RH^H AO@^C[H^
H JH CDSKHKAÛO

ICDAH [SRC^AG^

Dhoacj Fcrcdah
 

^C[SCJTH

Dhoacj Fcrcdah
 

>
 

CDATG^AHJ

@uéh rcsucjth phrh prcphrhr cj cxhico

dc scjckkaûo phrh ao`rcshrh jh
Cdukhkaûo Icdah [upcragr

Dhoacj Fcrcdah
 

Rraicrh Cdakaûo, 86 dc hnraj dc >283

Oao`uoh phrtc dc csthD.^.© >283pucdc
punjakhkaûo CDATG^AHJ ALOASI
rcprgdukarsc, hjihkcohrsc co uo sastcih
dc rckupcrhkaûo g trhosiatarsc, co oao`uoh egrih oa pgr oao`ýo icdag,
sao jh hutgrazhkaûo prcvah y pgr cskratg dc Cdatgrahj Aloaui.
Aiprcsg y 
Aiprcsg y  fckfg
 fckfg co Iáxakg
 

éodakc
AOT^GDSKKAÛO 8;
FHNAJADHD UC^NHJ
8. Kgiprcosaûo dc jckturh
 H p hr tar dc uo tcx tg=
8.8. ^ckgogkcr aoegrihkaûo cxpjékath. 83
8.>.
.>. Aoec
Aoecra
rarr fckf
fckfgs
gs.. 83
8.;. Adcotaeakhr cj rcsuico quc kgotacoc jhs adchs praokaphjcs. 83
8.4. Kgipjcthr uo kuhdrg saoûptakg kgo jgs kgokcptgs praokaphjcs. 85
8.3. Adcotaeakhr jh kgokjusaûo. 80
8.5. Adcotaeakhr jh sckucokah dc hkgotckaiacotgs. 80
8.0. ^ckgogkcr dastaotgs
dastaotgs tapgs dc rcjhkagocs= khush-kgosckucokah, gpgsakaûo-scicmhozh,
gpgsakaûo-scicmhozh,
`cocrhj-p-phhrtakujhr, cm
cmccipjaeakhtavhs, cxp
cxpjakhtavhs, hoh
hohjû`akhs, kr
krg
gogjû`akhs. 80
8.6.
8.6. Dast
Dastao
ao`u
`uar
ar cotr
cotrcc fckfgs
fckfgs y gpaoa
gpaoago
gocs.
cs. 86
8.1. Adcotaeakhr jh adch praokaphj y jhs adchs sckuodhrahs. 86
8.82.
8.82. ^ckgo
^ckgogkcr
gkcr cj sa`oae
sa`oaeakh
akhdg
dg dc
dc phjhnrhs
phjhnrhs dc hkucrdg
hkucrdg kgo
kgo cj kgot
kgotcxtg
cxtg g khip
khipgg
scièotakg. 86
>. Ihocmg dc vgkhnujhrag
vgkhnujhrag
>.8. Csthnjckcr hohjg`éhs cotrc phjhnrhs. 86

 H p hr tar dc uo tcx tg=

>.>. Dastao`uar phjhnrhs y cxprcsagocs kgo sa`oaeakhdg gpucstg. 81
>.;. Dastao`uar phjhnrhs y cxprcsagocs kgo sa`oaeakhdg saiajhr. 81

FHNAJADHD IHTCIÈTAKH
8. [ukcsagocs ouiárakhs >8
>. [cracs csphkahjcs >>
;. Aih`aohkaûo csphkahj
csphkah j >4
4. Rrgnjcihs dc rhzgohiacotg >3

KACOKAH[ A (NAGJG@ÉH)
8. Cj vhjgr
vhjg r dc jh nagdavcrsadhd
8.8. Khrhktcréstakhs
Khrhktcré stakhs kgiuocs dc jgs scrc
scrcss vavgs >6
8.>. Hpgrthkagocs
Hpgrthkag ocs dc Dhrwao phrh cxpjakhr jh cvgjukaûo dc jgs scrcs
scrc s vavgs >1
8.;. ^cjhkaûo cotrc hdhpthkaûo y scjckkaûo ohturhj >1
8.4. Khrh ktcréstakhs
Khrhktcréstak hs y ehktgrcs
ehktgrc s dc racs`g dc jh nagdavcrsadhd co Iáxakg ;2
8.3. Aipgrthokah dc jh kgoscrvhkaûo
kgoscrvhk aûo dc jgs ckgsastcihs
ckgsastc ihs ;8
8.5. Cquadhd co cj hprgvckfhiacotg prcscotc y euturg dc jgs rckursg s= cj dcshrrgjjg 
dcshrrgjjg 
sustcothnjc ;8
>. Tckogjg`éh
Tckogjg`éh y sgkacdhd
>.8. Kacokah y tckogjg`éh co jh aotcrhkkaûo scr fuihog-ohturhjczh ;8
;. Trhosegrihkaûo dc ihtcrah y cocr`éh
;.8. Jh egtgséotcsas
egtgséotcsa s kgig prgkcsg dc trhosegrihkaûo
trhosegrihka ûo dc cocr`éh y kgig nhsc dc jhs
jhs
khdcohs hjaicotakahs ;>
;.>. ^csparhkaûo kcjujhr. ;;
;.;. ^csparhkaûo hcrgnah y hohcrgnah.
hohcrgnah . ;;
;.4. Egtgséotcsas y rcsparhkaûo co cj kakjg dcj khrngog. ;4
;.3. Gr`hoasigs
Gr`hoasigs hutûtrgegs y fctcrûtrgegs. ;4
4. Outrakaûo
Outrakaûo y rcsparhkaûo
rcsparhkaûo phrh
phrh cj kuadhdg dc jh shjud
4.8. Aipgrthokah dc jh
jh hjaicothkaûo
hjaicothkaû o kgrrckth co jh shjud= dacth cquajanrhdh, kgipjcth c
fa`aáoakh. ;3

3
 

4.>. Rrcvcokaûo
Rrcvcokaûo dc coecricdhdcs rcjhkagohdhs kgo jh outrakaûo....
outrak aûo.... ;3
4.;. Rraokaphjcs khushs y kgosckucokahs
kgosckuc okahs dc jh kgothiaohkaûo dc jh jh htigsecrh y dcj 
dcj 
khjcothiacotg
khjcothi acotg `jgnhj. ;5
4.4. Rrcvcokaûo
Rrcvcokaûo dc coecricdhdcs rcsparhtgrahs. ;5
3. ^cprgdukkaûo y scxuhjadhd
scxuhjadhd
3.8. Khrhktcréstakhs
Khrhktcré stakhs `cocrhj
`cocrhjcs
cs dc jh davasaûo kcjujhr pgr iatgsas y icagsas. ;0
3.>. ^cprgdukkaûo scxuhj y hscxuhj.
hscxuhj . ;0
3.;. [hjud rcprgduktavh y hotakgokcptavgs. ;6
3.4. Coecricdhdcs
Coecric dhdcs dc trhosiasaûo scxuhj. H`cotcs khushjcs, praokaphjcs séotgihs y

5. icdadhs dcyprcvcokaûo
@coátakh, tckogjg`éh sgkacdhd ;6
5.8. Ecogtapg, `cogtapg, krgigsgihs
krgigsg ihs y `cocs. ;1
5.>. Iátgdgs, ncoceakags y racs`gs dc jh ihoapujhkaûo `coátakh. 42

EG^IHKAÛO KÉUAKH Q ÁTAKH

8. Jh egrihkaûo kévakh
kévakh y átakh co cj dcshrrgjjg sgkahj y sgkahj
sgkahj
8.8. Khrhktcréstakhs
Khrhk tcréstakhs dc jh ohturhjczh fuihoh. Khphkadhd phrh pcoshr y muz`hr jhs prgpahs 
prgpahs 
hkkagocs. 4>
8.>. Jancrthd phrh cjc`ar y dckadar rcspgoshnjcicotc.
rcspgos hnjcicotc. Kgodakagocs y jéiatcs. 4>
8.;. Khrhktc
Khrhktcréstakhs
réstakhs dc jh hutgogiéh igrhj. Kratcrags quc mustaeakho
mustaeak ho hkkagocs y dckasagocs 
dckasagocs 
pcrsgohjcs. 4>
8.4. Kgokacokah igrhj aodavaduhj. 4;

8.3. Jh igrhj sc kgostruyc kgo jgs dciès= jh ciphtah y cj daèjg`g phrh cj dcshrrgjjg 
igrhj. dcshrrgjjg  4;
8.5. ^c`jhs y tapgs dc ogrihs co jh vadh kgtadahoh. Tapgs dc ogrihs. 44
>. Jh daicosaûo
daico saûo kévakh y átakh dc jh kgovavcokah
kgovavco kah
>.8. Tapgs dc vhjgrcs= ckgoûiakgs, cstátakgs y igrhjcs. 44
;. Adcotadhd c aotcrkujturhjadhd phrh uoh kaudhdhoéh dcigkrètakh.
;.8. Cjcicotgs quc aotcrvacoco co jh egrihkaûo dc jh adcotadhd pcrsgohj= `rupgs
`rupgs dc 
dc 
pcrtcocokah, trhdakagocs, kgstuinrcs, fastgrahs kgiphrtadhs,
kgiphrtadhs, aostatukagocs
aostatukagocs sgkahjcs
 y pgjétakhs.
pgjétakhs. 43
4. Jgs hdgjcskcotcs
hdgjcskcot cs y sus kgotcxtgs dc kgovavcokah
4.8. Khinags
Khinags eésakgs, sgkahjcs y hecktavgs dc jh hdgjcskcokah. 45
4.>. Dcrckfgs dc jgs hdgjcsk
hdgjcskcotcs.
cotcs. , 40
4.;. ^cspgoshnajadhdcs
^cspgoshnajadhdcs dc jgs hdgjcskcotcs co su su cdukhkaûo,
cdukhkaûo, hjaicothkaûo, shjud, 
rckrchkaûo, trhnhmg y phrtakaphkaûo sgkahj. 40
4.4. [atuhkagocs dc racs`g phrh jh shjud= aoeckkagocs dc trhosiasaûo sgkahj. 46
4.3.
4.5. Tapgs dc vagjcokah
Ihjtrhtg, fhkah jgs
hnusg y hkgsg hdgjcsk
hdgjcskcotcs.
scxuhj. cotcs. 46
41
4.0. Khphkadhd phrh rcspgodcr hscrtavhicotc
hscrtavh icotc hotc satuhkagocs dc racs`g. 41
3. Rraokapags
Rraokapags y vhjgrcs dc jh dcigkrhkah
3.8. Jgs dcrckfgs fuihogs
fuihogs kgig.eu
kgi g.eucotc
cotc dc vhjgr, da`oadhd
da`oadhd fuihoh, hutgogiéh,
hutgogiéh,  
jancrthd dc aodavadugs, kgovavcokah dcigkrètakh, rcspctg h jhs daecrcokahs kujturhjcs
 y mustakah
mustakah sgkahj. 41
3.>. ^cspgoshnajadhdcs
^cspgoshnaj adhdcs kaudhdhohs co jh dcigkrhkah.
dcigkrh kah. 38
3.;. Khrhktcréstakhs
Khrhktcr éstakhs dc jh dcigkrhkah.
dcigkrhka h. 38
5. Rhrtakaphkaûo
Rhrtakaphkaûo y kaudhdhoéh dcigkrètakh.
5.8. Kgipgocotcs dcj Csthdg icxakhog= pgnjhkaûo, tcrratgrag y `gnacrog. 38
5.>. Davasaûo dc jgs pgdcrcs dcj Csthdg icxakhog. 3>
5.;. Dcrckfgs euodhicothjcs dc jgs kaudhdhogs co jh Kgostatukaûo Rgjétakh dc jgs jgs 
Csthdgs Soadgs Icxakhogs y su rcjhkaûo kgo |gs Dcrckfgs Fuihogs. 3>
5.4. Ickhoasigs
Ickhoas igs dc rcprcscothk
rcprcscothkaûo
aûo dc jgs kaudhdhogs co cj
cj `gnacrog dcigkrètakg.
Rhrtadgs pgjétakgs. 3;
5.3. Jhs gnja`hkagocs `uncrohicothjcs
`uncro hicothjcs kgo jgs kaudhdhogs co jgs oavcjcs ecdcrhj,
ecdcrhj , csththj
 y iuoakaphj.
iuoakaphj. 3;
5.5. ^cktgs dc jh dcigkrhkah co jhs sgkacdhdcs kgotcipgrèochs.
kgotcipg rèochs. 33

