Binomial Theorem

EXPLORATION AND PROOFS FOR THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

Rodrigo Canário | Mathematics AA HL | 07/03/2022

 1. Introduction
The aim of this investigation is to explore the properties of the Binomial Expansion
Theorem. Instead of a simplistic approach to this concept, we aim to deepen our
understanding in terms of binomial expansion with varying powers and also linking these
expansions with some interesting patterns that arise.

Binomial Expansion is in itself a chapter of the Maths AA HL course and therefore this is
a chance to go above and beyond the standard study of this algebraic method. Ideally, this
investigation will positively impact our performance in the other areas of the Maths AA HL
course.

Furthermore, this investigation is the perfect opportunity to apply the skills we learned
in our last investigation, following the feedback given to do better each time and eventually
complete a very strong Internal Assessment.

2. Background
2.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The beginnings of the Binomial Theorem can be traced back to Euclid (4 th Century
B.C) where the expression ( a+ b )2 began being studied. Later, what we now know as Pascal’s
Triangle, associated to 17th century mathematician Blaise Pascal, was first presented by
Indian mathematician Acharya Pingala, giving the coefficients for the Binomial Expansion
Theorem. Though Blaise Pascal did not “discover” Pascal’s Triangle, he did present the
coefficients in the way we now know and commonly use:

()
n= n!
r r ! ( n−r ) !

From the notion of combinations and Pascal’s Triangle, we arrive at the formula for
the Binomial Theorem:

n
() 1 ()
( a+ b ) =an + n a n−1 b+ ⋯+ n an−r br + …+bn =¿
r
n

r =0
()
¿∑ n a b
r
n−r r

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 Initially, the Binomial Theorem was reduced to n ∈ N but Isaac Newton later
extended our notion by exploring (a+ b)n, for n ∈ Z and n ∈Q . Newton also presented the
generalized form of the Binomial Theorem as seen above.

2.2 DEFINITIONS
 Binomial Theorem:

2.3 VARIABLES
Variable Meaning
n A variable
r Number of items selected from a set
a,b,x Variables
k A constant
R Common ratio
un Value of a term in position n
f(x) Function of x
LHS Left-hand side of the equation
RHS Right-hand side of the equation
Table 1 - Variables

2.4 MATHEMATICAL METHODS

2.4.1 Combinations:
Combinations are a crucial part of the investigation. We use them to choose r number of
items from a set of n items. Formula for combinations:

(nr )= r ! ( n−r
n!
)!

2.4.2 Factorials:
The product of an integer and all the integers below it. When n is a non-negative integer,
its’ factorial (n !) is the product of n and all the integers below it until 1:

n !=n∗( n−1 )∗( n−2 )∗…∗3∗2∗1

2.4.3 Combinations with n being a negative integer or a rational number:

n!
Instead of using the usual formula to solve combinations, we can use a
r ! ( n−r ) !
quicker method: we build a fraction in which the numerator starts at n and is multiplied by
the previous integers [ ( n−1 ) , ( n−2 ) … ] until there are a total of r terms in the numerator. As
for the denominator, it is simply the factorial of r (r!):
r times

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 n ( n−1 )( n−2 ) ( n−3 ) …
(nr)= r!

Using this method, we can start exploring combinations when n ∈ Z :

r times
−n (−n−1 ) (−n−2 ) …
(−nr)= r!

We can also see what happens when n ∈Q :

r times
a a a
( )( )
a b b −1 b −2 …
()
n=
r ()
b =
r
r!

