Genetically Modified

Organisms (GMOs) , Gene

therapy and
Nanotechnology.
 LEARNING OUTCOMES :

At the end of this section, the students should be able to :

1. Identify the uses and effects of GMOs and gene therapy on society , particularly in the context of
health and economy ; and
2. Discuss the moral and bioethical questions concerning genetic engineering.
 GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are products of artificial manipulation and alteration of a species’
genetic material in a laboratory using genetic engineering. Plant, animal, bacteria, and virus genes may be
combined or may be crossbred to produce another kind of species that do not naturally occur in the
environment.

One of the most controversial issues in science and technology is the introduction of genetically modified
seeds in the agriculture sector that resulted in increased crop yield. New technologies are used to
artificially develop traits in plants, such as resistance to browning and pests. With the aim to improve
harvest and the agriculture sector as a whole, humans seem to be disinterested in preserving genetic
diversity the natural way.

Increased crop yield , pest resistance, and other of GMOs are indeed advantageous , yet there are also
disadvantages that need to be addressed comprehensively. In addition, the growing concern with how
GMOs may affect consumers health and the environment needs to be addressed.
Genetic Engineering, usually associated with recombinant DNA technology, is founded on the work of
many scientists over the years. In 1953, the discovery of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick opened
the gates for the countless possibilities of genetic engineering. In 1973, Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen
were the first scientists to genetically modify an organism by combining genes from two different E. coli.

In 1982, the US Supreme Court ruled to allow the patenting of GMOs. This ruling allowed the Exxon oil
company to start using a microorganism that can consume oil. In 1982, the Food and Drug Administration
approved the first GMO- Humulin , a type of insulin produced using genetically engineered E.coli bacteria
to be available in the market.

In 1993, FDA approved bovine somatotropin (bST), a metabolic protein hormone used to increase milk
production in dairy cows for commercial use.

In 1994, FDA approved the Flavr Savr tomato for sale on grocery stores. This kind of tomato has a delayed
-ripening effect that gives a longer shelf life compared with natural tomatoes.

In 1995, Bt Potatoes and Corn, and Roundup Ready Soybeans were approved safe by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA).
In 1996, weeds resistant to glyphosate, the herbicide used for many GMO crops, were detected in
Australia. Research shows that the super weeds are 7 to 11 times more resistant to glyphosate than the
standard susceptible population. In the same year , Dolly, the first cloned animal, was born.

In 1997, the European Union ruled in favor of mandatory labeling on all GMO food products, including
animal feed.

In 1998, a genetically modified papaya in Hawaii was found to be resistant to the Ringspot virus and
produced the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin, an insecticide that is not harmful to humans. Starting 1999, over
100 million acres worldwide are planted with genetically engineered seeds.

In 2000, golden rice was developed in the Philippines to address Vitamin A deficiency, which is a public
health issue in Asian countries where rice is a staple food corp. Golden Rice is a variety (Oryza sativa)
genetically modified to biosynthesize beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, in the edible parts of rice.
Additional three beta-carotene synthesized genes differentiate the golden rice from its parental strain. The
introduction of golden rice was opposed by environmental and anti-globalization advocates because this
GMO was thought to compromise food production , nutrition and financial security.
In 2003, a Bt-toxin resistant caterpillar-cum-moth, Helicoverpa zea, was found feasting on GMO Bt cotton
crops in the southern US. In 2006, Yorkshire pigs were genetically modified to produce offspring that
produce the enzyme phytase in their saliva to digest plant phosphorus, unlike that of normal pigs.

In 2011, a research in Eastern Quebec found Bt toxin in the blood of pregnant women and showed
evidence that the toxin could be passed on the babies. In 2012, french farmer Paul Francois sued
Monsanto for chemical poisoning that he claimed was caused by the pesticide Lasso, which was part of the
Roundup Ready line of products. He won the case.

As early as 2013, corn and poplars were genetically modified and used to produce biofuel, which is
regarded as an efficient substitute for petroleum products.