5
 

5.0. Rhrtakaphkaûo
Rhrtakaphkaûo kaudhdhoh. 33
0. Fhkah
Fhkah uoh kaudhdhoéh aoegrihdh, kgiprgictadh y phrtakaphtavh
phrtakaphtavh
0.8. Jh euokaûo sgkahj dc jgs icdags dc kgiuoakhkaûo. 35
6. Rcoshr, dckadar y hktuhr phrh cj euturg
6.8. Aipgrthokah dc jh rcjhkaûo dcj scr fuihog kgo su cotgrog ohturhj y sgkahj. 35
1. ^ckursgs
^ckur sgs y kgodakag
kgodakagocs
ocs phrh jh
jh sgjukaûo dc kgoejaktgs sao vagjcokah
1.8. Jh oc`gkahkaûo co jh rcsgjukaûo y ihocmg dc kgoejaktgs. 30

C[RHØGJ
8. Gntcokaûo
Gntcok aûo dc aoegrihkaûo k

8.8. Rrgpûsatgs
Rrgpûsatgs y khrhktcréstakhs
khrhktcréstakhs dc jhs eakfhs n
nanjag`
anjag`rèeak
rèeakhs.
hs. 36
>. Gr`hoazhkaûo dc aoegrihkaûo
>.8. Euokagocs y khrhktcréstakhs dc jjgsgs kgipgocotcs
kgipgocotcs `rèeakgs
`rèeakgs dcj tcxtg= hphrthdgs, 
sunhphrthdgs, tétujgs, suntétujgs, éodakcs, ajustrhkagocs, `rèeakhs y thnjhs, sunrhyhdg, 
rckuhdrgs. 36
>.>. Tcih, suntcih,
suntci h, grdco krgogjû`akg, prgnjcih y su sgjukaûo. 31
>.;. ^ckursgs quc sc utajazho phrh dcsh
dcshrrgjjhr
rrgjjhr jhs adchs co jgs pèrrhegs
pèrrhegs== cmcipjaeakhkagocs,
cmcipjaeakhk agocs, 
rcpctakagocs, cxpjakhkagocs g phrèerhsas. 31
;. Cjcicotgs quc aotcrvacoco co jh kgfcrcokah, jh kgfcsaûo y jh
jh hdckuhkaûo co jgs tcxtgs
;.8. Kgokgrdhokah
Kgokgrdhokah cotrc cj sumctg y prcdakhdg. 52

Ocxgs y cxprcsa
cxprcsagocs
gocs
;.>. Ocxgs
Ocxgs quc aotrgdukco
aotrgdukco adchs= hdciès, pgr cmcipjg, co praicr
praicr ju`hr,
ju`hr, eaohjicotc. 52
;.;. Ocxgs
Ocxgs quc rcjhkagoho
rcjhkagoho tcipgrhjicotc jgs couokahdgs= juc`g, juc`g, dcspuás, praicrg,
praicrg, 
hotcs. 52
;.4. Cxprcsagocs y ocxgs quc cokhdcoho
cokhdcoho hr`uicotgs=
hr`uicotgs= pcrg, huoquc, sao cinhr`
cinhr`g,g, hýo
hýo,, 
h pcshr dc. 58
;.3. ^ckursgs jao`úéstakgs
jao`úéstakgs quc sc utajazho
utajazho phrh dcshrrgjjhr hr`uicotgs cco o jgs tcxtgs= 
ocxgs y cxprcsagocs kgo sa`oaeakh
sa`oaeakhdg
dg khushj, kgokcsavg y kgodakagohj. 58
;.5. Cxprcsagocs
Cxprcsag ocs quc mcrhrquazho
mcrhrq uazho jh aoegrihkaûo= jh rhzûo iès aipgrth
aipgrthotc,
otc, gtrh rhzûo
rhzûo 
pgr jh quc, pgr cmcipjg, co praicr ju`hr, eaohjicotc, thinaáo. 58
;.0. ^ckursgs jao`úéstakgs
jao`úéstakgs quc pcriatco
pcriatco cxprcshr sukcsaûo y saiujthocadhd dc dc jhs 
hkkagocs. 58

[a`ogs dc puotuhkaûo
;.6. ^ckursgs grtg`rèeakgs
grtg`rèeakgs quc sc usho phrh kathr y/g rcshjthr aoegrihkaûo
aoegrihkaûo== kgiajjhs, dgs 
puotgs. 5>
;.1. Ssg dcj puotg y sc`uadg y jjhh kgih phrh scphrh
scphrhrr grhkagoc
grhkagocss co pèrrhegs.
pèrrhegs. 5;
;.82. Ssg dc jh kgih co jh gr`hoazhkaûo dc couicrh
couicrhkagocs
kagocs y kgostrukkagocs
kgostruk kagocs kggrdaohdhs. 5;
;.88. Ssg dc jgs sa`ogs dc puotuhkaûo iès erckucotcs
erckucot cs co jgs tcxtgs tciètakgs=
tciètakgs = `uagocs, 
dgs puotgs, puotgs suspcosavgs, phráotcsas, sa`ogs dc aotcrrg`hkaûo y dc  
hdiarhkaûo. 5;

Grhkagocs
;.8>. Grhkagocs praokaphjcs
praokaphjcs y sckuodhrahs. 54
;.8;. Couokahdgs quc aotrgdukco aoegrihka
aoegrihkaûo=
ûo= grhkagocs
grhkagocs tciètakhs g jhs dceaoakag
dceaoakagocs.
ocs. 54
;.84. Couokahdgs quc hipjého jh aoegrihkaûo=
aoegrihkaûo= cxpjakhkagocs
cxpjakhkagocs y cmcipjgs. 54
;.83. Euokagocs scièotakhs dcj prcscotc saipjc d dcj
cj aoda
aodakhtavg=
khtavg= fhnatuhj, fastûrakgs, 
htcipgrhj. 53
4. Tapgs dc tcxtgs
^ckursgs jao`úéstakgs
4.8. Igdgs dc pjhotchr,
pjhotchr, cxp
cxpjakhr
jakhr y hr`uicothr jhs adchs cco
o daecrco
daecrcotcs
tcs tcxtgs. 53
4.>. Ssg dc hdmctavgs,
hdmctavgs, phrtaka
phrtakapags
pags y hpgsakagocs
hpgsakagocs co jh dcskrapka
dcskrapkaûo
ûo dc pcrsgohmcs. 53
4.;. Ssg dcj tacipg phshdg phrh ohrrhr sukcsgs. 55
4.4. Ssg dcj kgprctáratg
kgprctáratg p
phrh
hrh dcskranar
dcskranar satuhkagocs d
dcj
cj egodg g khrhktcrazhr pcrsgohmcs. 55

0
 

_ Tcxtgs aoegrihtavgs
4.3. Rrgpûsatgs
Rrgpûsatgs dc jgs tcxtgs aoegrihtavg
aoegrihtavgs.
s. 55

Dgkuicotgs jc`hjcs y hdiaoastrhtavgs

4.5. Rrgpûsatg dc jgs tcxtgs jc`hjcs y hdiaoastrhtavgs.
hdiaoast rhtavgs.
50
4.0. Ssg y euokaûo
euokaûo dc jgs vcrngs= dcncr, pgdcr, tcocr y fhncr quc. 50

Tcxtgs pcragdéstakgs
4.6. Rrgpûsatgs
Rrgpûsatgs dc jhs ogtakahs, rcpgrthmcs y hrtékujgs dc gpaoaûo.
gpaoaûo. 56
4.1. Daecrcokahs
Daecrcokahs cotrc fckfgs, gpaoagoc
gpaoagocs,
s, kgicothrags y vhjgrhkagocs= cxprcsagocs quc  
cxprcsagocs quc
dastao`uco jh gpaoaûo pcrsgohj= krcg quc, co ia gpaoaûo, pacosg quc, dc hkucrdg kgo, 
kgo,  
sa`uacodg jh gpaoaûo dc, sc krcc quc. 56

Tcxtgs punjakathrags
4.82. Euokaûo c aiphktg dc jh punjakadhd co jh sgkacdhd.
sgkacdhd . 51
4.88. Cxh`crhkaûo dc jhs kuhjadhd
kuhjadhdcs
cs dcj prgduktg. 51

KACOKAH[ AA (EÉ[AKH)
8. Cj igvaiacotg.
igvaiaco tg. Jh
Jh dcskrapkaûo
dcskrap kaûo dc jgs khinags dc jh
jh ohturhjczh
8.8. Kgokcptgs dc vcjgkadhd y rhpadcz. 02
8.>. Tapgs dc igvaiacotgs dc jgs gnmctgs co `rèeakhs dc pgsakaûo-tacipg. 02
8.;. ^cjhkaûo cotrc jhs `rèeakhs pgsakaûo-tacipg y uo kgomuotg dc dhtgs. 0>