2.4.4 Pascal’s Triangle

Pascal’s Triangle is closely related to the binomial theorem in the way that it is a visual
representation of combinations when n is a non-negative integer, but also due to its
properties which allow for easier expansions:

n=o
n=1
n=2
…

r =1 …
r =0 r =2 r =7=n

Figure 1 – Pascal’s Triangle until row 7

Some things to note:

 The first and last term of each row are always 1. Property of the sides of Pascal’s
triangle:

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 (n0 )=(nn )=1
 The second and second to last term are always equal to their row number:

(n1)=(n−1)
n =n

 Any term not on the border is the sum of the two terms above it:

(nr )+(r +1n )=( n+1

r +1 )
or

(nr )=(n−1
r−1 ) ( r )
+ n−1
 The triangle is symmetric so any term on one side is mirrored on the other:

(nr)=(n−rn )
 The sum of all the terms in a row is a power of two:

(n0)+(n1 )+(n2 )+…+(nn )=2 n

Combinations are expressed by choosing a term ( r) from row (n). Using this idea, we can
verify that the formula for combinations does indeed work. For example, we see in the
triangle that term 2 of row 7 is 21; let’s use the formula for combinations to verify this
result:

()
7= 7!
=
7∗6∗5∗4∗3∗2∗1 5040
=
2 2 ! ( 7−2 ) ! 2∗1∗5∗4∗3∗2∗1 240
=21
The result from the formula seems to line up perfectly with the entry in Pascal’s Triangle.

2.4.5 Binomial Theorem

We can know use the concepts of combinations and Pascal’s triangle to build up our
understanding of what Isaac Newton coined the Binomial Theorem:
n n

() ()
0 1 r ()
( a+ b )n= n a + n a n−1 b+ ⋯+ n an−r br + …+ n b
n ()
The presence of combinations is immediately noticeable. It’s also clear that the value of r
starts at 0 and grows to n. This creates some implications:
 The coefficients follow Pascal’s triangle perfectly.
 a starts at power n and the power decays -1 each instance until it reaches 0.
 b starts at power 0 and the power grows +1 each instance until it reaches n.

The result of the expansion of the binomial is also a clearly a series, which may raise some
interesting aspects of this algebraic method.
2.4.6 Formula for Binomial Expansion for rational indexes
n n(n−1) 2 n(n−1)(n−2) 3
( 1+ x ) =1+nx + x + x +…
2! 3!

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 This formula is simplified specifically for this investigation. The actual formula would
be different due to the first term being any a like the usual expansions. This case removes
some aspects that allow for easier analysis of the patterns that arise. Bear in mind this
formula is coherent with the combinatorial methods shown above.

2.4.7 Formula for infinite geometric series

u1
S∞ = ,|R|< 1
1−R

3. Methods and Results

This section is dedicated to exploring the behavior of the Binomial Theorem when
presented with different scenarios (positive and negative numbers within a binomial,
different powers, etc.). Furthermore, proofs for the Binomial Theorem will be presented.

3.1 ANALYSING PATTERNS IN FULL EXPANSIONS

3.1.1 (a+b)n, n ∈ ℕ
In this sub-section, the aim is to analyse ( a+ b )n as n grows:

() ()
( a+ b )1= 1 a b 0 + 1 a0 b=¿
0 1

¿ 1 a+1 b=a+b
2

() () ()
( a+ b )2= 2 a b 0 + 2 a1 b1 + 2 a0 b2=¿
0 1 2
2 2
¿ 1 a +2 ab+1 b
3
()0 ()
1 2 () 3 ()
( a+ b ) = 3 a3 b0 + 3 a 2 b1 + 3 a1 b 2+ 3 a0 b3=¿

¿ 1 a3 +3 a2 b1 +3 a1 b2 +1 b3

4
()0 ()
1 ()
2 3 () 4 ()
( a+ b ) = 4 a4 b 0+ 4 a3 b1 + 4 a2 b2 + 4 a1 b3 + 4 a 0 b 4=1 a 4 +4 a3 b1 +6 a2 b2 + 4 a1 b3 +1 b4

These basic examples clearly demonstrate how closely related the Binomial
Theorem is to Pascal’s Triangle with the coefficients perfectly matching the entries of the
triangle. The property of the powers decaying for a and growing for b is also very clear.

