Research on Language Learning Strategies: Methods, Findings, and Instructional Issues

Author(s): Rebecca Oxford and David Crookall

Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 73, No. 4 (Winter, 1989), pp. 404-419
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers
Associations
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 Research on Language Learning
Strategies: Methods, Findings,
and Instructional Issues
REBECCA OXFORD and DAVID CROOKALL
University of Alabama University of Alabama

LEARNING STRATEGIES ARE STEPS TAKEN BY * Cognitive Strategies - skills that involve manipu-
the learner to aid the acquisition, storage, lation orand
transformation of the language in
retrieval of information (108). Strategies somearedirect
re-way, e.g., through reasoning,
ferred to as learning techniques, behaviors, analysis, note
or taking, functional practice in
actions; or learning-to-learn, problem-solving, naturalistic settings, formal practice with
or study skills. No matter what they are structures
called,and sounds, etc.
strategies can make learning more efficient and
* Memory Strategies - techniques specifically tai-
effective. lored to help the learner store new informa-
The purpose of this paper is to survey re-
tion in memory and retrieve it later.
search on language learning strategies* (LLSs), Compensation
the Strategies -behaviors used to
behaviors used by learners to move toward compensate
pro- for missing knowledge of some
ficiency or competence in a second or foreign kind, e.g., inferencing (guessing) while listen-
lan-
guage. LLSs are useful in both formal,ing academic
or reading, or using synonyms or circum-
settings and informal, nonacademic environ- locution while speaking or writing.
ments- that is, for both learning and acquisi-
* Communication Strategies - typically taken to
tion. (For details on this distinction see mean only those compensation strategies used
Bibliog-
raphy, 54. See 83 and 87 for exampleswhile speaking; however, communication
of LLSs
in both types of settings.) However, most occursofin the
the three other language skill areas
research to date has been concerned with the (reading, listening, and writing) as well as in
classroom. speaking, so the popular term communication
Before examining LLS research, we discuss strategies is a misnomer.
research terminology and methodology. Next * Metacognitive Strategies - behaviors used for
we look in detail at LLS research itself, using centering, arranging, planning, and evaluat-
research methods as the organizing principle ing one's learning. These "beyond-the-cogni-
for the discussion. Finally, we summarize in- tive" strategies are used to provide "executive
structional and other issues and comment on control" over the learning process.
how LLS research might be improved.' * Affective Strategies -techniques like self-rein-
forcement and positive self-talk which help
TERMINOLOGY learners gain better control over their emo-
tions, attitudes, and motivations related to
In the following discussion, the strategy
language learning.
names given by researchers are used, rather
than a standard and consistent set of terminol- * Social Strategies - actions involving other peo-
ple in the language learning process. Exam-
ogy. While it is impossible to provide a com-
ples are questioning, cooperating with peers,
plete glossary of technical terms used in all the
and developing empathy.
studies, keys for understanding some of the
terms (see also 83, 85, 86, 113) are: METHODS

LLS research has evolved from simple l

The Modern Language Journal, 73, iv (1989)
0026-7902/89/0004/404 $1.50/0
01989 The Modern Language Journal
of strategies to much more sophisticated
tigations. The following discussion is orga
according to the main methods or proced

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Research on Language Learning Strategies 405

used to gather the data: 1) contribute

lists baseddirectlyonto language
obser- learning (e.g.,
vation and intuition; 2) interviews and
guessing, deductive think-
reasoning) and those which
aloud procedures; 3) note taking;
help indirectly
4) (e.g.,
diaries;
creating 5)
opportunities to
surveys; and 6) studies on LLS Rubin
practice). training.
and Thompson The(114) gave ad-
vice to students about
first five of these sets of procedures dohow notto become
in- good lan-
volve altering the learners'guage
instructional
learners, suggestingtreat-
a number of helpful
ment or learning behaviors; the last
strategies, such asone modi-
organize, be creative, learn
to live with
fies both. Many of the studies uncertainty,
involve and use mnemonics.
several
research procedures simultaneously,
Tarone's Communicationbut the Although
Strategies.
discussion below is structured according
Selinker (117) to communi-
distinguished between
what seems to be the dominant procedure.
cation strategies and learning strategies, Tarone
(123, 124, 125) argued the virtual impossibility
MAKING LISTS
of separating these two because: 1) it is diffi-
cult to gauge the individual's purpose (com-
LLS lists are often based on observations - munication or learning); 2) the purpose might
either "armchair observations" or more scien- be both; and 3) even if the person just wants
tific ones--and intuitions or hunches. Mean- to communicate and not learn, learning often
ingful observations of LLS use in the classroom occurs anyway. She observed the following
are possible for certain kinds of observable groups of communication strategies, which can
strategies (e.g., cooperating with peers, askingin many instances be used for learning: para-
questions for clarification or verification, and
phrase (approximation, word coinage, circumlo-
gesturing to convey meaning), but not for othercution); borrowing (literal translation, language
techniques, such as strategies that remain pri- switch, appeal for assistance, mime); avoidance
(topic avoidance, message abandonment).
vate or invisible (e.g., associating/elaborating,
using imagery, and guessing intelligently; see Observations of Tyacke, Mendelsohn, et al. Tyacke
23, 30). These strategies cannot be observed
and Mendelsohn (126) reported observational
directly, but they can be intuited by the re-studies conducted at the University of Toronto.
searcher, and they can also be assessed through Amber's informal observational study of a writ-
various self-report techniques. ing class found that students who showed the
Stern's Lists. Based on observation and intui- best improvement were those who actively uti-
tion, Stern (119) presented an influential list lized available resources, including teachers
of characteristics of successful language learn- and classmates, and who also employed clari-
ers. They exhibit, among other characteristics,fication, memorization, monitoring, and self-
a personally relevant learning style, positive management strategies. Unsuccessful students
learning strategies, an active approach to learn- refused to self-direct or reformulate earlier
ing, technical understanding of how to tacklewriting, and had low self-esteem. Grandage's
a language, a sustained search for meaning,study noted that teachers and learners observed
willingness to practice and to experiment, self-learners' listening techniques, including prac-
monitoring, and development of the languagetice, group-work, guessing, and note taking.
as a medium of thought. Some personalityMcDonough and McNerney found a variety of
traits (e.g., tolerance and outgoingness) were vocabulary learning behaviors in two classes of
also included in this list. The techniques out- learners, one advanced and the other low-inter-
lined in the list were later expanded and sub- mediate. As the students became more ad-
sumed under four rubrics: 1) active planning; vanced, they tended to discard less productive
2) academic (explicit) learning; 3) social learn- strategies (e.g., rote memorization) and to
ing; and 4) affective strategies (120). match the strategy to the task.
Rubin's Contributions. According to Rubin's
early observations and intuitions (111), the
INTERVIEWS AND THINKING ALOUD
good language learner is a willing and accurate
guesser, has a strong drive to communicate, is Instead of observing or intuiting, some r
often uninhibited, focuses on form as well as searchers have asked the learner to explain
communication, practices, monitors his or her describe how he or she uses strategies. One
own speech and that of others, and pays atten-to do this is to interview learners; another
tion to meaning. In later research (112, 113), to listen to learners as they think aloud; y
she made a distinction between strategies whichanother is to combine the two procedures.