8.4.
8.3. Ucjgkadhd, dcspjhzhiacotg
Cj igvaiacotg kgo vcjgkadhdy tacipg.
vhrahnjc=
vhrahnjc = jh hkcjcrhkaûo.
hkcjcrh kaûo. 0>
0;
8.5. Cj igvaiacotg dc jgs kucrpgs quc khco. 0;
>. Jhs eucrzhs.
eucrzhs . Jh cxpjakhkaûo dc jgs khinags
>.8. Eucrzh rcsujthotc. 04
>.>. Jhs jcycs dc Ocwtgo co jh vadh kgtadahoh.
kgtadaho h. 04
>.;. Rhrcs dc eucrzhs. 03
>.4. Jhs eucrzhs quc hktýho sgnrc jgs gnmctgs co rcpgsg g igvaiacotg. 03
>.3. Jcy dc @rhvathkaûo Soavcrshj y cj pcsg dc jgs gnmctgs. 05
>.5. Jh cocr`éh y jh dcskrapkaûo dc jhs trhoseg
trhosegrihkagocs
rihkagocs.. 05
>.0. Jh kgoscrvhkaûo
kgoscrvhka ûo dc jh cocr`éh ickèoakh. 00
>.6. Khr`hs cjáktrakhs y egrihs dc cjcktrazhkaûo. 00
>.1. Aihocs y ih`octasig tcrrcstrc.
tcrrcstrc . 06
;. Jhs aotcrhkkagocs
aotcrhk kagocs dc jh ihtcrah.
ihtcr ah. So igdcjg phrh dcskranar
dcskran ar jg quc og pcrkanaigs
;.8. Cj igdcjg kaoátakg dc phrtékujhs. 06
;.>. Khjgr y tcipcrhturh. 01
;.;. Cj igdcjg dc phrtékujhs y jh prcsaûo. 68
;.4. Jh ckuhkaûo dcj praokapag dc Rhskhj. 6>
;.3. Rraokapag dc jh kgoscrvhkaûo
kgoscrvh kaûo dc jh cocr`éh. 6;
4. Ihoaecsthkagocs dc
dc jh cstrukturh aotcroh
aotcroh dc jh ihtcrah
4.8. Cstrukturh aotcroh dc jh ihtcr
ihtcrah.
ah. 6;
4.>. Khphkadhd dc jgs ihtcrahjcs
ihtcr ahjcs phrh kgodukar jh kgrracotc cjáktrakh.
cjáktrakh . 64
4.;. Khipgs ih`oátak
ih`oátakgs gs y khr`hs cjáktrakhs. 64
4.4. Cxpcraicotgs dc aodukkaûo cjcktrgih`oátakh.
cjcktrgih `oátakh. 64
4.3. Khrhktcréstakh
Khrhkt créstakhss dcj igvaiacotg godujhtgrag. 63
4.5. Jh rhdahkaûo cjcktrgih`o
cjcktrgih`oátakh
átakh y sus aipjakhkagocs tckogjû`akhs. 65
4.0. Jgs prasihs y jh dcskgipgsakaûo dc jh juz. 65
4.6. Jh rcerhkkaûo dc jh juz njhokh. 60
4.1. Jh juz. Jgo`atud
Jgo`atud dc godh, erckucokah y cocr`éh. 60

6
 

@CG@^HEÉH
8. Cj csphka
csphkagg `cg`rèeakg y jgs ihphs
8.8. Jgs kgipgocotcs ohturhjcs,
ohturhjcs , sgkahjcs
sgkahj cs y ckgoûiakgs dcj csphkag `cg`rèeakg. 61
8.>. Khtc`gréhs dc hoèjasas dcj csphkag `cg`rèeakg=
`cg`rèeakg= jh rc`aûo, cj phashmc, cj icdag, cj 
cj 
tcrratgrag y cj ju`hr. 61
8.;. Kgokcptgs nèsakgs co cj cstudag dcj csphkag `cg`rèeakg (jgkhjazhkaûo, dastranukaûo, 
dastranukaûo, 
tcipgrhjadhd y rcjhkaûo).
rcjhkaûo). 12 
12 
8.4. Kérkujgs
Kérkujgs y puotgs
puotgs dc jh supcreakac
supcreakac tcrrcstrc=
tcrrcstr c= phrhjcjgs, icradahogs y pgjgs= 
pgjgs= 
kggrdcohdhs `cg`rèeakhs= jhtatud, jgo`atud y hjtatud. Fusgs fgrhrags. 12
8.3. Khrhktcréstakhs dc jgs daecrcotcs
daecrcotcs tapgs dc rcprcscothkaûo
rcprcscothkaûo dcj csphkag `cg`rèeak
`cg`rèeakgg 
(krgquas, pjhogs, ihphs, htjhs, `jgng tcrrèqucg, egtg`rheéhs hárchs, aiè`cocs dc dc  
shtájatc y igdcjgs tradaicosagohjcs).
tradaicosagohjcs). 1>
8.5. [astcihs
[astcih s dc Aoegrihkaûo @cg`rèeakh y [astcih dc Rgsakagohiacotg
Rgsakagohiac otg @jgnhj. 1>
8.0. Jgs ihphs tciètakgs= ohturhjcs, ckgoûiakgs,
ckgoûiakgs, sgkahjcs, kujturhjcs y pgjétakgs
pgjétakgs co 
co 
Iáxakg. 1;
>. ^ckursgs ohturhjcs y prcscrvhkaûo dcj hinacotc
>.8. Igvaiacotgs dc rgthkaûo y trhsjhkaûo dc jh Tacrrh. 1;
>.>. Tcktûoakh dc pjhkhs, vujkhoasig y sasiakadhd.
sasiakadhd. 14
>.;. Kakjg fadrgjû`akg co jh dastranukaûo dc jhs h`uhs gkcèoakhs
gkcèoa khs y kgotaocothjcs. 13
>.4. Khphs dc jh
jh htigsecrh. Cjcicotgs y ehktgrcs dcj dcj kjaih. 15 
15 
>.3. Dastranukaûo y kjhsaeakhkaûo dc jgs kjaihs dcj iuodg. 16
>.5. Nagsecrh. ^cjhkagocs dc jh jatgsecrh,
jatgsecr h, htiûsecrh c fadrgsecrh kgo jh dastranukaûo dc jh
jh 
vc`cthkaûo y jh ehuoh. 16
>.0. Nagdavcrsadhd. Cspckacs codáiakhs
codáiak hs y co pcja`rg dc cxtaokaûo< su prcscrvhkaûo.
prcscrvhkaûo . 16

>.6.
>.1. ^ckursgs
^ckursgs ohturhjcs
Hinacotc= ohturhjcs dcj
dctcragrgdcyj prgtckkaûo.
sucjg,
sucjg, sunsucjg,
prgtckksunsucjg, harc y h`uh. Dcshrrgjj
aûo. Dcshrrgjjg
g sustcothnjc. 11 
11 
11
>.82. Rgjétakhs
Rgjétakhs y cdukhkaûo hinacothj. Ckgtckoahs
Ckgtckoahs y ckgturasig. 822
;. Daoèiakh dc jh pgnjhkaûo y racs`gs
;.8. Krckaiacotg y dastranukaûo dc jh pgnjhkaûo. Rgnjhkaûo hnsgjuth, pgnjhkaûo rcjhtavh. 822
;.>. Kaudhdcs y icdag rurhj< unakhkaûo, rhs`gs y praokaphjcs prgnjcihs. 828
;.;. Ia`rhkaûo dc jh pgnjhkaûo= tapgs, praokaphjcs ejumgs ia`rhtgrags, cecktgs
cecktg s ckgoûiakgs,
ckgoûiakgs,  
sgkahjcs y kujturhjcs co jgs ju`hrcs dc htrhkkaûo y cxpujsaûo.
cxpujsaûo. 82>
;.4. ^acs`gs y vujocrhnajadhd
vujocrhnajadh d dc jh pgnjhkaûo. Ehktgrcs dc racs`g phrh jgs hscothiacotgs
hscoth iacotgs  
fuihogs. 82;
;.3. ]gohs dc vujocrhnajadhd phrh
phrh jh pgnjhkaûo. 824
4. Csphkags ckgoûiakgs y dcsa`uhjdhd
dcsa`uhjdhd sgkahj
sgkahj
4.8. ^c`agocs
^c`agocs h`rékgjhs,
h`rékgjhs, `hohdcrhs, egrcsthjcs, pcsqucrhs y iaocrhs
iaocrhs dc Iáxakg
Iáxakg y dcj
dcj 
Iuodg. 824
4.>. Csphkags aodustrahjcs
aodustrah jcs dc Iáxakg y dcj Iuodg. 824

4.;.
4.4. Ejumgs
Ejumgs kgicrkahjcs,
kgicr
Csphkags kahjcs, rcdcs dc trhospgrtc y kgiuoakhkagocs
turéstakgs. kgiuoakhkagocs dc Iáxakg y dcj Iuodg.
Iuodg. 823
825  
825
4.3. @jgnhjazhkaûo.
@jgnhjazhkaûo. Gr`hoasigs ckgoûiakgs aotcrohkagohjcs y ciprcshs 
ciprcshs  825
trhosohkagohjcs.
4.5. Rraokaphjcs
Rraokaphjcs rc`agoás
rc`agoás kgicrkahjcs y kaudhdcs
kaudhdcs iuodahjcs.
iuodahjcs. 826
4.0. Jh dcsa`uhjdhd sgkagckgoûiakh= daecrcokahs
daecrcokah s co cj éodakc dc Dcshrrgjjg Fuihog dc 
dc 
jgs phéscs Kcotrhjcs, pcraeárakgs
pcraeárakgs y sciapcraeárakgs. 826
3. Csphkags kujturhjcs y pgjétakgs
pgjétakgs
3.8. Davcrsadhd kujturhj dc Iáxakg y dcj Iuodg= ctoahs, jco`uhs, rcja`agocs y phtraigoag 
phtraigoag 
kujturhj. 821
821
3.>. @jgnhjazhkaûo kujturhj, aoejucokah dc jh punjakadhd quc trhosiatco
trhosi atco jgs icdags dc 
dc 
kgiuoakhkaûo. 882 
3.;. Iujtakujturhjadhd
Iujtakujturhjadhd c aotcrkujturhjadhd.
aotcrkujturhjadhd. 888 
3.4. Khinags co cj iuodg pgr jgs aotcrcscs
aotcrc scs ckgoûiakgs y pgjétakgs. 888
3.3. Jhs ergotcrhs. ]gohs dc trhosakaûo y tcosaûo.
tcosaûo. Csphkags aotcrohkagohjcs tcrrcstrcs, 
tcrrcstrcs,  
hárcgs y ihrétaigs.
ihrétaigs. 888
3.5. Rhtraigoag kujturhj
kujturhj dc jgs icxakhogs= zgohs
zgohs hrqucgjû`akhs,
hrqucgjû`akhs, kaudhdcs kgjgoahjcs,
kgjgoahjcs,  
pucnjgs tépakgs, igouicotgs
igouicotg s fastûrakgs. - 88>
3.0. Csphkags dc sgncrhoéh ohkagohj= tcrrcstrc, ihrétaih, aosujhr y hárch. 88>