In 2014, the patent on the roundup ready line of genetically modified seeds ended. Numerous GMOs are
produced all over the world. Those mentioned here involved mutation. Science agrees that the majority of
mutations attempted on a species have the probability to fail miserably, and the individual plant / animal
would not survive. (Mayr, 2007)
To date , the production and consumption of GMOS are being argued upon due to their safety alongside
the right of humans to modify naturally occurring organisms. New organisms created using genetic
engineering can pose ecological issues because the long-term effects of genetic engineering to the
environment is uncertain. GMOs may cause imbalance in the ecology of a region just as what exotic species
fo. An accident in genetically engineering a virus or bacteria, for example, could result in super bacteria
that display antimicrobial resistance, which may cause a serious epidemic when released.
 GENE THERAPY
Gene therapy is the method of inserting genes or nucleic acid into cells as a drug to treat genetic diseases.
In 1972, Theodore Friedman and Richard Roblin proposed that people with genetic disorders can be
treated by replacing defective DNA with good DNA.
In 1985, Dr. W. French Anderson and Dr. Michael Blase worked together to show that cells of patients with
Adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency can be corrected in tissue culture. In 1990, the first approved gene
therapy clinical research took place at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) under the team of Dr.
Anderson. It was conducted on a four year old girl who had ADA deficiency. In 1993, the first somatic
treatment that produced a permanent genetic change was performed. The first commercial gene therapy
Gendicine was approved in China in 2003 for the treatment of certain cancers. Due to some clinical
successes since 2006, gene therapy gained greater attention from researchers but was still considered as an
experimental technique.
In 2016, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency
(EMA) endorsed the gene therapy treatment Strimvelis that was approved by the European Commission in
June 2018.
Some studies transplanted genes to speed up the destruction of cancer cells. Gene or cell therapies have
emerged as realistic prospects for the treatment of cancer, and involve the delivery of genetic information
to a tumor to facilitate the production of therapeutic proteins. This area of gene therapy still needs further
studies before an efficient and safe gene therapy procedure is adopted (Gene Revolution:Issues and
Impacts, Wirth et al, 2013).
 Ethical Issues in Genetic Engineering

Various concerns on genetic engineering arise, making gene therapy and GMOs very controversial
innovations in science and technology. Others support that it is unethical for humans to have a hand in
genetically altering and engineering organisms. There are instances when genetic engineering have caused
severe repercussions to public health. Until today, cloning is still unacceptable to many for it violates the
belief that only a higher being should be responsible for the existence of organisms on earth. There are also
ethical and moral issues on stem cell therapy as it makes use of stem cells sourced from human embryos
and thus destroys them.

These concerns regarding genetic engineering and gene therapy are rooted in the question of whether or
not humans are playing gods in the alteration of genes of organisms.

Genetic engineering also poses problems in agriculture. Hence there is a need to study the ecological
processes applied to agricultural production systems. Agroecology is a field of study that presents novel
management approaches on farming systems that may help address concerns regarding the effect of GMOs
on biodiversity and the health of the consumers.
 NANOTECHNOLOGY

Nanotechnology is the branch of technology that deals with the manipulation and study of matter at the
nanoscale. It covers all types of research and technologies that deal with the special properties of matter
on an atomic molecular and supramolecular scale. Scientists in the field of chemistry, biology , physics ,
materials science and engineering are all involved in studying matter on the nanoscale.

Nanotechnology is convergent because it brings together various fields of science through its innovations,
e.g DNA, silicon chips, converging between semiconductor science (inorganic chemistry) and biology, with
applications in the medical industry. It also involves design, characterization, production and application of
structures, devices and systems by controlling shapes and sizes at the nanometer scale. This technology is
enabling in the sense that it provides the platform and the tools to produce innovations.

To decipher how nanotechnology works, three dimensions must be considered. The 1st dimension involves
tangible objects which include materials, devices and systems. The second dimension deals with the
passive and static objects i.e, nanoparticles that have properties different bulk objects, even if they have
the same composition. The active devices, i.e., those that can store information, induce energy , or change
their state; and the nanofacture, which refers to atomically precise manufacturing (APM).
The third dimension is direct nanotechnology which refers to materials structured at nanoscale
components. This also extends to indirect nanotechnology, which starts with nanoparticles but can be used
in huge applications i.e, hugely powerful information processors with individual nanoscale components.

APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

With scientists and engineers continuously finding ways to make materials at the nanoscale, more and
more users of nanotechnology arise.
In medicine, nanotechnology has numerous applications in the development of more effective drugs.
Assisted by the view of molecules afforded by x-ray lasers, biological mechanisms can be simulated to
destroy cancer cells while it is treated by drug-bearing nanoparticles. Nanobots , or molecular scale
workers can employ molecular processes within cells, which can deliver drugs to specific molecular sites or
even carry out surgery (Biercuk, 2011). It is now possible to diagnose prevalent contagious diseases like
HIV/AIDS, malaria , tuberculosis, among others, with screening devices using Nanotechnology (Macluran
2005).
Water purification systems containing nanomaterials and utilizing new membrane technologies containing
variable pore-sized filters (i.e, the forward-osmosis membrane technology of Hydration Technologies) are
now available (Jadhawar, 2004). Nanoparticles are also used to prepare heat-resistant and self cleaning
surfaces, such as floors and benchtops.
Nanoparticles of silicon dioxide or titanium dioxide can also make a surface repel water, thus preventing
stains. Detergent molecules self-assemble into a sphere to form a micelle that allows the detergent to trap
oils and fats within the cavity of the sphere that aids in washing surfaces. Zeolites are silicon oxides and
aluminum oxides that have specific nanoporous cage-like structures that are used as molecular sieves.
In agriculture, novel techniques of nanotechnology applications are applied to breed crops with higher
levels of micronutrients to detect pests and to control food processing (Heckman, 2005). Ultrasmall probes
on earth surfaces for agricultural applications and control of soil , air and water contamination are also
developed using nanotechnology.

A simple , cheap and effective way of removing arsenic in soil and water is through the use of TiO2
nanoparticles. A nanotechnology inspired detector from Washington , which can sense the smallest
amount of radiation , located a nuclear leak faster and more accurately at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear
Power plant.
Bionanotechnology can support cleaner production methods and provide alternative and renewable
energy sources to enhance the sustainability of factories. Nanotechnology helps in energy consumption like
in the use of graphene into a coating material resulting in the need for only one layer, which does not
require a multifunctional film coating.

In the Philippines, nanotechnology can be applied in making sources of renewable energy accessible to
many, developing medicine that would address serious diseases, improving the state agriculture, and more.
There are also existing and ongoing research studies funded by the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST) on the possible application of technology, as well on Nano-Metrology and Education and public
awareness.
 Challenges of Nanotechnology

The advantages brought by innovations in nanotechnology come with a price. With rapid developments in
nanotechnology, its adverse effects become more visible. The environmental effect of mineral-based
nanoparticles found in cosmetics, paints, clothing and other products are questioned as they go through
sewerage treatment plants untreated due to their undetectable inorganic and organic pollutants. Thus,
these may affect water source (Biercuk, 2011). For instance, in the 1980s , a semiconductor plant
contaminated the groundwater in Silicon Valley, California.
Carbon nanotubes used in the manufacture of memory storage, electronics , batteries , etc were found to
have unknown harmful effects to the human body by inhalation into lungs comparable to asbestos fiber 11.
A pulmonary toxicological evaluation of single-wall carbon nanotubes indicated that it is more toxic than
carbon black and quartz.

Due to its size, a nanoparticle is not easy to analyze. Lack of information and methods of characterizing
nanomaterials makes it a challenge to detect its concentration in air or in any matrix of the environment.
Predicting the toxicity of a nanomaterial relies heavily on information about its chemical structure since
minor changes in its chemical function group could drastically change its properties. Point-to-point risk
assessment at all stages of nanotechnology should then be conducted to ensure the safety to human
health and environment. Risk assessment should include the exposure risk and its probability of exposure ,
toxicological analysis, transport risk, persistence risk, transformation risk, and ability to recycle. This is
which is quite expensive due to the difficulty of detecting nanoparticles.
 Ethical Dilemmas of Nanotechnology

With the identified potential hazards that nanoparticles can bring to human health and the environment,
should people disregard the benefits that nanotechnology provide them?

Issues raised regarding nanotechnology should be further studied, and nanotechnology methods should be
modified. For example, altering the composition of graphene, known to be one of the most advanced
materials for structural improvement, replacing silicon in electronic devices, and thermal transferring
nanomaterials can be done to diminish environmental hazards of nanotechnology. Some studies also found
microorganisms that can decompose graphene to make it less toxic for the environment.

It is imperative , therefore, that experts and governments support themselves with enough knowledge on
how nanomaterials work for the benefit of society.