111Equation Chapter 1 Section 1Vectors and Scalars

Definition:Vector is a quantity having both magnitude and direction,such as weight,

displacement, velocity, force and acceleration. P

Graphically a vector is represented by an arrow OP defining the direction, or by directed line

segment, the magnitude of the vector being indicated by the length of the arrow. The tail end of
the arrow O is called the origin or initial point of the vector, and the head P is called the terminal
point or terminus.

Thus or is the vector and its magnitude .

OP, and its magnitude as

The vector OP also indicated as

The direction is very important for the vectors, for example if we said the velocity of two cars is

30 km/h and 50 km/h,and we asked when these two cars meet? There is no answer without we

know their directions.

Another definition: We want to define the concept of a vector in such a way that the package

contains information about direction and magnitude. One way to do this, to define a vector (for

example in 3-dimentional space) as an ordered triple of real numbers.

Def. A vector is an ordered triple in which are real numbers.

We represent the vector as an arrow from origin (0, 0, 0) to the point in 3-

dimentional space.

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In this way, the direction indicated by arrow, as viewed from the origin, gives the direction of the

vector.

If we have the vector, its graph is 2 3

Components of a vector:

Let be a given vector with initial point and terminal point .

Then the three coordinate differences: are

called the components of a vector , .

Any vector in three-dimensional can be represent with initial point at the origin O of a

rectangular system.

Ex. (1): If

If we choose (-1, 5, 8) as the initial point, then

If we choose the origin (0, 0, 0) as the initial point, then

its coordinates equal the components of .

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Let be the rectangle coordinate of the terminal point of vector with initial pointO .
The vectors are called component vector of in the direction,
and are called the components of in direction.

Note thatwe can write

Norm of a vector: The norm, or magnitude, of a vector is the number

Direction of a vector: To find the direction ( ) of the

vector :

Ex. (2): If you give the components of a vector , such as [3, 4]. Suppose (3,4) are the

coordinates of the end of the vector and want to find its magnitude and angle theta.

Thus for the vector with coordinates (3, 4),

And

Ex. (3):

1) Convert the vector given by the coordinates (1, 5) into magnitude/angle format.(Ans. 5.1/79o).

2) Convert the vector given by the coordinates (5,7) into magnitude/angle format.(Ans. 8.6/54o).

3) Convert the vector given by the coordinates (13, 13) into magnitude/angle format.(Ans.

18.4/45o).

4) Convert the vector given by the coordinates (-1,1) into magnitude/angle format.(Ans.1.4/l35o).

5) Convert the vector given by the coordinates (-5,-7) into magnitude/angle format.(Ans.
8.6/234o).

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A scalar is a quantity having magnitude but no direction, e.g. mass, length, time, temperature,
and any real number.

Scalars are indicated by letters in ordinary type. Operation with scalar follows the same rules as
in elementary algebra.

Definitions:

1) Two vectors are equalif they have the same magnitude and direction regardless
of the position of their initial points. Thus in the following figure

equal .

2) A vector having direction opposite to that vector but having the same magnitude
is denoted by.

3) The sum or resultant of vectors A and B is a vector C formed by placing the initial point

of on the terminal point of and then joining the initial point of to the terminal

point of .

Def. (Addition of vectors)

The sum of two vectors is obtained by

adding the corresponding components,

Ex. (4)The following figure shows that for forces, this addition is the parallelogram law by

which we obtain the resultant of two forces in mechanics

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 Ex. (5)The sum of the vectors drawn from the center of regular polygon to its vectors is the
zero vector.

4) The difference of two vectors , represented by , is that

vector which adds to yields vector .

Equivalently, can be defined as the sum .

Also,

If then is defined as the null or zero vector or simply o. It has zero

magnitude and no specific direction. A vector, which is not null, is a proper vector.

5) The product of vector by a scalar (Scalar multiplication or Multiplication by number) is

a vector with magnitude times the magnitude of and with direction the same as or
m
opposite to, according as is positive or negative. If is the null vector.

Ex. (6): Let

6) A unit vector is a vector having unit magnitude. If is a vector with magnitude A ≠ 0,

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 then is a unit vector having the same direction as .

This procedure of constructing a unit vector in the same direction asis called normalizing
the vector.
For example if

7) Vector space: A vector space is a set together with two operations, addition and scalar

multiplication. The space is of course assumed to be closed under these operations.

If and , then the or sometimes denote the scalar multiplication of
by the scalarc .

The closure property means that The closure property means that .

Ex.(7):Let . Let addition be defined by

and scalar multiplication by , of course the additive identity is

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R is called Euclidean 3-spaces.
.