 
 FA[TG^AH
Soavcrshj 
8. Dc praokapags
praokapags dcj sa`jg VUA h praokapags dcj sa`jg
sa`jg VUAAA
8.8. Cj kgotcxtg iuodahj= jhs dcihodhs
dcihod hs curgpchs
curgpch s y jh ockcsadhd dc hnrar oucvhs ruths.
ruths . 884
8.>. ^cogvhkaûo kujturhj y rcsastcokah co Curgph= cj fuihoasig y sus cxprcsagocs  cxprcsagocs 
eajgsûeakhs, jatcrhrahs
jatcrh rahs y pgjétakhs. 884
8.;. Cxpcdakagocs ihrétaihs y kgoquasths
kgoquasth s (kgsths dc Èerakh, Aodah, Aodgocsah y Hiárakh). 883
>. Dc icdah
icdahdgs
dgs d
dcj
cj sa`jg VUAA h icdahdgs
icdah dgs dcj sa`jg VAV
>.8. Jhs oucvhs adchs= jh ajustrhkaûo y jh cokakjgpcdah. 883
>.>. Cj hnsgjutasig
hnsgjutas ig curgpcg y jh rcgr`hoazhkaûo hdiaoastrhtavh
hdiaoastrh tavh dc jgs aipcrags. 885
>.;. Jh aodcpcodcokah dc jhs trckc kgjgoahs. 880
>.4. Khushs cxtcrohs á aotcrohs
aotcroh s dc jh ^cvgjukaûo Erhokcsh.
Erhokcs h. 880
>.3. Kgosckucokahs dc jh ^cvgjukaûo Erhokcsh co Hiárakh Jhtaoh y cj Khranc. 886
>.5. Jh rcvgjukaûo aodustrahj, kaudhdcs aodustrahjcs y kgodakagocs jhngrhjcs y dc vadh dc
jh kjhsc trhnhmhdgrh. 881
;. Dc icdah
icdahdgs
dgs dcj sa`jg VAV h 81>2
;.8. Ohkagohjasig. 881
;.>. Cj aipcrahjasig y su cxphosaûo co cj iuodg. 881
;.;. Jh phz hrihdh y jh Rraicrh @ucrrh Iuodahj. 881
;.4. Jh phz dc Ucrshjjcs
Ucrsh jjcs y sus kgosckucokahs.
kgosckucokah s. 8>2
4. Cj iuodg cotrc 81>
81>22 y 8152
4.8. Cj iuodg cotrc jhs `rhodcs `ucrrhs= sgkahjasig,
sgkahjas ig, ohkagohj sgkahjasig
sgkahjas ig y ehskasig. - 8>8
4.>. Jh pgnrczh co cj iuodg. 8>>
4.;. Hvhokcs kacotéeakgs y tckogjû`akgs y su aiphktg co jh sgkacdhd.
sgkacdh d. 8>>
4.4. Jh [c`uodh @ucrrh Iuodahj, khushs
khus hs y kgosckucokahs.
kgosckuc okahs. 8>;
4.3. Cthphs dc jh [c`uodh @ucrrh Iuodahj. 8>3
3. Dákhdhs rckacotcs
3.8. Khrhktcréstakhs dc jgs njgqucs
njgqucs khpathjasth y sgkahjasth. 8>5
3.>. Jgs kgotrhst
kgotrhstcs
cs sgkahjcs
sgkahjc s y ckgoûiakgs. @agnhjazhkaûo ckgoûiakh. 8>0
3.;. Cj kgoejaktg dcj @gjeg Rársakg. 8>0
Fastgrah dc Iáxakg
5. Jhs kujturhs prcfaspèoakhs y jh kgoegrihkaûo dc jh O
Oucvh
ucvh Cs
Csphøh
phøh
5.8. Icsghiárakh y sus èrchs kujturhjcs. 8>6
5.>. Cj varrcaohtg
varrcaoht g y jh aosthurhkaûo
aosthurhk aûo dc jhs hudacokahs.
hudacokah s. 8;>
5.;. Jhs aostatukagocs ckjcsaèstakhs.
ckjcsaè stakhs. Jh aoquasakaûo. 8;;
5.4. Cj kragjjasig. 8;4
0. Oucvh Csphøh dcsdc su kgosgjadhkaûo fhsth jh
jh AAodcpcodcokah
odcpcodcokah
0.8. Cj hnsgjutasig ajustrhdg. 8;4
0.>. Cj krckaiacotg dc Oucvh
Oucvh Csphøh= cxphosaûo dc jh iaocréh, jh h`rakujturh y `hohdcréh.
`hohdcré h. 8;3
0.;. Dcshrrgjjg y kgosuihkaûo dc jh Aodcpcodcokah. 8;5
6. Dc jh kgosuihkaû
kgosu ihkaûo
o dc jh Aodcpcodcok
Aodcpc odcokah
ah hj aoakag dc jh ^cvgjukaûo Icxakh
Icxakhoh
oh (86>8- 
8188)
6.8. Cj codcudhiacotg
codcudhiaco tg dc Iáxakg y kgoejaktgs kgo jgs rcsadcotcs
rcsadc otcs cxtrhomcrgs.
cxtrho mcrgs. 8;6
6.>. Jh `ucrrh kgo Csthdgs Soadgs. 8;6
6.;. Jh aotcrvcokaûo erhokcsh y cj aipcrag. 8;1
6.4. Co nuskh dc uo sastcih
sastci h pgjétakg= jh ^cegrih jancrhj. 8;1
6.3. Jgs `gnacrogs dc jh rcpýnjakh ^csthurhdh (pgsatavasig, pgjétakh hotakjcrahj, hotak jcrahj,  
aokgrpgrhkaûo dc jhs jcycs dc ^cegrih dc 8631 h jh Kgostatukaûo). 842
6.5. Igvaiacotg
Igvaiacotgss dc gpgsakaûo hj `gnacrog dc Muèrcz. 848
6.0. Cj Rgrearahtg. Jh dakthdurh kgig icdag phrh kgoquasthr
kgoquasth r jh phz y sus khrhkt
khrhktcréstakh
créstakhs.
s. 84>
6.6. Dasadcokahs, fucj`hs y rcprcsaûo. 84;
1. Aostatukagocs rcvgjukagohrahs y dcshrrgjjg ckgoûiakg (8188-81
(8188-8101)
01)
1.8. Jh aosurrckkaûo ihdcrasth.
ihdcra sth. 844
1.>. Davcrsadhd rc`agohj dc jgs igvaiacotgs rcvgjukagohrags. 844

82

 
 1.;.
Jh Kgostatukaûo dc 8180. 844
1.4.
@ucrrh krastcrh, cmárkatg y gr`hoazhkagocs sgkahjcs. 843
1.3.
Khudajjasig, cmárkatg, phrtadg ýoakg. 843
1.5.
^cegrih h`rhrah. 845
845
1.0.
Cj kgotcxtg aotcrohkagohj= jh
jh [c`uo
[c`uodh
dh @ucrrh Iuodahj y su aiphktg co jh ckgogiéh
ckgogiéh
ohkagohj. 845
1.6. Kjhsakasig, rgihotakasig y igdcroasig co Iáxakg. 845
82. Iáxakg co jh crh `jgnhj (8102->222)
82.8. Aosthurhkaûo dcj ocgjancrhjasig. 840

882.;
2.>..
82.;. CJh
j trrcegr
rhcegrih
thdih
g dccjcktgrhj
Janrtgrhj
cjck c Kgi crkIáxakg
co ag. g y jh hjtcroho
Iáxak hjtcrohokah
kah co cj pgdcr
pgdcr kgi
kgig
g véh
véh phrh jh 846
dcigkrhtazhkaûo. 846
82.4. Igvaiacotgs sgkahjcs dcsdc jgs høgs 52 kgig prgigtgrcs dc jh phrtakaphkaûo
kaudhdhoh. 841

IHTCIÈTAKH[
8. [a`oaeakhdg y usg dc jgs oýicrgs
Oýicrgs cotcrgs
8.8. [a`oaeakhdg y usg dc jhs gpcrhkagocs
gpcrhkag ocs nèsakhs
nèsakh s kgo oýicrgs cotcrgs.
cotcrg s. 832
8.>. ^csgjukaûo dc prgnjcihs kgo gpcrhkagocs
gpcrhkag ocs nèsakhs. 83>

Oýicrgs erhkkagohrags y dckaihjcs

8.
8.;.
;. ^c
^cjhk
jhkago
agocs
cs dc prg
prgpg
pgrk
rkag
agoh
ohjad
jadhd.
hd. 83>
8.4.
8.3. [a`oaeakhdg
Rgrkcothmcsy. usg dc jhs gpcrhkagocs nèsakhs kgo oýicrgs erhkkagohrags y dckaihjcs. 8834
30
8.5. Rgtcokahkaûo y rhdakhkaûo. 830
8.0. ^csgjukaûo dc prgnjcihs kgo oýicrgs erhkkagohrags g dckaihjcs. 830
>. È j` c n r h
>.8. [a`oaeakhdg y usg dc jhs jatcrhjcs. 831

Cxprcsagocs hj`cnrhakhs 
>.>. Cxprcsaûo kgiýo dc prgnjcihs hj`cnrhakgs dc hdakaûo y sustrhkkaûo. 831
>.;. ^csgjukaûo dc prgnjcihs kgo cxprcsagocs hj`cnrhakhs. 858

cs dc praicr `rhdg 
Ckuhkagocs
Ckuhkago
>.4. ^csgjukaûo dc ckuhkagocs dc praicr `rhdg. 85>
85>
>.3. ^csgjuka
^csgjukaûo
ûo dc prgnjcihs
prgnjcihs kgo ckuhkag
ckuhkagocs
ocs dc
dc prai
praicr
cr `rhd
`rhdg.
g. 85>

[astcihs dc ckuhkagocs jaochjcs dc dgs ckuhkagocs kgo dgs aokû`oaths  

>.5. ^csgjukaûo dc sastcihs jaochjcs dc dgs ckuhkagocs kgo dgs aokû`oaths. 854
>.0. ^csgjukaûo dc prgnjcihs kgo sastcihs dc dgs ckuhkagocs jaochjcs kgo dgs 
dgs  
aokû`oaths. 853
853