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 406 Rebecca Oxford & David Crookall
the strategies used
Interviews by Naiman, Frohlich, to deal
and with teachers'In-
Todesco. feed-
spired by Stern's ideas back
about characteristics
on a writing task. Students typically madeof
good language learners, another
a mental group
note of the feedback, from
rather than re-
Toronto (70; with Stern, 71)
cording it orset out
using it to
to revise theexplore
writing.
these traits further. One of the main data col- Cohen and Hosenfeld (30) offered a useful
lection methods was interviews, consisting of model for interviewing, which can be used to
two parts - a biographical interview and a dis-gather data on mentalistic or unobservable pro-
cussion of strategies that participants would usecesses. The three dimensions of this model are:
in hypothetical language learning situations.* Activities: thinking aloud, in which the subjects
The researchers listed six strategies as keys to verbalize thoughts freely (a sort of stream
success: 1) finding a set of learning preferences of consciousness) and self-observation, in which
and selecting language situations that allow the subjects analyze their own thoughts to
those preferences to be used; 2) becoming ac- some degree.
tively involved in the language learning pro- * Time: Different amounts of time can elapse
cess; 3) developing an awareness of language between the use of a strategy and its verbali-
both as a formal system of rules and as a means zation. The smallest time lapse is with think-
of communication; 4) constantly extending and aloud data. For self-observation data, ver-
revising individual understanding of the target balized analysis of the strategy can be imme-
language system; 5) gradually developing the diate (introspection), or it can take place later
new language into a reference system and (retrospection) and is then subject to some
learning to think in it; 6) addressing the affec- forgetting of detail.
tive demands of language learning., * Content: i.e., the topic of the interview (often
Interview Studies by Cohen et al. Cohen and influenced by the researcher).
Robbins (31) used interviews to study errors Cohen (24) recently revised this model to in-
made by native Mandarin speakers in their clude three categories of activity: self-report (in
ESL writing. Subjects were asked if they couldwhich learners say what they usually do or
locate an error in a given sentence, give a rea-think), self-observation (introspection and retro-
son for it, and identify its LLS-related source spection as described above), and self-revelation
(e.g., the inappropriate use of transfer). The(e.g., thinking aloud while doing a task). Issues
study revealed the difficulty of collecting LLSin learners' reporting of strategies are further
data long after the event occurred (delayeddiscussed elsewhere (25, 26).
retrospection), and indicated that learners' rea- Interviews by Papalia and Zampogna. These re-
sons for errors often differed from those as- searchers (96) interviewed high school foreign
sumed by their teachers. language students to examine their reading
Three studies (32), combining interviews comprehension and vocabulary learning strate-
with note taking, dealt with problems en- gies. The LLSs which helped comprehension
countered by Israeli students in reading Eng-included reading aloud, reading for context,
lish. Students took notes on problems guessing, skipping inconsequential words, ex-
encountered in technical reading and discussedpecting the text to make sense, refraining from
these in interviews. Results indicated that verbatim translating, looking for cognates, and
teachers tended to be mistaken in their hunches looking up unfamiliar words. Successful vocab-
about problems. Teachers thought the students ulary-related strategies included cooperative
would have trouble with technical vocabulary, learning, concrete action words, flashcards,
but instead they had problems with non- meaningful conversation, games, pictures, and
technical vocabulary --a finding which is repetition.
supported by much work in English for special Hosenfeld's Think-Aloud Interviews. In conduct-
purposes (ESP). ing numerous think-aloud studies, Hosenfeld
Cohen and Aphek (29) used interviews to (30) found that learners gave not only accurate
verify or refute observational data on com- think-aloud data, but also frequently offered
munication strategies. They found that the best less accurate retrospective thoughts (i.e., de-
time to interview was soon after the event, scribing how they habitually did the task in the
rather than interrupting class talk to ask learn- past). Other studies by Hosenfeld involving
ers what they were thinking. The study resulted young students (47) and college-age learners
in a rating system of "good" and "bad" com- (48) indicated that the learners could identify
munication strategies. Cohen and Cavalcanti and verbalize their strategies, but that teach-
(27) used student interviews (supplemented by ers' assumptions about their students' strategies
a student checklist and a survey) to determine were often wrong.