Bases

Let be a vector space. Let .

If

1) The vectors are linearly independent. (Def. The set of vectors in a

vector space is said to be linearly dependent if there exist scalars , not all zero,
such that .

The set of vectors is linearly independent if can only

satisfied when
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2) For any there are constant such that

V
Then we say that form a basis for the vector space . We often describe condition
V
(2) by saying that the vector span the vector space .
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Ex.(8)Consider the vector spaceV =R . The vector do not
forma basis of These vectors are certainly l.indep.

, but they don’t span all elements of for example the vector cannot be written as a
linear combination of .

On the other hand, the vectors do form a basis for .

We can see this because if is any element of , then the equation

Leads to the system:

Since the determinant of the matrix of coefficients is not zero, the system can always be solved.
So from a basis forV .

If V is a vector space, and forms a basis forV , then any other basis for V will also
have elements.

This special number is called the dimension of V .

We noted in the last example that (1,0,1), (0,1,1), and (1,1,0) are a basis for V =R 3. But (1,0,0),
(0,1,0), and (0,0,1) also from a basis for V . In fact, there are infinitely many different bases for
this vector space. No 2-vector set will be a basis, because it cannot span. No 4-vector set will be a
basis, because it cannot be linearly independent.

The dot product (or Scalar or inner product)

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The dot or scalar product of two vectors is a scalar, denoted by (read A dot B
), is defined as the product of the magnitudes of and the cosine of the angle between
them:

The following laws are valid:

Notes:

Ex. (9):

If

then the scalar product is

Ex. (10) Find the approximate angle between the vectors

Sol.

Ex. (11) Find the approximate angle between the vectors

Sol.

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Ex. (12) Are the following vectors orthogonal or not:

Sol.

Thus the vectors not orthogonal.

Ex. (13) Are the following vectors orthogonal or not

Sol.

Yes, the vectors are orthogonal.

Ex. (14) Prove that .

Sol.

Ex. (15) Evaluate each of the following:

Sol.

Ex. (16) Find the angles, which the vector makes with coordinate axes.
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Sol.Let be angles, which makes with the positive axes respectively.

Ex. (17) (Work done by a force as inner product)

Consider a body on which a constant force acts. Let the body be given a displacement .
Then the work done by in the displacement is defined by:

The Cross or Vector Product:

The Cross or Vector Product of The magnitude

of is defined as the product of the magnitudes of and the sine of the angle
between them. The direction of the vector is perpendicular to the plane of and
such that form a right-handed system:

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The following laws are valid:

Note:

Ex. (18) Ifand if are not zero, show that .

Sol.Since,

Ex. (19) If .

Sol.

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Comparing with (a) ,

Note that this is equivalent to the theorem:

If two rows of a determinant are interchanged, the determinant changes sign.

Ex. (20) Prove that the area of parallelogram with sides

Sol. Area of parallelogram

Note that, the area of the triangle with sides is ,

Ex. (21) A parallelogram has two sides extending from (0,1,-2) to (1,2,2) and from (0,1,-2) to
(1,4,1). We want to find the area of this parallelogram.

Sol.Form vectors along these sides

And the area of the parallelogram is

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Ex. (22) Determine a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of

Sol. is a vector perpendicular to the plane of

A unit vector perpendicular to is

Another unit vector, opposite in direction, is

Scalar Triple Product: (or mixed triple product)

Scalar triple product of three vectors is denoted

by and is defined by

We can write this as a third-order determinant. For this we set

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The absolute value of the scalar triple product is the volume of the parallelepiped with

as edge vectors: (Note that is acute)

Note that, (k any constant), because the multiplication of a row of a

determinant by k multiplies the value of the determinant by k.

Also .

In addition (Dot product commutative).

Ex. (23):A tetrahedron is determined by three edge vectors as indicated inthe following

figure. Find its volume if with respect to right-handed Cartesian coordinates, ,

(Tetrahedron)

Sol.The volume of the parallelepiped with these vectors as edge vectors is the absolute value of
the scalar triple product

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Ex. (24) One corner of rectangular parallelepiped is at (-1,2,2) and three incident side extend
from this point to (0,1,1),(-4,6,6) and (-3,-2,4).Find the volume of this solid.

Sol. To find the volume of this solid, form the vectors:

Ex. (25) (Moment of force)

In mechanics the moment of force about a point Q is defined as the product

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If is the vector from Q to any point A on L, then

Since is angle between

The vector is called the moment vector or vector momentof about Q.

Its magnitude is . If , its direction is that of the axis of the rotation about Q that has
the tendency to produce. This axis is perpendicular to both and .