PAGE 5
3.1.2 (a-b)n, n ∈ ℕ
n
In this sub-section, the aim is to analyse ( a+(−b) ) as n grows/changes from even to
odd:
1
( a−b )1 = 1 a ¿
0 ()
¿ 1 a−1 b=a−b
2
( a−b )2 = 2 a ¿
0 ()
2 2
¿ 1 a −2 ab+ 1b

( a−b ) = 3 a3 ¿
3

0 ()
3 2 1 1 2 3
¿ 1 a −3 a b +3 a b −1 b

( a−b ) = 4 a 4 ¿
4

0 ()
4 3 1 2 2 1 3 4
¿ 1 a −4 a b +6 a b −4 a b +1 b

( a−b )5 =¿

¿ 5 a5¿
0 ()
5 4 3 2 2 3 1 4 5
¿ 1 a −5 a b+10 a b −10 a b +5 a b −1b

( a−b )6 =¿

¿ 6 a¿
0
6
()
+ 6 a1 ¿
5 ()
¿ 1 a6−6 a5 b1 +15 a4 b 2−20 a3 b3 +15 a2 b 4−5 a1 b5 +1 b6

These expansions of ( a−b )n show the terms alternating from positive to negative. To
understand why this is we can analyze the general terms for when the binomial is raised to
even or odd powers:

PAGE 6
 2n

r ( )
( a−b ) = 2 n a(2 n )−r ¿

Here we can see that, due to the properties of negative bases, when r is even, the
power of (-b) will be even (subtracting an even number from an even number will result in
an even number), resulting in (-b) becoming positive and so the corresponding term will be
positive. When r is odd, the power of(-b) will be odd (subtracting an odd number from an
even number will result in an odd number), resulting in (-b) remaining negative and so the
corresponding term will be negative. Since n is even, the expansion will alternate between
positive and negative terms and the last term will always be positive because the maximum
value of r is n, which is an even number. Let’s take a look at when the power of the binomial
is odd:

( a−b )
2 n +1
(
= 2 n+1 a
r )
( 2 n +1) −r
¿

Here we can see that the general idea of the terms alternating between positive and
negative remains, except that the expansion will now always end at a negative term because
the maximum value of r will be an odd number and therefore (-b) will remain negative.

3.1.3 (-a+b)n, n ∈ ℕ
In this sub-section, the aim is to analyse (−a+ b )n as n grows/changes from even to
odd:

(−a+ b ) = 1 ¿
1

0 ()
¿−1 a+1 b

(−a+ b ) = 2 ¿
2

0 ()
(−a+ b ) = 3 ¿
3

0 ()
¿−1 a3 +3 a2 b1−3 a b 2+1 b3

(−a+ b )4 =¿

()
¿ 4 ¿
0
4 3 1 2 2 1 3 4
¿ 1 a −4 a b +6 a b −4 a b +1 b

(−a+ b )5=¿

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 ()
¿ 5 ¿
0

(−a+ b ) = 6 ¿
6

0 ()
()
+ 6 ¿
5
6 5 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 1 5 6
¿ 1 a −6 a b +15 a b −20 a b +15 a b −6 a b +1 b

These expansions of (−a+ b )n show the terms alternating from positive to negative. To
understand why this is we can analyze the general terms for when the binomial is raised to
even or odd powers:

(−a+ b ) = 2 n ¿
2n

r ( )
Here we can see that, due to the properties of negative bases, when r is even, the power of
(-a) will be even (subtracting an even number from an even number will result in an even
number), resulting in (-a) becoming positive and so the corresponding term will be positive.
When r is odd, the power of (-a) will be odd (subtracting an odd number from an even
number will result in an odd number) resulting in (-a) remaining negative and so the
corresponding term will be negative. When n is even, the expansion will always start at a
positive term (subtracting 0 from an even number will result in an even number) and end
on a positive term since any number to the power of 0 is 1 and will therefore not result in a
negative term. Let’s look at when the power of the binomial is odd:

(−a+ b )
2 n+1
(
= 2 n+1 ¿
r )
Here we can see that, due to the properties of negative bases, when r is even, the power of
(-a) will be odd (subtracting an even number from an odd number will result in an odd
number), resulting in (-a) remaining negative and so the corresponding term will be
negative. When r is odd, the power of (-a) will be even (subtracting an even number from an
odd number will result in an even number), resulting in (-a) becoming positive and so the
corresponding term will be positive. When n is odd, the expansions will always start at a
negative term (subtracting 0 from an odd number will result in an odd number) and end on
a positive term since any number to the power of 0 is 1 and will therefore not result in a
negative term.