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 Research on Language Learning Strategies 407
Reading strategies were thecognitive subject of
strategies an- repetition, note
(especially
other think-aloud interview taking, study cooperation,
involving and clarification) than
high school foreign language students metacognitive (49).ones. OfRe- the metacognitive
sults showed that successful readers used
strategies, strate-
almost all were related to planning
gies different from unsuccessful and attention-enhancing.
ones. In other Students used tradi-
studies by Hosenfeld and her colleagues tional strategies and typically applied them to
(e.g.,
50, 51), think-aloud procedures discrete-point
were used rather than
for integrative tasks. Few
diagnosis and as a prelude to social
LLSand affective
training.strategies were found, de-
Omaggio (75) suggested that think-aloud spite the importance tech-
of such aspects in language
niques like those used by Hosenfeld learning (14,
might42, 83). As in other studies men-
help
unsuccessful learners (and their tioned above, teachersdis-
teachers) were generally unaware
cover the source of some learning of the strategies employed by their students. A
difficulties.
Wenden's Contributions. Wenden second phase130)
(129, of thisem-study is reported later
ployed a semi-structured interview under training
to assessstudies. the
strategies of her ESL students. Before In Study II, Russointer-
the and Stewner-Manzanares
view, she gave students a list(115) of(colleagues
topicsof to O'Malley
be and Chamot)
covered in the interview. Students used interviews
completed supplemented by classroom
a grid of their daily activities observations to identify LLSs used by ESL stu-
(e.g., watching
TV, talking to friends) and thedents kind (mostly
of Hispanic)
strate- in the US Army's
gies they used in each one. During training program.
the inter- Frequently reported strate-
view, the learners focused on the information
gies included metacognitive (self-management,
in the grid, using a form of retrospection. selective attention, and functional
In planning),
one instance, Wenden interviewed cognitive (repetition
a young and note taking), and
Spanish economist who was learning social (cooperation and requests for clarifica-
English;
as the young man talked, Wenden tion). The soldiers used metacognitive
clustered his strate-
strategies into cognitive, communication, gies with more complex language tasks (e.g.,
global practice, and metacognitive social communication
categories and oral presentations)
(128). and cognitive ones with simpler language tasks
Wenden also identified ESL writing strate- (e.g., vocabulary learning). Teachers generally
gies, e.g., goal setting, clarification, and avoid- showed a lack of understanding of their stu-
ance (131), and raised important issues about dents' strategies. See the training section of this
the role of metacognitive knowledge in strategy discussion for an account of the second phase
use (see, e.g., 130). of this study.
Interviews by Tyacke and Mendelsohn. Done with Study III, conducted by Chamot and col-
a homogeneous group of language learners leagues (15, 18, 20), concerned the LLSs of
(four young German women), these interviews high school students of Russian and Spanish.
indicated (126) that, although they were all The study had three phases - descriptive, longi-
relatively successful language learners from a tudinal, and training-focused. In the descrip-
common background, they each used signifi- tive phase, students retrospectively reported
cantly different strategies. Tyacke and Mendel- their strategy use through group interviews, but
sohn plan to interview teachers about their the longitudinal phase involved thinking aloud
students' strategies and to compare teachers' while doing language tasks.
and learners' perceptions of strategy use. In the descriptive phase, higher level stu-
Studies by O'Malley, Chamot, et al. Chamot, dents generally reported using more strategies
O'Malley, and their colleagues designed and than beginning learners. Even unsuccessful
conducted detailed LLS studies, often involving language learners knew about, used, and were
think-aloud interviews. They also produced able to discuss strategies. The major apparent
some of the most widely known LLS classifi- difference between successful and less able stu-
cation systems. dents was that the former used a greater num-
Study I (78, 79) reported interviews with, ber of LLSs more often than did the latter.
and observations of, high school ESL students Students at all levels reported using far more
in typical classroom activities, e.g., pronuncia- cognitive than metacognitive strategies. Among
tion exercises, oral drills, vocabulary learning, the cognitive ones, the traditional techniques
and language use. Interviews produced much of repetition and translation were consistently
more reliable results than observations, and popular, but upper level students began to use
twenty-six strategies were identified. Both be- inference. Few instances of cognitively complex
ginning and intermediate students used more strategies were reported. The metacognitive

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 408 Rebecca Oxford & David Crookall
strategies employed were ing, feltmostly planning
more confident than those who got the skills
rather than evaluative generaltechniques. Students
meaning with fewer details. This prob-
rarely reported using social ably reflects aor affective
dominant emphasis and expec- strate-
gies. tation in American academic culture.
Participants in a subsequent four-semester
longitudinal phase included ineffective and NOTE TAKING