Ckuhkagocs dc sc`uodg `rhdg 

>.6. Rrgduktgs ogthnjcs y ehktgrazhkaûo. 850
>.
>.1.
1. ^c ^csgj
sgjukukaû aûoo dc ckuhka
ckuhkagoc
gocss dc sc`uo
sc`uodg
dg `rh
`rhdg
dg.. 802
>.82
>.82.. ^cj^cjhka
hkagogocs cs dc prgpgprgpgrkrkag
agoh
ohjad
jadhd
hd darckt
darckth.
h. 80>
>.88. ^cjhkagocs dc prgpgrkagohjadhd co cj pjhog khrtcsahog. 80>
80>
;. Ih ocmg dc jh aoegrihkaûo csthdéstakh csthdéstakh
;.8. Hoè ja sa s d c jh ao egr ihkaûo csthdéstakh= éodakcs. 80;
;.>.
;.>. @rèeak
@rèeakhshs dc nhrr nhrrhshs y karku
karkujhr
jhrcs.
cs. 804
;.;.
;.;. Thnjhs
Thnjhs dc dc erck
erckucucoka
okahh hnsgjut
hnsgjuthh y rcjhta
rcjhtavh.
vh. 804
;.
;.4.
4. Ic Icda
dadhdhss dc tco tcodcdcok
okah
ah kcot
kcotrh
rhj.
j. 803
;.3.
;.3. OgkaOgkagogocs cs ddcc prgnh
prgnhna naja
jadhd
dhd y iuc
iucstr
strcg
cg.. 805
4. Eg
grr i hs
hs ` ccg
g iá
iá ttrr ak
ak h s
4.8. ^ckths y èo`ujgs. 805

88

 
 4 .>. Ea`urhs pjhohs.   806
806

[cicmhozh
4.;. [cicmhozh dc traèo`ujgs. 806
4.4. Tcgrcih dc Ratè`grhs.
Ratè`grhs. 801
4.3. ^hzgocs tra`gogiátrakhs.
tra`gogiá trakhs. 862

Kucrpgs `cgiátrakgs
4.5. Kèjkujg dc pcréictrgs. 862
4.0. Kèjkujg dc èrchs.
èrchs . 868
4.6. Kèjkujg dc vgjýicocs.
vgjýicocs . 86;

KACOKAH[ AAA (XSÉIAKH)

8. Jhs khrhktcréstakhs dc jgs ihtcrahjcs
8.8. Khrhktcréstakhs dcj kgogkaiacotg
kgogkaiacotg kacotéeakg=
kacotéeakg= cj khsg dc jh Xuéiakh. 863
8.>. Rrgpacdhdcs
Rrgpacdhd cs dc jgs ihtcrahjcs.
ihtcr ahjcs. 863
8.;. Khinags eésakgs y quéiakgs. 865
8.4. Rrgpacdhdcs eésakhs y khrhktcrazhkaûo dc jhs susthokahs. 865
8.3. Jh kgoscrvhkaûo dc jh ihsh co jgs khinags eésakgs y quéiakgs. 860
8.5. Jh davcrsadhd dc jhs susthokahs y jgs iátgdgs dc scphrhkaûo. 860
>. Cstrukturh y pcragdakadhd
pcragdakadhd dc jgs cjcicotg
cjcicotgss
>.8. Khrhktcréstakhs dc jgs prgtgocs, cjcktrgocs y ocutrgocs. 866

>.>.
>.;. Oýicrg htûiakg yy ètgigs.
Agocs, igjákujhs oýicrg dc ihsh. 866
861
>.4. Cstrukturh dc Jcwas. 861
>.3. Cs trukturh y gr`hoazhkaûo
Cstrukturh gr`hoazhkaûo dc jgs cjcicotgs co jh thnjh pcraûdakh. 861
>.5. Cojhkc quéiakg. 812
;. Jh rchkkaûo quéiakh
;.8. Cj khinag quéiakg. 818
;.>. Jh ckuhkaûo quéiakh= su aotcrprcthkaûo.
aotcrprct hkaûo. 818 
;.; Cj igj kgig uoadhd dc icdadh. 818
;.4. Èkadgs y nhscs aipgrthotcs co oucstrh vadh kgtadahoh. 818
;.3. Jhs rchkkagocs
rchkkago cs rcdgx. 81>

8>

 
 Aotrgdukkaûo
Jh prcphrhkaûo dc cxèicocs fh sadg saciprc uog dc jgs hphrthdgs iès daeékajcs phrh kuhjquacr
hjuiog. Cj rchjazhr uo cxhico rcprcscoth uoh prucnh dc tcipjc, dc sc`uradhd, dc fhnajadhd pcrg
sgnrctgdg dc kgogkaiacotgs. Cs cj puotg co cj kuhj htranuaigs uo oýicrg h jh khjadhd dcj
hprgvckfhiacotg quc rchjicotc fhkcigs dc uo kursg kuhjquacrh quc cstcigs tgihodg.
Jg praicrg quc ogs vacoc h jh icotc h jh fgrh dc cskukfhr jh phjhnrh cxhico cs= cstudahr,
cstudahr, hsé
 hsé quc
nuskhigs hjjc`hrogs dc jh ihygr khotadhd dc aoegrihkaûo sgnrc jh quc vcrsc cj cxhico phrh hsé
jg`rhr tcocr, uoh khjaeakhkaûo icmgrh jh fgrh dc rckanar jh ogth eaohj.
Jh cdukhkaûo cs uog dc jgs hphrthdgs dc jh vadh co cj quc fhy quc aovcrtar iès tacipg sa dcschigs
hdquarar uo icmgr oavcj dc vadh co tgdgs jgs hspcktgs, pucstg quc jgs aodakhdgrcs ckgoûiakgs
iuodahjcs hpuotho quc h ihygr oavcj cdukhtavg dc khjadhd co jh pgnjhkaûo, sc gntacoc uo icmgr
oavcj dc vadh dc jh iasih.
Iáxakg og cs jh cxkcpkaûo, pucstg quc jgs ao`rcsgs huicotho dc ihocrh cxpgocokahj dc hkucrdg hj
oavcj cdukhtavg dc jgs trhnhmhdgrcs.
Co cdatgrahj Aloaui, shncigs jh aipgrthokah quc tacoc phrh jgs hjuiogs dc oavcj sckuodhrah, jh
prcphrhkaûo dcj cxhico dc scjckkaûo phrh ao`rcshr h jh cdukhkaûo icdah supcragr, quc sc rchjazh
houhjicotc, pucstg quc jh ogth co csc cxhico dctcriaoh sa cj hsparhotc sc qucdh co sus praicrhs
gpkagocs g og.
Cj prcscotc trhnhmg fh dcshrrgjjhdg dc ihocrh prèktakh, rcsuiadh y kgokash jgs tcihs quc sarvco dc
`uéh phrh prcphrhr cj cxhico dcj quc fhnjhigs y hsé, cj hjuiog pucdc kgothr kgo uo icdag phrh
prcphrhrsc dc ihocrh cecktavh y gntcocr cj ju`hr dcschdg.
Fcigs rchjazhdg jh `uéh utajazhodg jgs kgokcptgs gra`aohjcs y cxpjakèodgjgs co uo jco`uhmc
cotcodanjc phrh tgdg cj pýnjakg, dcshrrgjjhodg khdh uog dc cjjgs sao dhr pgr fckfg oao`ýo
kgogkaiacotg, phrtacodg co jh ihygréh dc jgs khsgs dc kcrg.
Jhs ihtcrahs iès kgipjakhdhs fho sadg trhthdhs kgo cspckahj kuadhdg phrh jg`rhr uoh icmgr
kgiprcosaûo dc jgs tcihs.
Csth `uéh og sustatuyc co oao`ýo scotadg jh cdukhkaûo aiphrtadh co jgs kcotrgs cdukhtavgs pcrg
prgpgrkagoh h jgs hjuiogs uo icdag dc kgosujth quc pcriatc jg`rhr uo icmgr dcscipcøg h jh fgrh
dc rchjazhr cj cxhico.
Cspcrhigs quc csth `uéh sarvh dc hpgyg phrh jg`rhr jh rchjazhkaûo dc jgs gnmctavgs dc jgs jcktgrcs h
quacocs jjc`uc.

Aloaui Cdatgrahj

8;

 
 84

 
 FHNAJADHD
FHNAJADHD UC^N
UC^NHJ
HJ

8. Kgipr
Kgiprcosaûo
cosaûo dc jckturh
 H phrta
phrtarr dc uo tcxtg
tcxtg
8.8. ^ckgogkcr aoegrihkaûo cxpjékath.
Soh prciash quc dcncigs kuipjar h jh fgrh dc jccr uo tcxtg, cs cj pgdcr rckgogkcr jh aoegrihkaûo
cxpjékath quc co áj sc cokucotrh. Kgo aoegrihkaûo cxpjakath_ogs rcecraigs h tgdhs jhs erhscs,
couokahdgs, phjhnrhs, grhkagocs, ctk. quc cxprcsho dc egrih kjhrh y dctcriaohdhicotc uoh kgsh.
Cmcipjg= "Iáxakg, cs uo phés quc kucoth kgo uoh `rho cxtcosaûo tcrratgrahj, cstc tcrratgrag sc davadc
co ;> cotadhdcs pgjétakhs g csthdgs, khdh uoh dc cjjhs kgo hutgogiéh y sgncrhoéh prgpahs, y csths h
su vcz, sc sundavadco co iuoakapags icogs co cj khsg dcj dastratg ecdcrhj quc sc dcogiaoho
dcjc`hkagocs pgjétakhs."
Co cj cmcipjg hotcragr pgdcigs cokgotrhr kgig aoegrihkaûo cxpjékath.
Iáxakg tacoc uoh `rho cxtcosaûo tcrratgrahj
Cj tcrratgrag icxakhog sc davadc co ;> cotadhdcs pgjétakhs g csthdgs
Jgs csthdgs sc davadco co iuoakapags
Cj dastratg ecdcrhj sc davadc co dcjc`hkagocs pgjétakhs.
8.>. Aoecrar fckfgs.
Aoecrar fckfgs sc rceacrc h shkhr uoh kgosckucokah g dcdukar hj`g dc gtrh kgsh. Aoecrar cs cotcodcr
hj`g dc uo tcxtg quc og cstè cskratg, saog quc sc dcdukc dc jh aoegrihkaûo cotrc`hdh y nhsèodgogs
co oucstrgs kgogkaiacotgs prcvags sgnrc cj tcih.
Cs aipgrthotc aoecrar fckfgs dc jhs jéochs dc jgs tcxtgs phrh tcocr uoh kgiprcosaûo pjcoh dc jgs
iasigs y cotcodcr hsé kgo ihygr prckasaûo jgs iasigs.
Cmcipjg= "Ihréh dcnéh cotrc`hr jh thrch hj déh sa`uacotc, hsé quc sc phsû tgdh jh ogkfc trhnhmhodg
co cj prgycktg, hj eaohj y h pcshr dcj sucøg, jh khjaeakhkaûo vhjaû jh pcoh, pucs gntuvg uo dacz".
Dc jg hotcragr sc dcsprcodco vhrags fckfgs quc sc aoeacrco.
Ihréh og duriaû.
Ihréh tcriaoû cj trhnhmg.
Ihréh csthnh shtaseckfh pcrg khoshdh pgr og dgriar.
8.;. Adcotaeakhr cj rcsuico q quc
uc kgotacoc jhs adchs praokaphjcs.
Jh kgiprcosaûo dc uo tcxtg dcpcodc dc jh kgrrckth adcotaeakhkaûo dc jhs adchs praokaphjcs, csths sc
dcshrrgjjho h |g jhr`g dcj tcxtg, sao cinhr`g, dcotrg dcj tcxtg sc fhkc uo rcsuico dc jhs adchs
praokaphjcs co cj quc sc kgotacoc jh aoegrihkaûo quc cj hutgr dcsch trhosiatar hj jcktgr.