Ex. (26) Find the moment of the force in the following figure about the center of wheel.

Sol.

(Note that the center of the wheel is at y=-1.5 on the y-axis)

This moment vector is normal (perpendicular) to the plane of the wheel, hence it has the direction
of the axis of rotation about the center of the wheel that the force has the tendency to produce.

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Note that, points in the negative z-direction, since the third component is negative.

Ex. (27) Find an equation for the plane perpendicular to the vector and

passing through the terminal point of the vector

Sol.

Let be the position vector of point P,

And Q the terminal point of .

Since is perpendicular to ,

is the

Required equation of the plane in vector form.

In rectangular form this becomes

Exercises

The dot product:

1) Find the angle between

Sol.
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 2) Determine the value of so that and are
perpendicular.

3) Show that the vectors

form a right-angled triangle.

The Cross or Vector product:

1) Show that
Sol.

2) Evaluate each of the following:

3) If
Find

Dr.Muzahim Bani AL_Zubaidi(2018)

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Ordinary derivatives of vectors:

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This is beginning of vector calculus, which involves two kinds of functions, vector functions,
whose values are vectors

and scalar functions , whose values are scalars depending on P.

Def.(Derivative of vector function)

A vector function is said to be differentiable at a point t if the following limit exists:

In terms of components w.r.t. a given Cartesian coordinate

System, is differentiable at a point t if and only if its three components are differentiable at
t, and then the derivative is obtained by differentiating each components separately,

It follows that the familiar rules of differentiation yield corresponding rules for differentiation
vector functions, for example:

Ex. (28) (Derivative of a vector function of constant length)

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Let be a vector function whose length is constant, say -

Ex. (29) Let , find:

Sol.

Ex. (30)A particle moves along a curve whose parametric equations are

(a) Determine its velocity and acceleration at any time.

(b)Find the magnitude of the velocity and acceleration at

Sol. a) The position vector of the particle is

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Partial derivatives of a vector function:

The partial differentiation of vector functions depending on two or more variables can be
introduce as follows.

Suppose that the components of vector function are

differentiable functions of n variables . Then the partial derivative of w.r.t. is

denoted by and is defined as a vector function

Similarly, and so on.

Ex.(31)Let

Rules for partial differentiation of vectors are similar to those used in elementary calculus for
scalar functions. Thus if are functions of then, for example,

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The gradient of the :

The vector is called the gradient of the scalar point function , and
is denoted by grad or by , where is the vector operator

The symbol is called ‘nabla’, then

Def. (Directional derivative)

The direction is given by a vector of any length ( is

Ex.(32)Find grad for Hence calculate

The directional derivative of at (1,2,3)in the direction of the unit vector .

Sol.

Ex. (33)Find the directional derivative of

Sol.

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Green’s Theorem in the plane: (This theorem show the relationship between line integrals and
double integrals)

If R is a closed region of bounded by a simple (not intersect itself) closed curve

C and if are continuous functions of having continuous derivatives in R, then

Where C is traversed in the positive (counterclockwise) direction (that is, so that the bounded
area is always on the left of C, i.e. left of arrow). Unless otherwise stated we shall always assume
to mean that the integral is described in the positive sense.

We call C the path of integration, it is oriented, the direction from A to B, in which t increases, is
called the positive direction on C.

Another form of Green’s theorem:

Let C be a simply connected piecewise smooth curve with a positive or counterclockwise

orientation that encloses a region R (region always on the left of C). Let and P and Q
have continuous first order derivatives.

Ex. (1) Calculate , on the triangle shown.

Sol.

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Ex. (2) Evaluate where C is triangle bounded by lines:

Sol.

Ex. (3) Use Green’s theorem to compute where C is the circle

transverses counterclockwise.

Sol.

-2 2

Ex. (4)Evaluate , where C is the rectangle with vertices (0,0),(2,0),(2,4) and

(0,4).

Sol.

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Ex. (5) Let C be the circle . Evaluate

Sol. 2

-2 2

Ex. (6) Evaluate where C is the triangle with vertices (0, 0), (0, 1) and (1, 1),
positively oriented.

Sol.

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Ex. (7) Use Green’s theorem to compute where C is the circle shown.

Sol.

Another Solution:

Ex. (8) Evaluate where C is given below along

transverses counterclockwise.

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Ex. (9) Evaluate where C is given below along

transverses counterclockwise.

Ex. (10) Evaluate where C given below transverses counterclockwise.

Sol.

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-------- Dr.Muzahim AL-Zubaidi-2018

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