effective students who had taken part in the
descriptive phase, with middling students ex-
cluded. Learners thought aloud while doing
typical language activities. Researchers found
that metacognitive self-monitoring took many
subtle forms and that cognitive elaboration
co-occurred with (and was almost indistinguish-
able from) the LLSs of imagery, inferencing,
and transfer. Again, social and affective strate-
gies were rarely noted. Strong influences on
LLS selection included course objectives, moti-
vation, task difficulty, and previous study. Ef-
fective students were purposeful, monitored
their performance globally and used back-
ground knowledge successfully. The last part
of Study III was a training phase, explained
later (see training studies).
Leaver's Interview Study. Leaver (58) utilized
a think-aloud procedure (without interviews)
to assess the strategies used by listeners. The
task was to figure out the meaning of short dia-
logues on Russian cultural themes. The sub-
jects, all native English speakers, included: 1)
a class of fifteen Foreign Service Institute (FSI)
adult learners of Russian; 2) two children who
had acquired languages naturally (Russian as
a foreign language for the girl and English as
a mother tongue for the boy). For the adults
and the girl, dialogues were in Russian; for the
boy they were in English, but with the same
content. Adult subjects worked in small groups
to understand the dialogues, and their conver-
sations were recorded. Children were taped as
they thought aloud by themselves. Focusing on
the words they knew (especially concrete nouns,
names, and numbers) and using analytic strate-
gies, the adults tried to fit all details into an
apparently plausible scenario, and thereby
missed the actual meaning. In contrast, focus-
ing on the global meaning through context and
verbs, the children outperformed the adults in
understanding the meaning.
Having controlled for possible age effects,
Leaver attributed the LLS and comprehension
differences to the way the subjects gained their
language skills - the younger subjects in a natu-
ral way and the adults in a classroom setting.
Paradoxically, the subjects who handled dis-
crete words easily, but missed the overall mean-
Several LLS studies have involved note tak-
ing. Sometimes note taking helps learners pre-
pare for strategy-assessment interviews (129,
130). Allwright's note-taking scheme (not
necessarily connected with an interview) asks
students to take notes on a grid, describing the
strategies they employ; students then rate those
strategies in terms of frequency, enjoyment,
usefulness, and efficiency (1).
Cohen and Aphek (29) explored LLSs used
by English-speaking college students learning
Hebrew in Israel. Students took unstructured
notes on the LLSs used during a vocabulary
learning task. Notes indicated that word lists
were initially helpful for memorization but that
students eventually used words in context.
Mnemonic devices sometimes slowed learning
down or limited possible meanings, but also
made learning easier and helped maintain
vocabulary (see also 28, 30).
DIARY STUDIES
Another form of self-disclosure, diarie
journals allow learners to record their tho
feelings, achievements, problems, strate
and impressions. While keeping diaries to
their own language learning, students be
"participant observers" in their own e
graphic research (60, 61). Diaries are u
subjective and free-form, although they
guided by teacher suggestions. Some lang
learning diary studies have focused on psy
logical and social themes (e.g., 4, 53, 1
Bailey and Ochsner (5) suggested ways to
diary studies to make them suitable as re
documents.
Rubin's Diary Use. Rubin (112) discussed two
different kinds of diaries: 1) directed (for which
learners had explicit instructions on which of
their own strategies to observe and report); 2)
less structured daily reports of strategy use. She
suggested that most students have to be taught
how to report their strategy use and that stu-
dents need to take notes so they won't forget
the strategies they have been using.
Rivers'Diary Approach. Rivers used the diary
approach to present a personalized view of the
LLSs used while learning Spanish in South

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 Research on Language Learning Strategies 409
America (109). Although she ingrecorded
or speaking.aThe
wideuse of strategies app
toshe
range of conscious strategies, be related primarily
also noted herto the learner's at
surprise at her unconscious and
strategy use.
not to language learning aptitude, a
supportedBailey
Bailey's Analysis of Diary Studies. by extensive
(4) research by Ga
studied the anxiety and competitiveness
(42) on attitudes and ofmotivation.
adult language learners as expressed in their
Reiss's Validation of Rubin's Strategy List.
diaries. Her intention was (107)
not studied
necessarily to
the strategies used by experi
discuss LLSs, but the results nevertheless university-level students, many of whom
showed use of both affective and social strate- been identified by their instructors as succ
gies, sometimes beneficially applied, some-language learners. Using two self-report
times not.
veys based on work by Rubin (111), she f
Tyacke andMendelsohn's Diary Study. These re- subjects used guessing, had a strong
that
searchers (126) investigated ten adults tofrom
communicate, paid more attention to
different ethnic backgrounds studyingthan ESL. to meaning (a revealing result, espe
Learners brought their diaries every otherin
week
the university setting), took advant
to a discussion with one of the researchers. The
practice opportunities, and paid close atte
diaries showed that learning styles and strate-
to the speech of others and of themselves
gies varied significantly. Lower-level students'
validating some of Rubin's earlier specula
diaries showed much greater dependence on the They did not make great use of mnem
teacher and on the linguistic code, although one
and contrary to expectations (111), these
more advanced learner (an Asian) also focuseddents were often inhibited. (See also 10
on these aspects. Reiss's study of unsuccessful learners.)
Hasbun's Amplification of the Reiss Study.
SURVEY STUDIES
investigation of strategies used by unive
foreign language learners, Hasbun
Many LLS researchers have employed
adapted two surveys by Reiss (107). Good
surveys or questionnaires, which typically cover
guage learners reported employing more s
a range of strategies and are usuallygies, and used them more consistently
structured
and objective in nature. poor learners. However, student-repo
Bialystok's Contributions. Bialystok
strategy
(8) devel- use did not always match the ob
oped a four-part model of learninguse in a tutorial session. The selection of strate-
behaviors:
gies that
1) inferencing (guessing); 2) monitoring learners perceived as relevant to at-
(noting
errors); 3) formal practicing (with taining
the rules their of
learning goals seemed to be more
language); and 4) functional practicing
important (using
than the actual number of strategies.
the language). The model defined strategies
Survey byas Ramirez. Ramirez (105) employed
"optional means for exploiting available
a surveyinfor-
to assess the strategies used by ado-
mation to improve competence in a lescents
secondstudying
lan- French in various settings in
guage" (8, p. 71). The selection of LLS
New Yorktype
state. The instrument was based on
depended on the kind of knowledge workrequired
by Politzer (97), by Naiman, Fr6hlich,
by the language task: explicit linguistic
Stern,knowl-
and Todesco (71), and by Rubin (112).
edge, implicit linguistic knowledge, Ramirez assessed the effect of LLS use on read-
and general
knowledge of the world. Bialystok hypothesized
ing, communicative performance, and tested
that the first strategy would be achievement.
used with Eight strategies contributed most
implicit linguistic knowledge and understand-
to the success of learners, including asking for
ing of the world, while the other three would
clarification or verification, guessing, and creat-
be used to improve both kinds of inglinguistic
practice opportunities.
knowledge. Nyikos'Surveys. Nyikos (73) surveyed four suc-
Bialystok tested her model by surveying high levels of university language
cessive semester
school students learning French (9).instruction
She found in German and Spanish. Little evi-
that functional practice promoted achievement
dence was found of a wide variety of LLS use,
but across even
on all tasks and was an effective technique levels students seemed to show de-
for advanced students. Appropriateness of most
velopmental trends in LLS use and to be some-
strategies, however, was governed whatby the of their strategies. Only a few
unaware
nature of the task, e.g., monitoring one's own
strategies were used consistently, e.g., repeti-
errors was more useful in writing than in read-
tion (mostly silent) and searching for cognates.