83

 
 Cstc rcsuico sc fhkc pgr jg `cocrh_phrh gr`hoazhr jg yh cskratg c aotrgdukar uoh adch daecrcotc,
thinaáo sc fhkc phrh kgiphrhr jhs adchs pjhotchdhs kgo gtrhs, c aokjusg sc fhkc hotcs dc dhr uoh
gpaoaûo g aotrgdukar uoh kgokjusaûo. Q sc cokucotrho dcspuás dc erhscs kgig, rcsuiacodg. Co
rcsuico, sa`uacodg cstc grdco dc adchs, rckhpatujhodg, ctk.
Cmcipjg. "Co rcsuico jgs scrcs vavgs, ohkco, krckco, sc rcprgdukco y iucrco"
8.4. Kgipjcthr uo
uo kuhdrg saoûptakg kgo jgs kgokcptgs praokaphjcs.
praokaphjcs.

Cj cstudag dc kuhjquacr tcxtg rcquacrc dc fcrrhiacoths quc ehkajatco jh gr`hoazhkaûo dc jh

aoegrihkaûo gntcoadh dcj iasig. Soh dc jhs iès aipgrthotcs fcrrhiacoths phrh jh rchjazhkaûo dc
csth thrch, cs jh cjhngrhkaûo dc kuhdrgs saoûptakgs.
So kuhdrg saoûptakg cs jh cxpgsakaûo dc uo tcih co uoh pjhoh, co egrih dc cpé`rhecs kgiprcodadgs
dcotrg dc jjhvcs u gtrgs sa`ogs `rèeakgs, dc igdg quc cj kgomuotg sc pucdh hnhrkhr dc uoh vcz kgo
jh vasth. Cs dckar, cs uo csqucih quc iucstrh jh cstrukturh `jgnhj dcj tcih, tcgréhs g adchs
cstudahdhs, hsé kgig sus iýjtapjcs cjcicotgs, dcthjjcs kgotrhstcs y rcjhkagocs.
Cs uoh egrih dc cxprcshr y gr`hoazhr adchs kgokcptgs g tcxtgs dc egrih vasuhj igstrhodg jh
cstrukturh nèsakh dc jh aoegrihkaûo, icdahotc csth fcrrhiacoth sc pucdc igstrhr jh aoegrihkaûo dc
egrih mcrèrquakh ehkajathodg su kgiprcosaûo, icigrazhkaûo y hoèjasas.

Jh ihocrh dc rchjazhrjg cs kgicozhodg pgr cj tcih praokaphj dcj tcxtg y hnrar jjhvcs g kgrkfctcs
phrh sc`uar fajhodg jh aoegrihkaûo fhsth tcocr uoh cstrukturh quc hnhrquc tgdgs jgs kgokcptgs c
adchs pjhotchdhs co cj tcxtg.
Cmcipjg= "cj kgo`rcsg dc jh uoaûo sc davadc co dgs kèihrhs, uoh dc daputhdgs, kgo 322 daputhdgs,
;22 dc jgs kuhjcs sgo cjc`adgs pgr cj praokapag dc ihygréh rcjhtavh co jgs ;22 dastratgs cjcktgrhjcs y
>22 pgr cj praokapag dc rcprcscothkaûo prgpgrkagohj< y Soh dc scohdgrcs kgo 8>6 scohdgrcs dc jgs
kuhjcs 54 sgo cjc`adgs pgr cj praokapag dc vgthkaûo ihygrathrah rcjhtavh, ;> iès scrèo hsa`ohdgs h jh
praicrh iaogréh y jgs ;> rcsthotcs pgr cj praokapag dc rcprcscothkaûo prgpgrkagohj".
Cj kuhdrg saoûptakg dcj tcxtg hotcragr qucdhréh dc csth ihocrh=
54 cjc`adgs pgr
praokapag dc vgthkago
Kèihrh dc ihygrathrah rcjhtavh
[cohdgrcs ;> hsa`ohdgs h jh
aotc`rhdh pgr praicrh iaogréh dc
8>6 khdh csthdg
scohdgrcs ;> pgr cj praokapag dc
Kgo`rcsg dc rcprcscothkaûo
jh Soaûo prgpgrkagohj
;22 daputhdgs
daputhdg s pgr cj
' Kèihrh dc praokapag dc ihygréh
Daputhdgs WWWWWWWW rcjhtavh ,
WWWWWW
aotc`rhdh pgr
322 >22 pgr cj praokapag dc
, Daputhdgs . rcprcscothkaûo
prgpgrkagohj

85

 
 8.3. Adcotaeakhr jh kgokjusaûo.
Jh kgokjusaûo co uo tcxtg cs jh phrtc co jh quc cj hutgr dh uoh rcsgjukaûo quc fh tgihdg sgnrc cj
tcih quc fh trhthdg co su tcxtg.
Dcpcodacodg dcj tapg dc tcxtg jh kgokjusaûo cs uoh phrtc aiprcskaodanjc co jh kgoegrihkaûo y
cstrukturh dc jgs iasigs, yh quc, hj fhkcr cj hoèjasas dc kuhjquacr tcih, sc prcscotho prciashs h
kuipjar, prc`uoths h rcspgodcr, pjhotchiacotgs h dcshrrgjjhr y co gkhsagocs hr`uicotgs quc
prgnhr, y cs co jh kgokjusaûo dgodc dctcriaohigs sa cj trhnhmg quc rchjazhigs rcspgodc jhs
prc`uoths, prucnh jgs hr`uicotgs, ctk.
Rgr jg `cocrhj co jgs cskratgs, jh kgokjusaûo hphrckc hj eaohj dcj cskratg, sc adcotaeakh pgr jh utajazhkaûo
dc phjhnrhs kgig, co kgokjusaûo, phrh kgokjuar darcigs quc, kgokjuarcigs dakacodg quc, ctk.
8.5. Adcotaeakhr jh sckucoka
sckucokahh dc hkgotckaiac
hkgotckaiacotgs.otgs.
Hj jccr uo tcxtg cs dc vathj aipgrthokah dctcriaohr jh scrac dc satuhkagocs quc co áj sc dcshrrgjjho,
pgr jg `cocrhj, kuhodg hj`uaco rcjhth hj`ýo fckfg, hkgotckaiacotg, ctk., jg fhkc co egrih
kgosckutavh sa`uacodg uoh sckucokah dctcriaohdh. [c dcnc tcocr kjhrh jh sckucokah dc
hkgotckaiacotgs phrh hsé jg`rhr uoh icmgr kgiprcosaûo dcj tcxtg.
Rhrh hyudhrogs h Adcotaeakhr dakfh sckucokah, dcncigs nuskhr phjhnrhs quc ogs aodakho cj grdco co
quc jgs hkgotckaiacotgs tacoco ju`hr, kgig pgr cmcipjg= praicrg, dcspuás, co praicr ju`hr, co
sc`uodg ju`hr, hktg sc`uadg, juc`g, pgr ýjtaig, ctk.

8.0. ^ckgogkcr dastaotgs tapgs dc rcjhkagocs= khush-kgosckucokah, 

khush-kgosckucokah,  
gpgsakaûo-scicmhozh, `cocrhj-phrtakujhr, cmcipjaeakhtavhs, 
cmcipjaeakhtavhs, 
cxpjakhtavhs, hohjû`akhs, krgogjû`akhs.
Dcotrg dcj dcshrrgjjg dcj tcxtg, cokgotrhigs uo saoeéo dc satuhkagocs daecrcotcs quc rcjhkagoho uohs
adchs kgo gtrhs dc ihocrhs iuy vhrahdhs, h kgotaouhkaûo rcvashrcigs hj`uohs dc cjjhs.

Khush-kgosckucokah. Kuhodg
Khush-kgosckucokah.  Kuhodg jg quc sc pjhotch co cj tcxtg sc gra`aoh dc gtrh adch. Rgr cmcipjg= "jh
ehjth dc rcvasaûo dc jgs hutgiûvajcs, trhc kgig kgosckucokah quc fhyh iès hkkadcotcs".
Gpgsakaûo-scicmhozh. Jh praicrh sc dh kuhodg sc coercotho adchs kgotrhrahs y jh sc`uodh kuhodg
Gpgsakaûo-scicmhozh. Jh
jhs adchs quc sc pjhotcho sgo saiajhrcs. Rgr cmcipjg= "Co Iáxakg jh cdukhkaûo vahj cs iuy dceakacotc,
pgr cj kgotrhrag co Csphøh jhr cdukhkaûo vahj cs uo rcquasatg phrh kgodukar", "jh ehiajah cs aipgrthotc
phrh ié hj a`uhj quc jgs hia`gs".
@cocrhj-phrtakujhr. [c phrtc dc uo kgokcptg hipjag fhsth jjc`hr h uog iès cspckéeakg. Rgr cmcipjg=
@cocrhj-phrtakujhr. [c
"cxastco uoh `rho vhracdhd dc èrngjcs pcrcocs, jgs paogs sgo uog dc cjjgs"
Cmcipjaeakhtavhs. [c usho phrh kgiprgnhr ajustrhr g hutgrazhr uoh adch co cj tcxtg. Rgr cmcipjg= "fhy
Cmcipjaeakhtavhs. [c
uoh `rho khotadhd dc satuhkagocs kgtadahohs co jhs quc sc dcshrrgjjho rchkkagocs quéiakhs, pgr
cmcipjg hj
hj rcsparhr"
r csparhr"