3.1.4 (-a-b)n, n ∈ ℕ
In this sub-section, the aim is to analyse (−a−b )n as n grows/changes from even to
odd:

PAGE 8
 (−a−b ) = 1 ¿
1

0 ()
¿−1 a−1 b

(−a−b ) = 2 ¿
2

0 ()
(−a−b ) = 3 ¿
3

0 ()
¿−1 a3−3 a 2 b1 −3 a b2−1 b3

(−a−b )4=¿

()
¿ 4 ¿
0

()
+ 4 ¿
4
4 3 1 2 2 1 3 4
¿ 1 a + 4 a b +6 a b +4 a b + 1b

(−a−b )5 =¿

()
¿ 5 ¿
0

()
+ 5 ¿
4

(−a−b ) = 6 ¿
6

0 ()
()
+ 6 ¿
4

¿ 1 a6 +6 a 5 b 1+15 a 4 b2 +20 a3 b3 +15 a 2 b 4 +6 a1 b5 +1 b6

These expansions of (−a−b )n show that when n is even, all the terms are positive
and when n is odd all the terms are negative. To understand why this is we can analyze the
general terms for when the binomial is raised to even or odd powers:

(−a−b ) = 2 n ¿
2n

r ( )

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 When r is even, both (-a) and (-b) will become positive (for the reasons explained in
the previous examples regarding addition and subtraction of even and odd numbers) and so
the term will be positive. When r is odd, both (-a) and (-b) will remain negative, and the
product of two negative numbers is a positive number and therefore the term will be
positive. Let’s look at when the power of the binomial is odd:

(−a−b )
2n +1
(
= 2n+ 1 ¿
r )
When r is even, (-a) will remain negative, whilst (-b) will become positive. When r is
odd, (-a) will become positive, whilst (-b) will remain negative. The product of a positive
and a negative number is a negative number and therefore all terms will be negative.

As we can see, changing the sign of a or b or both will result in very different
expansions, also providing an opportunity to see negative bases, different powers and
multiplication involving negative numbers working together to form positive and negative
terms in the expansions.

3.2 PROOFS FOR THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

3.2.1 Proof by Mathematical Induction
Prove that:
n
n

r=0 r
()
( a+ b ) =∑ n an−r b r

Base step: Show it’s true for n=1

1
1

r=0 r
()
( a+ b ) =∑ 1 a 1−r b r

1
LHS ≡ ( a+ b ) =a+ b
1

() () ()
RHS ≡ ∑ 1 a1−r br = 1 a 1−0 b 0+ 1 a1−1 b 1=a+b ≡ LHS
r=0 r 0 1

Inductive step:

Assume true for n=k, for k ∈ ℕ:

k
k

r=0 r
()
( a+ b ) =∑ k a k−r b r

Show that:

PAGE 10
 k+1
( a+ b )
k+ 1

r=0 r ( )
=∑ k +1 a (k+1 )−r br ⟺

k+1
⟺ ( a+ b ) ( a+b ) =∑ k +1 a (k+ 1)−r br ⇔
k

r =0 r ( )
k k+1
⇔ LHS ≡ ( a+b ) ∑ k a b =∑ k +1 a
r =0 r
k−r r

r =0 r ()
( k +1) −r r
b ≡ RHS ( )
k
LHS ≡ ( a+ b ) ∑ k a b =¿
r=0 r
k−r r
()
k k