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410 Rebecca Oxford & David Crookall
Self-testing and visualization However, they also made
were some use
cited asof use-
more
ful strategies, albeit toinductive varying strategies, e.g., guessing meaning
degrees.
Surveys by Politzer andfrom context. Despite many
McGroarty. opportunities
Politzer andfor
his colleagues (97-100) investigated
naturalistic the
practice, these students LLSs
were in-
of students of French, ESL, German, and hibited or unmotivated regarding out-of-class
Spanish. These studies, taken together, indi- language use.
cated that many variables are influential in McGroarty (67) surveyed university students
strategy choice, e.g., professional interests, sex, learning elementary Spanish and Japanese.
motivation, course level, teaching methods, The survey covered strategies for studying the
and study goal (e.g., communication, reading target language in the classroom, in social in-
technical materials, travel). Therefore, a given teraction outside of class, and in individual
strategy is not intrinsically suitable for all situa- study. Language achievement was associated
tions, purposes, or people. with classroom strategies demonstrating cogni-
Politzer (97) found links between strategy use tive rehearsal, such as repeating new forms and
and language achievement, but they seemed to taking notes on new words. Neither social inter-
depend on course level and methodology, sug- action nor individual study strategies as a whole
gesting some kind of a strategy/treatment in- showed any relationships with achievement or
teraction. He also found an intriguing sex proficiency growth, although selected strategies
difference in LLS use, with females showing a in these two categories (such as socializing with
greater propensity than males to engage in out- target language speakers, not being afraid to
of-class social interactions. Although dismissed use the new language, and seeking exposure to
by Politzer as of minor importance, this signifi- the new language through the media) were
cant sex difference might help us understand associated with pretest language scores.
how males and females go about learning a new In two other studies, McGroarty (68, 69) re-
language. (Sex differences have by and large ported attitudes and strategies of adult learners
been ignored in strategy research, but a few of ESL. One compared two groups of high in-
relevant studies are mentioned in 95.) termediate students taking the same course in
One very interesting finding from Politzer two different settings, university and commu-
and McGroarty (100) was that national origin nity extension classes; the other provided simi-
(Hispanic vs. Asian) had a strong influence on lar data for intermediate and advanced students
strategy choice, with Asians exhibiting fewer from a large adult school program and also in-
of the behaviors expected of "good" language cluded comparison of results for students from
learners. Asian students, while reporting fewer the three largest native language groups in-
"good language learning behaviors" in general, volved (Chinese, Spanish, and Japanese). Re-
outperformed Hispanics in using monitoring sults indicated that certain strategies were con-
strategies. It was therefore suggested that cur- sistently related to achievement, e.g., saying
rent definitions of"good language learning be- answers to oneself, using English voluntarily
haviors" may be ethnocentrically based on in class, guessing meanings, and getting the gist
Western cultural values. Politzer (98) found before looking up new words. However, a
that Asian and Hispanic graduate students number of social interaction strategies, such as
were instrumentally rather than integratively starting conversations in order to practice Eng-
motivated to learn another language and that lish, were negatively related to achievement
instrumental motivation accounted for course measures, suggesting that both purpose of in-
gains. He also found little statistical evidence teraction and student skill levels figure in the
for a link between strategies used and motiva- determination of effective strategies.
tion. Surveys Involving Factor Analysis. A few surveys
In a different study, McGroarty (66) deter- have been factor analyzed to determine the
mined strategies used by university-level ele- underlying structures and relationships. Factor
mentary Spanish students in a city heavily analysis involves gathering data on a group of
influenced by Hispanic culture and language. individuals and then discovering the main fac-
The preferred strategies indicated that these tors that explain the greatest amount of the re-
students fitted the learning (rather than the ac- ported variability among the individuals.
quiring) stereotype - they frequently monitored In the first of the factor analytic studies,
their language use, asked for explanations and Oxford (80) surveyed 483 adults at the Defense
confirmation, and often used the dictionary. Language Institute (Monterey). The chief in-