80

 
 Cxpjakhtavhs. [go rcjhkagocs quc sarvco phrh dckjhrhr g cxpgocr kuhjquacr ihtcrah, dgktraoh g tcxtg
Cxpjakhtavhs. [go
daeékaj kgo phjhnrhs iuy kjhrhs phrh fhkcrjgs iès pcrkcptanjcs. Rgr cmcipjg= "uo dcjatg pucdc scr
kgictadg kgo prcicdathkaûo, cs dckar, quc quaco jg kgictc jg fh pjhochdg kgo hotcjhkaûo"
Kgiphrhtavhs.  [c ush phrh kgoergothr adchs dcotrg dc uo tcxtg y csthnjckcr sus daecrcokahs,
Kgiphrhtavhs. 
rcjhkagocs g scicmhozhs.
 Hohjû`akhs. [c
 Hohjû`akhs. [c ush phrh pjhotchr adchs quc co cscokah sc phrckco pcrg og sgo a`uhjcs. Rgr cmcipjg=
"jhs hjhs dc jgs fhjkgocs y jgs aoscktgs sarvco phrh vgjhr"
Krgogjû`akhs. Tacoc pgr
Tacoc pgr gnmctg dctcriaohr cj grdco y eckfhs dc jgs sukcsgs quc sc prcscotho co uo
tcxtg.
8.6. Dastao`uar
Dastao`uar cotrc fckfgs
fckfgs y gpaoagocs.
Jh daecrcokah cotrc fckfgs y gpaoagocs rhdakh co jh gnmctavadhd dcj hutgr, yh quc jgs fckfgs sgo
hkgotckaiacotgs quc co uo tacipg y ju`hr dctcriaohdg sukcdco y jhs gpaoagocs sgo cj dakthico g
 muakag quc
quc cj hutgr tacoc sgnrc
sgnrc jgs
jgs fckfg
fckfgs.
s.
Rgr cmcipjg= "uoh hjaicothkaûo co khotadhdcs hdckuhdhs, vhrahdh y cquajanrhdh, rcsgjvcréh jgs
prgnjcihs dc gncsadhd. Co ia
ia gpaoaûo cj prgnjcih dc gncsadhd cs kucstaûo
kucsta ûo dc jh icothjadhd y ihjgs
fènatgs dc jgs icxakhogs".
8.1. Adcotaeakhr jh adch praokaphj
praokaphj y jhs adchs
adchs sckuodhrahs.
Jhs adchs praokaphjcs dc uo tcxtg sgo jhs quc dctcriaoho cj kgotcoadg y cj tcih g hsuotg kcotrhj sgo
jhs quc dho scotadg h jh cjhngrhkaûo dcj tcxtg.
Jhs adchs sckuodhrahs sgo jhs quc csthnjckco uoh rcjhkaûo darckth y cstrckfh kgo jhs adchs praokaphjcs
dc jhs kuhjcs sc dcsprcodco, su euokaûo cs hipjahr coraquckcr
cor aquckcr g hkjhrhr
hkjhr hr jhs ¡dchs praokaphjcs.
praokaphjcs.
8.82. ^ckgogkcr cj sa`oaeakhdg
sa`oaeakhdg dc phjhnrhs dc hkucrdg kgo cj
cj kgotcxtg g 
khipg scièotakg.
Cj khipg scièotakg cs cj kgomuotg dc uoadhdcs jáxakhs dc uoh jco`uh quc kgiprcodc táriaogs
ja`hdgs cotrc sé pgr rcecrarsc h uo iasig grdco dc rchjadhdcs g ¡dchs.
Cj kgotcxtg cotgrog jao`úéstakg dcj kuhj dcpcodc cj scotadg y cj vhjgr dc uoh phjhnrh, erhsc g
erh`icotgs dctcriaohdgs.
dctcriaohdgs.
Kuhodg jccigs dctcriaohdg tcxtg ogs cokgotrhigs kgo phjhnrhs quc og cotcodcigs, yh sch
pgrquc og jhs utajazhigs kgosthotcicotc g pgrquc sgo iuy tákoakhs. Co cstgs khsgs uoh
fcrrhiacoth ýtaj cs ushr cj kgotcxtg g cj khipg scièotakg dcj tcxtg phrh jg`rhr cotcodcr h quá sc
rceacrc.

>. Ihoc
Ihocmg
mg dc vgkhnujhrag
>.8. Csthnjckcr
Csthnjckc r hohjg`éhs cotrc phjhnrhs.
Soh hohjg`éh cs uoh rcjhkaûo dc scicmhozh cotrc kgshs dastaoths. Co cj tcih quc ogs gkuph, jh
scicmhozh g rcjhkaûo sc dcnc
dcnc cokg
cokgotrhr
otrhr cotrc phjhnrhs dastaoths.

86

 
 Jh hohjg`éh cotrc phjhnrhs dcotrg dc uo tcxtg, sc dcnc adcotaeakhr hdckuhdhicotc, pucstg quc ogs
sarvc phrh icmgrhr jh kgiprcosaûo dcj tcih quc sc trhth co cj iasig.
Jh hohjg`éh sc rceacrc h cokgotrhr jh rcjhkaûo quc `uhrdho dgs g iès phjhnrhs cotrc sé, csths pucdco
scr dc dastaotgs tapgs, hohjg`éhs kgig sgo=
Kgo Gpucstgs. Csth hohjg`éh csthnjckc jh rcjhkaûo cotrc phjhnrhs gpucsths. Cmcipjg= "`grdg cs h
dcj`hdg kgig eucrtc cs h dánaj"

Euokagohjcs. Csthnjckc jh rcjhkaûo quc `uhrdh uoh phjhnrh kgo rcspcktg h jh euokaûo quc rchjazh.
Cmcipjg= "krcihjjcrûa cs h khiash kgig h`umcths h zhphtg"
@áocrg y cspckac. Csthnjckc jh rcjhkaûo quc `uhrdho jhs phjhnrhs kgo rcspcktg hj kgomuotg dcj quc
sgo phrtc. Cmcipjg= "kgkgdrajg cs h rcptaj kgig pjhtg cs h vhmajjh".
Xuc aovgjukrho kgshs y sus prgpacdhdcs. Thj y kgig su oginrc jg dakc, sc rceacrh h jhs phjhnrhs quc
couokaho prgpacdhdcs dc gtrhs phjhnrhs. Cmcipjg= "facjg cs h eraû kgig euc`g h khjgr"
Dc khush y cecktg. Dcogtho jh rcjhkaûo cxastcotc cotrc phjhnrhs quc khusho dctcriaohdg cecktg.
Cmcipjg= "nuskhr cs h cokgotrhr kgig pcrsc`uar h khpturhr"
Hohjg`éhs quc aovgjukrho hkkagocs kgrrcktavhs. [c dcdukc dc csths quc jh phjhnrh shtasehkc jh
ockcsadhd pjhotchdh= "dcskhoshr cs h khoshokag kgig dgriar h sucøg"
 H phrta
phrtarr dc uo tcxtg
tcxtg
>.>. Dastao`
Dastao`uar
uar phjhnrhs y cxprcsagocs kgo sa`oaeakh
sa`oaeakhdgdg gpucstg.
Dcotrg dc jh cjhngrhkaûo dc uo tcxtg, co gkhsagocs cs ockcshrah jh utajazhkaûo dc hotûoaigs, quc sgo
phjhnrhs quc cxprcsho adchs gpucsths g kgotrhrahs. Dastao`uar cotrc cstc tapg dc phjhnrhs y
cxprcsagocs cs dc `rho aipgrthokah phrh jh icmgr kgiprcosaûo dcj tcxtg.
Jgs hotûoaigs pucdco scr dc trcs tapgs=
Hotûoaigs prgpahicotc dakfgs. Cstc tapg sc hotûoaigs sc khrhktcrazho pgr scr kgokcptgs kgotrhrags
pcrg jh hearihkaûo dc uog og sc supgoc jh oc`hkaûo dcj gtrg, aokjusg sc pucdco csthnjckcr csthdgs
aotcricdags. Cmcipjg= "tcipjhdg, eraû fcjhdg", jhs phjhnrhs hotcragrcs og supgoco jh aocxastcokah
dc jgs dciès csthdgs.
Hotûoaigs kgipjcicothrags. Co cstc khsg sc csthnjckc uoh rcjhkaûo dc cxkjusaûo cotrc uo kgokcptg
y gtrg. Cmcipjg= "ecicoaog-ihskujaog", jh pcrtcocokah h uo `áocrg, cxkjuyc jh pcrtcocokah hj gtrg.
Hotûoaigs rcképrgkgs. Cstc tapg dc hotûoaigs, csthnjckc uoh rcjhkaûo kgotrhrah cotrc kgokcptgs.
Rgr cmcipjg= "vavg-iucrtg, `grdg-dcj`hdg, phph-famg"
>.;. Dastao`
Dastao`uar
uar phjhnrhs y cxprcsago
cxprcsagocs
cs kgo sa`oae
sa`oaeakhdg
akhdg saiajhr.
Dcotrg dc uo tcxtg, cs aocvathnjc jh utajazhkaûo dc saoûoaigs, quc sgo phjhnrhs g cxprcsagocs quc
tacoco uoh iasih g iuy phrckadh sa`oaeakhkaûo quc gtrhs.
[c dcnc daecrcokah cotrc jgs dastaotgs tapgs dc phjhnrhs y erhscs saoûoaihs, h kgotaouhkaûo
hohjazhigs
hohjazhigs hj`uoh
hj`uohss dc cjjhs= hjc`réh, kgotcotg, shtasehkkaûo,

81

 
 Kgokcptuhj. Co cstc khsg, tgdhs jhs phj
phjhnrhs
hnrhs cvgkho uo i
iasig
asig sa`oaeakhdg, sc tgiho kgig saoûoai
saoûoaigs
gs
tgthjcs yh quc sc pucdco khinahr co tgdgs jgs kgotcxtgs y tacoco khsa adáotakg vhjgr scièotakg.
Cmcipjg= "hjc`réh, pjhkcr, `gzg, shtasehkkaûo"
Kgotcxtuhj. [go hqucjjgs quc huo kuhodg og sgo saoûoaigs co tgdgs jgs kgotcxtgs, jg pucdco scr
co hj`uogs. Rgr cmcipjg= "fh`g, kgostruyg, cdaeakg, ctk. / uoh khsh"
Dc kgoogthkaûo. [go erhs
erhscs
cs kgo sa`oaeakhdg prgpag g cspckéeakg quc hdciès kgojjcvho gtrg dc tapg

hpcjhtavg. Cmcipjg= "crcs cj icmgr/cj oýicrg uog".

^cecrcokahj. Jhs phjhnrhs sc hsgkaho kgo cj iasig rcecrcotc co uo igicotg dctcriaohdg, huoquc
rchjicotc og scho hsgkahdgs kgo saoûoaigs iès quc co csgs khsgs kgokrctgs= cmcipjg= "cj hia`g
dc tgdgs jgs oaøgs / kfhncjg, cj Ncociáratg dc jhs Hiárakhs / Ncoatg Muèrcz".