()
¿ ∑ k ak+1−r b r + ∑ k ak−r br +1=¿
r =0 r r =0 r
()
k k+1
¿∑
r =0
()
k ak+1−r b r +
r
∑
r =1 r−1
( )
k ak−(r −1) b(r −1 )+1=¿

k k

() () ()
¿ k ak+1−0 b0 + k ak−k bk +1+ ∑ k a k+1−r br + ∑ k a k−(r −1 ) b (r−1 )+1=¿
0 k r =1 r r =1 r −1
( )
k k
¿a k+1
+b k +1
+∑
r =1
()
k a k+1−r br +
r
∑
r =1 r −1
( )
k a k+1−r b r=¿

k
¿a
k+1
+b
k +1
+ ∑ k +1 a
r =1 r ( )
k+1−r r
b =¿

( )
0 k +1 ( )
¿ k +1 a k+1 b0 + k +1 a0 bk +1+ ∑ k + 1 ak +1−r br =¿
r=1 r ( )
k+1

r =0 r ( )
¿ ∑ k +1 ak+1−r b r ≡ RHS

Conclusion: The statement held for n=1. The statement is true for n=k and n=k+1,
therefore, the statement is true, q.e.d.

3.2.2 Proof through combinations

It’s possible to prove the Binomial Theorem through the type of problem that requires
combinations to solve:
n n

0 () ()
( a+ b )n= n a + n a n−1 b+ ⋯+ n an−r br + …+ n b
1 r n () ()

PAGE 11
 It’s helpful to understand what the expression is actually saying. For this proof, we
must treat a and b as items to be chosen from a set of n binomials; this is because, instead of
applying the distributive law of multiplication and having to compute each individual
multiplication of a and b we can simply find how many ways we have to achieve the
products we desire:
2 2

() () ()
( a+ b )2=( a+ b ) ( a+b )= 2 a + 2 ab+ 2 b
0 1 2

We have to come up with a question that can be solved through combinations. In

this case it would be how many b ’s do I have to choose to come up with the products a 2, ab
and b 2? To get a 2 we must choose zero b ’s out of two binomials. Another way to say this is

through (20 ) which reads: “2 sets, choose 0 items”; there is only one way to do this ((20)=1):
(a+b) (a+b)
Choose a Choose a
Table 2 - Ways to choose a^2

To get ab we must choose one b out of two binomials. Another way to say this is

through (21 ) which reads: “2 sets, choose 1 item”; there are two ways to do this ((21)=2).
(a+b) (a+b)
Choose a Choose b
Choose b Choose a
Table 3 - Ways to choose ab

To get b 2 we must choose two b’s out of two binomials. Another way to say this is

through (22 ) which reads: “2 sets, choose 2 items”; there is one way to do this ((22)=1).
(a+b) (a+b)
Choose b Choose b
Table 4 - Ways to choose b^2

Through this method, we’re essentially looking what products of a and b we can
make. Let’s take a look at the generalized expansion and try to extrapolate what we just saw
to any n.
n n

() ()
0 1 r () n ()
( a+ b )n= n a + n a n−1 b+ ⋯+ n an−r br + …+ n b

Our binomials are:

n times

PAGE 12
 ( a+ b ) , ( a+b ) , ( a+b ) ,… ,( a+b)
n
n
To get a we have to choose zero b’s from n binomials:
0 ()
n a . To get n−1 we have
a b

to choose one b from n binomials:

1()
n an−1 b
. We then choose two, three, four b’s until we

arrive at b n where we must choose n amount of b’s from n binomials, and there’s only one
n
way to do that, which is to choose one b in every set available:
n b.
n ()
Looking at the Binomial Theorem this way adds a different perspective to the
concept. When doing binomial expansion, we often forget that this formula is a shortcut for
the distributive rule that would give us exactly the same result.

3.3 NEGATIVE AND RATIONAL POWERS

3.3.1 Negative powers and power series’
When analysing binomials raised to negative powers, an interesting relationship
with geometric series’ shows up. Take a look at the following infinite geometric series:
2 3
1+ x+ x + x +…

It’s clear that the first term is 1 and the common ratio is x . Whenever |x|<1, the
series converges. Let’s plug these values into the formula for the sum of an infinite
geometric sequence:

u1 1 −1
S∞ = = =( 1−x ) =1+ x + x 2+ x 3 +…
1−r 1−x

All of a sudden, a binomial expansion appears:

0 ( )
( 1−x ) = −1 ( 1 )
−1 −1−0
¿

We previously saw how combinations with a negative n work and so we can now
understand that this expansion is indeed equal to the series presented earlier.

