What are Inertial Sensors

Inertial sensors are used to transduce inertial force into measurable

electrical signals. These high precision sensors are used to measure
acceleration, inclination and vibration of an object. Micromachining
technology has made it possible to produce MEMS (Micro
Electromechanical System) inertial sensors using single-crystal silicon
sensor elements. These micron-sized sensors meet all major system
design drivers like low-cost, high performance, high precision and
small form-factor. Based on the same principles as of macroscopic
inertial sensors, MEMS inertial sensors can detect slightest change in
position, orientation and acceleration of an object several metre long
using a sensor unit as small as few micro-meters in dimensions.

There are mainly two types of MEMS inertial sensors -

accelerometers that measure linear acceleration in one or more axis,
and gyroscopes that measure angular motion. These sensors are
manufactured for use in specific applications as each application
requires inertial sensors having different bandwidth, resolution and
dynamic range. For example, inertial sensor used in automotive
airbag release system must have a bandwidth up to 0.5 KHz,
resolution of around 500 mG and dynamic range of about +/-100G.
While inertial sensor used in a space microgravity measurement
instrument can have a bandwidth of 0-10 Hz, but must have a
resolution as precise as < 1 µG and dynamic range less than +/- 1G.

The inertial sensors are generally part of a larger control system in

any application or device. Mere information of acceleration or
angular movement of an object is of no use. The information
collected from inertial sensor is always used to control movement of
the device itself or is used for activating an actuator, like to open an
airbag of a car.
Applications of Inertial Sensors -
There was a time when building inertial sensors was a costly affair
and their use was restricted to military and aerospace applications.
The development of MEMS inertial sensors has opened the
possibilities and use of inertial sensors in automotive and various
consumer electronics segments.

In the automotive industry, accelerometer is used for airbag release

control, traction control, seat belt control, active suspension, antilock
braking system (ABS) and monitoring vehicle vibrations. While the
gyroscope is used for rollover protection, automatic indicators,
power steering and to control vehicle dynamics.

In consumer segment, inertial sensors are used in a variety of

applications like platform stabilization in video cameras, virtual
reality headsets, pointing devices for computers, intelligent toys and
gaming keypads. All smartphones and tablets nowadays have inertial
sensors for detecting screen rotation, gaming and augmented reality
applications.

The inertial sensors are also used to monitor position and orientation
of robotic manipulators and unmanned robotic vehicles. In medical
applications, these sensors are used for monitoring patients with
specific conditions like for monitoring patients having Parkinson’s
disease. High-end inertial sensors are used in military and aerospace
applications like smart ammunition, aircraft dynamics control, crash
detection, seat ejection system in aircrafts, and microgravity
measurement.

Accelerometers -
Accelerometers consist of a mechanical sensing element that can
measure acceleration in one or more axis. The sensing element
consists of a proof mass attached to a reference frame by a
mechanical suspension system. In MEMS sensors, proof mass is an
extremely small seismic mass and the suspension system is built
from silicon springs.

The proof mass deflects from its stable position whenever the sensor
experiences some inertial force due to acceleration. This is governed
by Newton's second law of motion. The deflection of the proof mass
with respect to acceleration is expressed by a Laplace equation as
follow -
x/a = 1/(s2 + b/m + s*k/m)
Where,
x is displacement of proof mass,
a is acceleration,
s is Laplace operator,
b is damping coefficient,
m is mass of the proof mass,
k is the mechanical spring constant of the suspension system.
The resonant frequency of the sensor is given by the following
equation -
fn = √(k/m)
The quality factor is given by the following equation -
Q = √(m*k)/b
The sensitivity of the sensor (in open loop) is given by the following
equation -
S = m/k

It can be seen that if the sensitivity is increased, resonant frequency

decreases and vice-versa. This trade-off can be adjusted with a
closed loop system. The damping coefficient determines the
maximum bandwidth of the accelerometer. In MEMS
accelerometers, damping coefficient is often variable and increases
with displacement of the proof mass.

