(VLSI) circuits. They also design VLSI circuits using commercially available design tools.

DSP Programmers: These programmers write special programs for Digital Signal Processors which
are used in many consumer items such as cell phones and audio systems. They have both
programming and electronic engineering knowledge.

Network Professionals: These professionals maintain computer networks in organizations. They

assist in designing networks, programming and system administration.

Quality Assurance Professionals: These professionals design procedures for systems development,
programming standards, test suite preparations, testing systems and. in general, ensure that the
quality of the systems used in organizations is good.

Apart from the above, there are many support functions which may not require professional
computer qualification but a good knowledge of IT such as that provided by diplomas or BCA
courses.

Sales: Promote both hardware and software sales.

Customer Support: Support staff installs hardware and software and attend to minor problems.
Many companies provide support through call centers which have professionals to solve users*
problems.

HRD Professionals: These professionals assist in selecting persons for companies and plan career
path.

Trainers: Two levels of training are normally required: One is low level such as that provided by
training companies. These are computer awareness, use of office software, etc. Higher level
education is provided by colleges leading to degrees. They are normally B.E., MCA, M.E. or PhD
degree holders who teach courses and guide student projects.

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