Combinations of n=−1 ,
−1
(r )
alternate between 1 and −1 until infinity. Whenever r is

even, the result is 1 and when r is odd, the result is −1 hence the fact that all terms are
positive. It is also worth noting that this specific expansion is categorically different from
what we saw before with (a+ b) since a is now redundant and, more importantly, the
expansion is now infinite. The fact that n is now a negative number opens up the possibility
for infinite combinations according to the method we saw before.

PAGE 13
 With binomial expansions of the likes of (1−x )−1 we know that there is an infinite
sequence associated to it. What we also know is that the sequence starts at 1 and the
common ratio is the value of the second term in our binomial. For example, ( 1−2 x )−1 will
produce a sequence starting at one with a common ratio of 2 x (bear in mind that the sign
changes due to the nature of the formula for infinite geometric sequences). ( 1+3 x )−1 will
produce a sequence starting at 1 with a common ratio of −3 x ; in this case the terms will
alternate between positive and negative due to the laws of multiplication with negative
numbers.

We also know that series are used by calculator to approximate results. Well, if we
plug ( 1−x )−1 into a graphical display calculator we will get a curve; if we then start tracing a
function for each instance of the consequent infinite geometric sequence, we can see that
the curves begin to increase in similarity:

Figure 1 - Graphical representation of (1-x)^-1 and it's corresponding sequence

This is a side of binomial expansion we hadn’t seen before. It’s close relationship
with infinite geometric sequence seems impossible until we understand how to solve
combinations when n is negative. As a matter of fact, the next question to ask is: Is it
possible to produce an infinite sequence when n is positive? Technically, yes, but after r
reaches n the combinations are all equal to zero and therefore the series degenerates into
…+ 0+0+0 …

3.3.2 Positive Rational powers

Using the formula given in the background, let’s analyse some different powers:

1
2 1
( 1+ x ) =1+ x +
1 1
2 2 ( )
−1
2
x+
1 1
2 2
−1 ( )( )
1
2
−2
3
x + …=¿
2 2! 3!

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 1 1 1
¿ 1+ x− x 2+ x3 + …
2 8 16

3
2 3
( 1+ x ) =1+ x+
3 3
2 2 ( )
−1
3 3
2 2 2
x +
−1 ( )( )
3
2
−2
x 3 +…=¿
2 2! 3!

3 3 1
¿ 1+ x+ x 2− x 3+ …
2 8 16

Some things to note:

 We now have an infinite series built from a positive exponent. This is coherent with
the method used to solve combinations when n ∈Q .
 The pattern of positive and negative terms is quite different from the series we
usually see. This is due to the numerator eventually decaying to negative values.

3.3.3 Negative Rational Powers

Due to the method of solving combinations when n is rational, expansions of
binomials with rational powers will also be infinite:
−1
1 −1
= ( √ 1−x ) =( 1−x ) =¿
2

√1−x

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
−1 −1 −1 −3 −1 −5 −1 −7
2 0 2 1 2 2 3
¿ 2 1 b + 2 1 b + 2 1 b + 2 1 2 b +…=¿
0 1 2 3

1 3 2 5 3
¿ 1− x + x − x +…
2 8 16

−1
1 −1
=( √ 1−x ) =( 1−x ) =¿
3 3

√1−x
3

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
−1 −1 −1 − 4 −1 −7 −1 −10
0 1 2 3
¿ 3 1 3 b + 3 1 3 b + 3 1 3 b + 3 1 3 b + …=¿
0 1 2 3

1 2 2 14 3
¿=1− x + x − x +…
3 9 81

As we can see, the series is once again infinite.