In all types of micro-machined accelerometers, the displacement of

the proof mass is measured by position measuring interfaces, like in
a capacitive measurement, there are movable plates attached to
proof mass which move along the proof mass between fixed
capacitive electrodes. There are many types of sensing mechanisms
that are used in the design of accelerometers. Some of the common
sensing methods include piezoresistive, capacitive, piezoelectric,
optical, and tunnelling current.

The accelerometer can have open-loop or closed-loop system. If the

electrical signals from the position measurement interface are
directly used as the output signals, it is called open-loop
accelerometer. Most of the accelerometer sensors are open-loop as
they are easy to build. However, open-loop accelerometers have to
manage with high tolerances due to variable spring constant,
variable damping coefficient, and non-linear proof mass
displacements.
In a closed-loop accelerometer, there is a feedback system that
applies a feedback force to the proof mass proportional to its
acceleration putting the proof mass back to its rest position. This
way, the non-linear factors are cancelled out, sensitivity gets
dependent on the feedback control and dynamics of the sensor can
be precisely controlled using an electrical signal controller. The proof
mass can be placed back to its rest position using electrostatic,
thermal or magnetic actuation. The feedback signal controlling the
feedback force can be analog or digital. All this adds more complexity
to the sensor design.

Acceleration Sensing Methods -

There are many ways in which accelerometers sense acceleration in
a particular axis. Some of the acceleration sensing methods are
described below -

1. Piezoresistive Accelerometers - In these type of accelerometers,

the proof mass is attached to a piezoresistor. The resistor is
connected to read-out electronic circuit. When there is displacement
in proof mass, there is a change in the resistance of the piezoresistor
proportional to the applied force. These types of accelerometers are
the first one to see bulk production. The biggest drawback of these
type of accelerometers is their thermal stability. The peizoresistance
can significantly change due to thermal noise and can lead to false
outputs.
2. Capacitive Accelerometers - In capacitive accelerometers,
capacitive sense fingers are attached to the proof mass which move
along a given axis with the displacement of the proof mass. Each
movable plate is placed between two electrodes. When there is an
acceleration, the proof mass displaces in the direction opposite to
the direction of motion and the variable plate moves along the proof
mass. The change in the position of variable plate along an axis cause
change in its distance with fixed electrode plates and cause
symmetrical change in capacitance. This is then measured as
electrical output by a read-out electronics. The capacitive
accelerometers are thermally stable, but are prone to
electromagnetic interference, where they can give false outputs due
to parasitic capacitance.
3. Piezoelectric Accelerometers - Most of the macroscopic
accelerometers use piezoelectric materials for detecting motion of
proof mass. Many micro-machined accelerometers also use the same
principle. These accelerometers have great bandwidth, but have
extremely poor resonant frequency due to leakage currents. The
piezoelectric material produces electrical signals proportional to the
displacement of the proof mass in a given axis.
4. Tunnelling Accelerometers - These types of accelerometers use
tunnelling current for measuring the displacement of the proof mass.
The tunnelling current between a sharp tip and an electrode changes
exponentially by the tip-electrode distance. The tunnelling current is
given by the following equation -
I = I0 * exp(-ᵦ√(φz))
Where,
I is Tunnelling current between tip and electrode,
I0 is scaling current depending upon the material used,
ᵦ is conversion factor,
φ is tunnel barrier height in eV,
and z is tip-electrode distance.
5. Resonant Accelerometers - In a resonant accelerometer, the proof
mass is attached to a resonator. The displacement of the proof mass
changes the strain of the resonator and so its resonant frequency.
The change is frequency is converted to digital electrical signals using
a frequency counter circuit. These accelerometers are quite immune
to noise and are highly reliable as frequency changes can be directly
converted to digital format.
6. Optical Accelerometers - These accelerometers use optical fibres
and wave guides attached to the proof mass. However, optical fibre
type accelerometers are not suitable for batch fabrication as the
fibre needs to be manually installed near the proof mass in the
sensor assembly. Another type of optical accelerometers use LED
and PIN photo detectors to measure displacement of the proof mass.
The optical accelerometers have the advantage that they are free
from electrostatic and electromagnetic interference. But, because
they usually involve a complex assembly and read-out circuitry, they
are not much popular.
Gyroscopes -
A gyroscope measures the rotation of an object. The MEMS
gyroscopes use the principle of Coriolis force. When a mass moves in
a rotating system, it experiences a force perpendicular to axis of
rotation and the direction of motion. This is called Coriolis force. A
MEMS gyroscope consists of a mechanical structure that is driven
into resonance due to Coriolis force and excites secondary oscillation
in the same or a secondary structure. The secondary oscillation is
proportional to the rotation of the structure in a given axis. The
Coriolis force has relatively small amplitude compared to its driving
force. That is why, all MEMS gyros use a vibrating structure that use
the phenomenon of Coriolis force.