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Research on Language Learning Strategies 411
strument used was SILL, the Strategy Inven-
years spent studying the language, course status
tory for Language Learning (elective
(see 80, vs. required),
81). Five and some interactions
primary factors emerged, each including
among variables a
(e.g., motivation, self-rated
proficiency,
number of strategies: 1) general study years of study). Regardless of how
habits
communicative
(e.g., previewing, using time well, their language classes were, the
self-evaluat-
students
ing); 2) functional or authentic chose to prac-
language concentrate on formal, rule-
tice (e.g., seeking native speakers, initiating
based strategies, rather than on communication
conversations, going to movies);
practice.3)
Thesearching
choice seemed to reflect a desire
for and communicating meaning to get(e.g.,
good grades by fitting in with the ana-
guess-
ing the meaning, analyzing words, using
lytic, academic body
approach of the classroom test-
language); 4) studying or practicing
ing and gradingthe lan-
system.
Another survey,
guage independently (e.g., practicing rules conducted
by at the United
States
oneself, using a tape recorder); and Foreign Service Institute, built on the
5) memory
devices (e.g., remembering byprevious
location,factormak-
analyses (39, 41, 90). The
sample included
ing associations, using rhymes). prospective foreign service
Five other
subsidiary factors were also officers
found: (students in the study), language
one con-
sisting mostly of compensation supervisors, and native-speaking
techniques, a instructors.
formal rule-practicing factor,Thea latter two groups reported on strategies
metacognitive
used
one, a visualization factor, and in learning
another their most recent foreign
involv-
ing both formal model-building language.
(i.e.,Analysis of variance showed a strong
construct-
ing one's own understanding of influence
the of general learning style, e.g., think-
language)
and summarizing. ing vs. feeling and judging vs. perceiving,
measured
The second factor analytic study (74,by the
92,Myers-Briggs
93, Type Indicator
(MBTI), onfive
94) involved 1,200 students learning LLS choice.
lan-Other significant
influences
guages (French, Spanish, Italian, German,were career
andposition (student, in-
Russian) at a major midwestern structor, supervisor)in
university and sex. Females used a
the USA. The SILL was used greater
along with
number a
and range of strategies than
background questionnaire on, men-adding more evidence for the above
e.g., motivation,
course level, and previous language
mentioned sexlearning
difference findings. In contrast
to students
experience. Five factors emerged: 1)and instructors, supervisors also
formal,
rule-related practice (very popular
used a widerwith
range ofstu-
strategies and used them
dents); 2) functional, authenticmore frequently. prac-
language Additional ethnographic evi-
tice (rarely used by the students);
dence (40)
3)supports
resource-
many of these quantitative
tendencies.techniques,
ful, independent language learning
both mnemonic and metacognitive The studies(rarely
(or parts of studies, in the case
used); 4) general study habits; of
andthe 5)
Chamot
elicitation
and O'Malley group) described
of target language input fromsootherfar havepeople
not focused
(4 on LLS training. We
and 5 were both fairly popular).now turnFactors two
to training studies.
and five both had social and communicative
aspects. However, factor two contained mostly
TRAINING STUDIES
out-of-class strategies demanding initiative,
while factor five strategies were easily used Researchers
in have naturally taken an int
the classroom. in LLS teachability. Some have concent
Analysis of variance on individuals' factor
on training just one or two strategies,
scores showed that motivation, sex, and self- others have investigated the teaching of
perceptions of proficiency were the greatest in- strategies at once.
fluences on strategy use. In contrast to unmoti- Keyword Training Studies. One set of tr
vated students, highly motivated ones made studies has focused exclusively on a single
frequent use of a range of strategies. Femalesthe keyword, a memory device that l
used significantly more strategies than malesvisual image to a sound. Research has s
in three of the five factors. Students who felt that the keyword may be very helpful in
they were good language learners used more ing target language vocabulary (22, 101,
strategies than those who viewed themselves as 103, 104). This technique has worked very
less successful learners. Other statistically sig- in experimental settings.
nificant influences on LLS use included major, Henner-Stanchina's Listening Comprehe

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412 Rebecca Oxford & David Crookall
Training. Henner-Stanchina (46) taught tech-
own established rote stra
niques for listening comprehension to univer-
supports the ethnic differ
sity-level ESL students. In a
found bysingle-group
Politzer (97).
study, students listenedStudy to oral II,texts,
described such as by R
radio commercials, talk-show
Manzanares interviews, (115), and involv
news broadcasts - firstin for anglobalESL program comprehen- and w
sion and then for specific
the Army details.study They mentione tran-
view
scribed the texts on paper and section.
were allowed LLS trainin to
make corrections as they listening understoodand speaking more act
through repeated playbacks.
a day over Henner-Stanchina
a five-day peri
then provided feedback on errors
control group and existed.
success- Te
fully taught the studentscluded how to use guessing
selective attention,
and self-correction to improve
ing for clarification, listening com- self-e
prehension. tional planning. Results
similarities
Training Studies by O'Malley, Chamot to et the al. finding
Al-
though these researchers LLS conducted
training study a number describ
panics studies,
of important learner training responded we reportfavorab
only three of them below.and speaking strategy trai
Study I concerned intermediate-level
sisted these strategies; adoles-and
cent ESL students (76, ing 77, more 78, than 79), and listening. was
the second phase of the In high theschool third study study,re- Cham
school
ported above in the section onLLS training
interviews. The (18).
sample (different from that used
training phase in the were firstchosen
phase) consisted of one-third
who had been Hispanic, involved one- in
third Asian, and one-third
longitudinal other ethnicities. phases ment
interview section
The purpose of the training study of this article.
wasThese toteach-
deter-
mine whether unique LLS ers were combinations
observed as they taughtwould a variety of
facilitate learning. Hypotheses were techniques
listening comprehension that: 1) (e.g.,the
selec-
first treatment group tive
(whichattention,received
inferencing) and instruc-
speaking tech-
tion in combinations niques
of metacognitive,
(e.g., self-evaluation, cooperation). cog- Not
nitive, and socioaffective
surprisingly, strategies)
it was found that success would of LLS
perform better than the training
second depended on teacher interest,
treatment group develop-
(which did not learn anyment metacognitive
of appropriate instructionalstrate- techniques,
and ability
gies); 2) the second group would to motivate
perform students better
to try new
than untrained controls. Each group had two
strategies.
sets of tasks involving Additional
listening training is and
being conducted by
speaking.
Chamot and O'Malleygroups
Students in the two treatment using the Cognitive
wereAca- in-
demic Language
structed in the use of selected Learning Approach (CALLA)
strategies for fifty
minutes a day over eightfor limited English-proficient
days; time students
forlearning
prac-
ESL. For discussions
ticing and applying strategies was of built
the CALLAinto model, the
which were
plan, and teacher effects integrates controlled.
LLS training and content- Ex-
based language
plicit directions and cues for using learning, seethe 19 and 83.
strate-
gies were "faded" on successive
Nyikos'Learner Training Study.days of
Nyikos (72) con-
ducted a controlled, university-level LLS train-
treatment for each activity.
The two treatment groups
ing study using clearly
three treatment outdis-
conditions and
tanced the control groupa comparison in speaking
condition. She studied the tasks.
use of
Overall, the results forassociative
listening memory strategies
did not for learning
distin-Ger-
guish between groups,man noun clusters. Students
possibly in the three listen-
because treat-
ment conditionsOther
ing tasks were too difficult. received written instructions
conclusions
were that LLS training and examples for
fitted well using three
into different
regular kinds of
language programs and memory
that strategies,
LLSsone per condition:
were funda- 1) the
color-only group associated
mentally the same as strategies for any certain colors
other with
grammatical gender
learning area. One intriguing finding of each noun (17)cluster to be
was
learned;
that Hispanic students 2) the picture-onlyfrom
benefitted group associated
LLS
each item with apreferred
training, but Asian students drawing; and 3) the multiple-
their