PAGE 15
 3.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS
The results of this investigation challenged and built upon our previous notion of the
Binomial Theorem. Not only has proving the formula shown to be beneficial in terms of
understanding, but it has also presented a brand-new way to look at what the Binomial
Theorem actually is, in its core – a shortcut for the distributive rule of multiplication. When
analysing negative and rational exponents we came across something that we previously
thought was impossible with the Binomial Theorem – not only did we solve combinations
with negative and rational number of sets, but we also built infinite geometric series from a
formula that supposedly gave us a finite number of terms. We also saw how approximations
using series’ work, graphing our binomial and comparing them to the graphs of the different
instances of the series they produce.

3.5 LIMITATIONS, CONSTRAINTS AND DIFFICULTIES

The large majority of complications came from analysing negative and rational powers as
long as the series they create. Some of the deeper concepts regarding these powers are
locked behind more advanced syllabus, which we currently have not learned. Unfortunately,
time also became a constraint since, had we had more time, it would’ve been possible to
learn and link the Binomial Theorem, a topic of algebra, to calculus – proving the Binomial
Theorem through derivation, integrating binomials, etc.

3.6 STRENGTHS
As for the strengths of this investigation, we have the fact that a good number of
different examples were studied, allowing for consistent generalisations to be made. The
two proofs allow for a very rich understanding of what the Binomial Theorem both as a sum
of terms and as a combinatorial issue/solution. The explanations are also well organized
and concise.

3.7 WEAKNESSES
One clear weakness was the analysis of negative and rational powers: more examples
and more links to sequences and series would have made for a richer investigation. The
explanation for some of the formulas used in section 3.3 could also have been clearer and be
more detailed in terms of why they work the way they do. Another weakness was failing to
go beyond what was assigned for this investigation since this particular topic has a lot of
applications, properties and details which would allow for an even better understanding of
the Binomial Theorem.

4. Conclusion
In conclusion, this investigation achieved it’s aim. We generalized the patterns for the
Binomial Theorem when raised to natural powers, proved the formula through
Mathematical Induction and through Combinatorial Proof and lastly began investigating
negative and rational powers. Overall, this investigation was a great way to more deeply

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understand binomial expansion and the extents to which it spreads – we didn’t even scratch
the surface when it comes to the full extent of this concept. More than just understanding
the Binomial Theorem, this investigation developed our problem-solving and organizational
skills which are transcendent to all investigation. Ideas and questions for other
investigations also appeared which may lead to an even better understanding of algebra,
combinatorics and calculus. This investigation achieved what it aimed to achieve and
provided much more than just it’s results.

5. References
GeoGebra (2021). Calculator Suite - GeoGebra. [online] www.geogebra.org. Available at:
https://www.geogebra.org/calculator.

Goss, D. (2011). THE ONGOING BINOMIAL REVOLUTION. [online] Available at:

https://arxiv.org/pdf/1105.3513.pdf#:~:text=According%20to%20our%20current
%20understanding [Accessed 4 Mar. 2022].

Hammond, J. (n.d.). The Binomial Theorem and Combinatorial Proofs. [online]

www.math.wichita.edu. Available at:
https://www.math.wichita.edu/~hammond/math321/section-counting-binomial.html.

Kwong, H. (2019). 3.6: Mathematical Induction - An Introduction . [online] Mathematics

LibreTexts. Available at:
https://math.libretexts.org/Courses/Monroe_Community_College/MATH_220_Discrete_Ma
th/3%3A_Proof_Techniques/3.6%3A_Mathematical_Induction_-_An_Introduction.

Problem Solving, A. of (2012). Art of Problem Solving: Proving the Binomial Theorem with
Counting. [online] www.youtube.com. Available at: https://youtu.be/HXdMc8iEUpg
[Accessed 7 Mar. 2022].

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2019). binomial theorem | Formula & Definition.
In: Encyclopædia Britannica. [online] Available at:
https://www.britannica.com/science/binomial-theorem.

www.youtube.com. (n.d.). Binomial Theorem Proof by Induction. [online] Available at:

https://youtu.be/BcSyVuZSnNE [Accessed 7 Mar. 2022].

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