The vibrating structure consists of proof mass that is connected to a

inner frame by a pair of springs. The inner frame is connected to an
outer frame by another set of orthogonal springs. There are
capacitive sense fingers between the inner frame and the outer
frame attached along the orthogonal springs. The Coriolis force is
proportional to both the angular velocity of the rotating object as
well as velocity of the object towards or away the axis of the
rotation. The proof mass is continuously driven sinusoidally along the
inner springs. When the system experiences rotation, the resonating
proof mass experiences Coriolis force along the orthogonal springs
attached between inner and outer frame. This changes the distance
between the capacitive sense fingers and so an electrical signal
proportional to Coriolis force is output. As the Coriolis force is
proportional to angular velocity, the electrical signal due to it is also
proportional to the angular velocity of the system.

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Meta Keywords
What are MEMS inertial sensors, MEMS inertial sensors, applications
of inertial sensors, applications of accelerometer, applications of
gyroscope, Working principle of accelerometer, open-loop
accelerometer, closed-loop accelerometer, Piezoresistive
Accelerometers, How Piezoresistive Accelerometers work, Capacitive
Accelerometers, How Capacitive Accelerometers work, Piezoelectric
Accelerometers, How Piezoelectric Accelerometers work, Tunnelling
Accelerometers, How Tunnelling Accelerometers work, Resonant
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gyroscope

Meta Description
Learn about MEMS inertial sensors like accelerometer and
gyroscope.

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Learn about the working of MEMS accelerometers and gyroscope.

Image Tags

TCH05-01:
File-Name: MEMS-Accelerometer
Alt: Top-view micrograph of an accelerometer quadrant
Caption: Top-view micrograph of an accelerometer quadrant

TCH05-02:
File-Name: Piezoresistive-Accelerometers
Alt: Structure of Piezoresistive Accelerometers
Caption: Example showing working principle of piezoresistive
accelerometers

TCH05-03:
File-Name: Capacitive-Accelerometers
Alt: Structure of Capacitive Accelerometers
Caption: Example showing working principle of capacitive
accelerometers
TCH05-04:
File-Name: Piezoelectric-Accelerometers
Alt: Structure of Piezoelectric Accelerometers
Caption: Example showing working principle of piezoelectric
accelerometers

TCH05-05:
File-Name: Tunnelling-Accelerometers
Alt: Structure of Tunnelling Accelerometers
Caption: Example showing working principle of tunnelling
accelerometers

TCH05-06:
File-Name: Resonant-Accelerometers
Alt: Structure of Resonant Accelerometers
Caption: Example showing working principle of resonant
accelerometers

TCH05-07:
File-Name: Optical-Accelerometers
Alt: Structure of Optical Accelerometers
Caption: Example showing working principle of optical
accelerometers

TCH05-08:
File-Name: MEMS-Gyroscope-Vibratory-Structure
Alt: Vibratory Structure of MEMS Gyroscope
Caption: Example showing working principle of MEMS gyroscope