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 Research on Language Learning Strategies 413
association or color-plus-picture condition
operative strategies used
(both within and between
a combination strategy involving ethnic groups)athan
color-coded
did the whole-class method,
drawing. Students in the control condition
which encouraged re-
competitive behaviors. For
ceived no LLS instruction. Clear sex differ- developing English communication skills, the
ences emerged - men outscored women in the two cooperative methods were equally effective
color-plus-picture condition, while women and didwere more effective than the whole-class
better than men in both the picture-only method. and
the color-only conditions. The control condi-In a cooperative LLS training study of junior
tion showed no advantage over any of the treat- high school students learning French, Gunder-
ment conditions. Nyikos explained the findings son and Johnson (43) found that cooperative
in terms of cultural and social expectationsstrategies
of were developed through a shared
men and women and in terms of physiological task and reward structure. Both learners and
differences (72, 95). teachers were pleased with the cooperative be-
havior exhibited by the students, and teachers'
Teaching Strategies to Refugees. Sutter (121, 122)
conducted LLS training of refugees learning roles changed as a result of such cooperation.
Danish as a second language. He found that Simulations, games, and game-like activities
initial strategy preferences were related to
encouraged social strategies among French
ethnic and personal biases, and were influen- learners of English in studies by Crookall (33,
tial in the degree of success of LLS training. 34; see also 88, 91). Learners communicated
If the new strategies were completely opposed and cooperated with each other more intensely
to the learners' preferences, learners resisted and
the for longer periods than in traditional class-
training and disaster resulted. It was some- rooms. Though the use of social strategies was
times necessary to camouflage new strategies the most obvious result, students also used a
under the guise of familiar techniques. wide For range of other strategies, including cog-
instance, students' desire to make word lists nitive, affective, and compensation strategies.
(their preferred strategy) was channelled into Compared with more traditional exercises, the
the creation of a dictionary, which was done activities also caused student talk time to in-
crease and teacher talk time to decrease in
cooperatively (a camouflaged social strategy
that facilitated the preferred technique and statistically
was significant ways. Learners also be-
therefore non-threatening). Camouflaging came of more self-sufficient and able to take
strategies is very different from "completely greater responsibility for their own learning,
informed training" that most LLS trainersincluding
es- conducting their own classes without
pouse (see 83), but here it proved useful afor teacher present.
some learners who were resistant to innovative
techniques. Interestingly, the longer students ISSUES

spent in a particular language program, the

This discussion has presented examples
more they tended to value its teaching prac-
tices. LLS research under the categories of list
interviews, and think-aloud procedures, not
Teaching Cooperative and Other Strategies. Re-
taking, diaries, surveys, and training studie
searchers have conducted studies of cooperative
Each of these methods has had something im
learning, which indirectly involved LLS train-
portant to contribute. A summary of instru
ing encouraged by a cooperative task and/or tional and other issues follows.
reward structure (52). Cooperative learning in
language classrooms, described by Bassano and What We Think We Know. The research pre-
Christison (6), is more than just a grouping sented here has demonstrated and/or implied
arrangement. It also involves the entire class- the following points, each representing a piece
room environment and helps learners to de- of what we know about LLSs in instructional
velop social/process behaviors such as peer settings:
tutoring, as well as metacognitive strategies like * The learner is an active and involved participant in the
language learning process.
goal setting, monitoring, and evaluation (83).
* Language learners at all levels use strategies.
Sharan and his colleagues (7, 118) trained
* Some/most learners are relatively unaware of the strate-
learners of English in Israel to use two differ-
gies they use and do not take advantage of the full range
ent cooperative methods (as contrasted with of available strategies.
traditional whole-class instruction). The two * More proficient learners appear to use a wider range of
cooperative methods fostered greater use of co- strategies in a greater number of situations, but the rela-

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 414 Rebecca Oxford & David Crookall
tionship between strategy use and
to change the proficiency
shape of that zone, i.e., is to complex.
train learners
* Many different strategiesin can be
the use of used
strategies by
that good
do not learners:
initially fit their natural
techniques for organizing, for
style? How focusing and
do styles and strategies of evaluating
students relate to
those of teachers? and attitudes, for co-
learning, for handling emotions
operating with others in the learning
* Linguistic process,
Issues. What effects for
do different linking
writing and
new information with existing schemata,
sound systems have on LLS use?and
What isfor directly
the interaction
engaging in learning use. between the native language and a new language in terms
* Students at higher course levels
of strategy tend
use? What to use
other linguistic strategies
issues affect strategy
somewhat differently from use?
students at lower course levels.
* There is growing evidence
* LLSof sex
Training. and
Is LLS trainingethnic differences
always appropriate? If not,
in LLS use. when is it most and least valuable? What strategies should
* Motivation (in both type and intensity) appears to be
becovered
re- in training sessions, how, for whom, and how
lated to LLS use. long? How should LLS training deal with variables like
sex, ethnicity, learning style, and motivation? How can
* People with different learning styles or different personali-
ties often use different kinds of strategies. LLS training be tailored to the needs of individuals and
* Special demands are placed on language learners bygroups?
new Should certain strategies be taught simul-
writing systems, sounds, cultural values, and the need
taneously and in combination? How lasting are the effects
for highly "public" language performance in socialof
set-
LLS training? Do circumstances exist in which non-
tings. Different language learners use different strategies
integrated LLS training is clearly preferable to integrated
in response to these demands. training? If so, what are they?
* Different kinds of strategies often work together for opti-
mal results.3

* It is possible and generally advisable to teach learning LLS research has begun to answer some of
strategies through "completely informed training," in these questions, but more research is necessary
to
which learners are taught how and why to use, transfer, verify results and provide deeper under-
and evaluate strategies. standing.
* LLS training must take into account the nature and dif-
ficulty of the language tasks involved, as well as aspectsFUTURE LLS RESEARCH
of the learner such as sex, cultural/ethnic background,
Future LLS research should take into
aptitude, and general learning style.
* With students who use highly traditional strategies and account our past accomplishments and failure
are resistant to change, it may be necessary to camou-Researchers should, whenever possible, u
flage new strategies in the guise of old ones. multiple methods (qualitative and quantitativ
* LLS training typically is most effective when integratedfor gathering and validating LLS data. For e
into regular class activities. ample, they can employ a survey combin
* Teachers generally do not know which strategies their stu-
with interviews or think-aloud procedure
dents are using--unless they conduct some kind of for-
mal or informal research.
More information should be obtained and pr
sented about the psychometric quality of the
struments used, and weak instruments shou
What We Do Not Yet Know. We have learned
be improved. If manipulation is involved,
much from existing research, but many ques- in training studies, comparison groups shoul
tions still remain. For example: be chosen with care, and extraneous variable
* Ethnic and Sex Differences. Are the observed ethnic and sex should be either controlled or at least well docu-
LLS differences consistent over many studies? What are
the reasons for ethnic and sex differences - sociocultural
mented. It is important to expand LLS studies
to include all the relevant predictors and
expectations, genetic inheritance, or some combination?
mediating variables, e. g., age, sex, motivation,
What do such ethnic and sex differences have to say about
assumptions concerning "good learner" characteristics? attitudes, teaching and testing methods, and so
How do these assumptions affect our ways of differentially on (see especially 82, 84, 85, and 93 for dis-
dealing with various ethnic groups and with males and cussions of these).
females in the language classroom? And should different The field would be helped considerably if re-
LLS training be provided at the risk of offending various searchers could come to some consensus on
parties? definitions of various strategies. As yet there
* Motivation. What are the implications of LLS differences
is neither agreement on an overall, hierarchi-
in people with different kinds and degrees of motivation?
How can motivation be enhanced in the classroom
cally organized LLS taxonomy or typology, nor
through the use of what strategies?
on ways to delimit or define a given strategy
* General Learning Style. How does learning Style affect LLS
or cluster of strategies. Different researchers use
use? To what extent can individuals successfully use different
strate- terms and concepts, although in the
gies which are outside their current "comfort zone"last few
as de- years a little progress has been made
fined by their overall learning style? How far is it in this area (86). Greater agreement and more
possible

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 Research on Language Learning Strategies 415
standardized procedures will increase
also be designed incompar-
such a way as to monitor
ability across studies, allowing
and recordresults to have
certain types of strategy use (pro-
greater generalizability and explanatory
viding power.
both instant feedback for the user and
LLS investigations shouldeasily
thoroughly exam-
analyzed data for the researcher).
ine less formal (non-classroom) situations
If the results in anything,
so far have indicated
which people gain skills it in a new
is that language,
LLS research is a double-edged sword.
e.g., travel and living abroad. To understand
It has provided us with many intriguing in-
more about how language skills are
sights into how developed,
learners struggle with learning
and to help enhance that development
(worst case) or helpprocess,
themselves learn (best
researchers should compare the
case). But strategies used
it has also revealed how much still
in informal situations with those used in more remains to be discovered. As the issues become
conventional environments. Both settings mayever more complex (as they almost inevitably
have something to offer in terms of the strate-do when such diversified research builds up),
gies they foster; but informal situations mightthen not only funding, but collaboration on
provide especially rich information about joint research projects, becomes vital. Funding
strategies that could be adapted for use within and joint research, however, do not guarantee
more formal environments. the spirit in which such research should be de-
Finally, new computer-assisted language signed and carried out. The most constructive
learning technologies (e.g., videodisc, intelli-
attitude resides in those researchers who really
gent tutoring systems, and computerized simu- care about learners, who wish to understand
lation) should also be examined to determine and enhance the learning process, and who help
their effects on the strategies students useto topromote learning-to-learn skills.
learn a new language. Such technologies could

collection of descriptions) with no training given in the

NOTES
of text structures. Those who consistently and appropri
used text structure remembered more than those who did
not use it, both immediately and a week later.
1For information on research concerning strategies
3Sometimes strategies have been combined to form "meta-
outside the language learning area, see 11, 12,strategies."
13, 35, 36,For example, Dansereau (35) has used the
37, 38, 55, 56, 59, 62, 63, 64, 65, 127. For some
MURDER of mnemonic
the (set your Mood, read for Under-
cognitive-psychological underpinnings of many LLSs,Recall,
standing, see Digest information, Expand knowledge
Anderson (2; 21). through self-inquiry, and Review mistakes). Robinson (110)
2True experimental research in studies that dodeveloped
not involve
the SQ3R approach (Survey, Question, Read,
strategy training is an additional research method that
Recall, has Bransford's (10) IDEAL system involves
Review).
not been widely used for studying LLSs. Hague
these(44) used
steps: Identify the problem, Define the problem, Ex-
this method to study the reading strategy ofplore
using text approaches, Act on a plan, and Look at
alternative
structure to understand and retain information the
in effects.
a foreignThe Four C's learning plan (37) includes: Clarify
language. Students were randomly assigned to one of fourChoose a solution, Carry out a solution, and
the problem,
passages on the same topic but in four textCheck
structures
results.
(compare-contrast, problem-solution, cause-effect, and

MA: Newbury House, 1983: 67-103.

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Plan now to attend!

The 1990 Northeast Conference

in New York City, April 19-22

Shifting the Instructional

Focus to the Learner
Heidi Byrnes of Georgetown University
1990 Conference Chair

Make your budget plans early. The Conference is not until next April, but
you would not want to discover at the last minute that your colleagues had
used all the available funds to attend other meetings during Fall and Winter.

For 1990 Conference information as it becomes available, write

Northeast Conference Registration, P.O. Box 623, Middlebury, VT 05753

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