>2

 
 FHNAJADHD IHTCIÈTAKH
8. [ukcsagocs ouiárakhs
Kgicozhrcigs cj dcshrrgjjg dcj tcih, dceaoacodg sukcsaûo,
sukcsaûo,   kgig cj kgomuotg dc oýicrgs
daspucstgs co uo grdco dceaoadg y quc sa`uco uoh dctcriaohdh rc`jh dc egrihkaûo.
[ukcsaûo ouiárakh. Cs uoh sckucokah grdcohdh dc oýicrgs daspucstgs cotrc sé pgr uoh jcy dc
egrihkaûo, jh kuhj sc gntacoc cipjchodg jhs gpcrhkagocs nèsakhs= dc suih, rcsth, iujtapjakhkaûo,
davasaûo, pgtcokahkaûo y rhdakhkaûo. Co cstg cs cjcicothj y ockcshrag rcegrzhr oucstrh fhnajadhd phrh
gnscrvhr y rcjhkagohr jgs phtrgocs dc jgs oýicrgs y hpjakhrjc jh jcy dc egrihkaûo.
Co tgdh sukcsaûo fhy uoh rcjhkaûo cotrc dgs táriaogs. Csth rcjhkaûo ogs pcriatc cokgotrhr cj
sc`uodg táriaog h phrtar dcj praicrg, cj tcrkcrg h phrtar dcj sc`uodg y hsé sukcsavhicotc. Cs jh rc`jh
quc dcncigs adcotaeakhr phrh kgipjcthr g hohjazhr jh sukcsaûo. Rgr cmcipjg=
Co cj sa`jg VAA cj kájcnrc ihtciètakg Jcgohrdg dc Rash, thinaáo kgogkadg kgig Eangohkka, kgoea`urû
uoh sukcsaûo dc oýicrgs ohturhjcs quc cs iuodahjicotc rckgogkadh kgig jh sckucokah g sukcsaûo 
sukcsaûo 
dc Eangohkka. Jh
Eangohkka. Jh sckucokah sc prcscoth dc jh sa`uacotc ihocrh=
8,8 , >, ;, 3, 6,8
6,8;,
;, >8, ;4
;4,, 33
33,, 61..
61....

Csth sckucokah
rcsujthdg ushsc
dc ástc, uoh rc`jhcjphrh
suih su kgoegrihkaûo,
hotcragr h uo oýicrg
y hsé fhsth aoeaoatg, vchigs sc jc suih cj oýicrg
jh rcprcscothkaûo co jhhotcragr,
thnjh. hj
oý
oýic
icrg
rg gpcr
gpcrhk
hkaû
aûo
o oýic
oýicrg
rg gpcr
gpcrhk
hkaû
aûo
o   oýicrg   g
gpc
pcrh
rhka
kaûo
ûo oýic
oýicrg
rg gpcr
gpcrhk
hkaû
aûo
o oýic
oýicrg
rg
8 2+8 8 8+ 8 >   8+> ;   >+;   3

Rhrh uo icmgr cotcodaiacotg dcj tcih, h kgotaouhkaûo rchjazhrcigs uoh scrac dc satuhkagocs co jhs
quc sc dcnc dctcriaohr jh rc`jh dc jh sckucokah.
Cmcipjg 8. Cokucotr
8. Cokucotrhh "V" utajazhodg jh sa`uacotc sukcsaûo
sukcsaûo== 4< V< 82< 8;< 8855
Dcncigs pgocr cspckahj htcokaûo co jh rc`jh quc dctcriaoh cj vhjgr dc oucstrh aokû`oath, co cstc
khsg co kgokrctg, gnscrvhigs jh suih dc trcs h khdh rcsujthd
rcsujthdg.
g. 8

Cotgokcs, tcocigs quc co uoh thnjh pgdréhigs rcprcscothr jhs gpcrhkagocs dc cstc igdg=
oýi
oýicrg gpc
gpcrhkaû
hkaûo
o oýi
oýicrg gpcr
gpcrhk
hkaû
aûo
o oýi
oýicrg gpcr
gpcrhk
hkaû
aûo
o oýic
oýicrrg gpc
gpcrhkaû
hkaûoo oýi
ýic
crg
4   4+; 0   0+;   82   82 + ; 8; 8; + ; 85

 V 9 4 + ; 
 V 9 0 
Cmcipjg >. ·Xuá
>. ·Xuá oýicrg
oýicrg kgotaouh7 4>, ;6, ;4
;4,, ;2, V...
Co cstc khsg, c$ èé kgotrhrag quc co hotcragr jgs oýicrgs dasiaouyco dc 4 co 4 pgr thotg jh rc`jh
hpjakhnjc cs rcsthr 4 hj oýicrg hotcragr.
hotcr agr. Hsé tcocigs quc=
oýicrg   gpcrhkaûo   oýi
oýicr
crg
g ' gpcr
gpcrhk
hkaû
aûo
o oýic
oýicrg
rg gpcr
gpcrhk
hkaûo   oýicrg   gpcrhkaûo   oýicrg
aûo
4>   4>-4   ;6
;6 ;6-4 ;4 ;4-4   ;2   ;2 - 4
;2 >5

>8

 
 ] 9 ;2 —4 -¼
-¼
 V 9 >5
Cmcipjg ;. 
;.  ·Xuá oýic
oýicrg
rg kgotao
kgotaouh
uh co jh sckucokah7 62, 42, >2, x, 3
Co cstc khsg jh rc`jh cs uoh davasaûo dc khdh rcsujthdg cotrc >.
oýicrg   gpc
gpcrh
rhkaû
kaûo
o oý
oýic
icrgrg   gp
gpcr
crhka
hkaûo
ûo oý
oýic
icrgrg   gp
gpcr
crhka
hkaûo
ûo oý
oýic
icrgrg   gp
gpcr
crhka
hkaûo
ûo oý
oýic
icrg
rg
62 62/> 42 42/> >2 >2/> 82 82/> 3

V 9 82

Co khdh uog dc jgs cmcipjgs hotcragrcs, sc ush uoh gpcrhkaûo dastaoth, y fhy gkhsagocs co quc sc
usho dgs g iès gpcrhkagocs, kgig pgr cmcipjg=
Cokucotrh cj oýicrg quc ehjth co jh sckucokah ;, 6,86, x, 01...
Dcncigs tcocr cspckahj kuadhdg co cokgotrhr cj phtrûo quc sa`uco jgs oýicrgs phrh hsé dctcriaohr
jh rc`jh quc dctcriaoh jh sckucokah, hsé tcocigs quc=
oýi
oýicrg gpc
gpcrhkaû
hkaûo
o oýi
oýicrg gpc
gpcrhkaû
hkaûo
o oýicr
ýicrg
g gpcrh
pcrhka
kaûo
ûo oýi
oýicrg
crg   gpcrhkaûo   oýicrg
; ;+8x> 6 6+8x> 86 86+8x> ;6 ;6+8x> 01

V 9 86 + 8 x > 
> 

V 9 ;6

Co cstc khsg, cj vhjgr dc x cs dctcriaohdg pgr uoh rc`jh quc aokjuyc dgs gpcrhkagocs= uoh suih y
uoh iujtapjakhkaûo. Dcncigs pgocr cspckahj htcokaûo co jgs oýicrgs quc aotc`rho jh sckucokah phrh
hsé gntcocr jhs gpcrhkagocs quc kgoegriho jh rc`jh.
>. [cracs csphkahjcs
Cs uoh sukcsaûo dc phtrgocs kgosthotcs co uoh scrac dc ea`urhs, quc jhs rcjhkagoho cotrc sé. Co cstc
tapg dc scracs cxastc uoh rcjhkaûo cotrc uoh ea`urh y su hotckcsgrh, quc sc ihotacoc kgosthotc h jg
jhr`g dc
dc tgdh jh sukcsaûo. Co cj
cj khsg dc jhs scracs ccsphkahjcs
sphkahjcs,, jh rcjhkaûo cstè aodakhdh pgr jgs khi
khinags
nags
co jhs ea`urhs hj kgiphrhrjhs dc ihocrh grdcohdh. Cstgs khinags pucdco scr dc daecrcotc
ohturhjczh, thjcs kgig jh hdakaûo, g suprcsaûo dc hj`ýo cjcicotg g rhs`g, jh vhrahkaûo co uoh
pgsakaûo dctcriaohdh g jh kginaohkaûo dc hj`uohs dc jhs gpcrhkagocs.
Gnscrvcigs jgs sa`uacotcs cmcipjgs phrh uo icmgr cotcodaiacotg

>>

 
 Co csth scrac dc ea`urhs gnscrvhigs quc cj
phtrûo sc kgipgoc hj vgjtchr jh aih`co h jh
dcrckfh y juc`g fhkah hnhmg jhs ejckfhs aodakho
cj igvaiacotg dcj phtrûo.

Rgdcigs gnscrvhr quc co csth scrac, jhs ea`urhs

og sgo adáotakhs pcrg tacoco uo rhs`g quc sc
rcpatc co jh sckucokah, quc sgo jgs puotgs
cokgotrhdgs co jhs ea`urhs. Hsé tcocigs quc, jh
rcspucsth hj cmcrkakag cs jh H.

Cstc phtrûo dc ea`urhs ogs dh uoh rcdukkaûo dc

ea`urhs dc htrès fhkah hdcjhotc. Kgiacozh kgo 3
ea`urhs quathigs uoh dc dctrès qucdho 4,
quathigs uoh iès qucdho ; y hsé, dèodgogs
kgig rcsujthdg N.

>;

 
 Co cstc khsg jh ea`urh quc nuskhigs sûjg
khinah dc pgsakaûo. Cs uoh ea`urh quc `arh dc
dcrckfh h azquacrdh y ogs dh jh sgjukaûo quc cs
K.

Jhs scracs csphkahjcs sgo dc iukfhs y iuy vhrahdhs egrihs y phtrgocs, sûjg fhy quc dcdakhr cspckahj
htcokaûo h tgdhs jhs ea`urhs y cokgotrhr cj phtrûo quc jhs rcjhkagoh, phrh hsé rcsgjvcr jgs prgnjcihs
quc sc ogs pjhotcco.

;. Aih`aohkaûo csphkahj
Dceaoaigs aih`aohkaûo, kgig jh khphkadhd quc tacoc uo aodavadug dc rckrchr uoh rcprcscothkaûo
`rèeakh icothjicotc sao ockcsadhd dc uo cstéiujg cxtcrog.
Jh aih`aohkaûo csphkahj, ogs pcriatc rckgogkcr jh adcotadhd dc uo gnmctg kuhodg sc vc dcsdc
èo`ujgs dastaotgs, g aih`aohr cj igvaiacotg g cj dcspjhzhiacotg aotcrog cotrc jhs phrtcs dc uoh
kgoea`urhkaûo.
H kgotaouhkaûo rcprcscothrcigs hj`uogs khsgs dc aih`aohkaûo csphkahj=

Co cstc prgnjcih sc dcsch cokgotrhr jh

khotadhd dc kuhdrhdgs kgotcoadgs co jh
sa`uacotc ea`urh. [c kucotho cj kuhdrhdg ▢
praokaphj, iès jgs 1 kuhdrhdgs quc jg egriho,
iès jgs kuhtrg kuhdrhdgs egrihdgs pgr kuhtrg ......   rppa888'
kuhdrgs pcqucøgs co khdh uoh dc jhs csquaohs
dcj kuhdrhdg praokaphj, dhodg uo tgthj dc 84. ----
 —

Co cstc khsg, phsh jg iasig quc co cj khsg

hotcragr sc dcnco kgothr tgdgs jgs traèo`ujgs
quc sc egriho. [c dcnc suihr cj traèo`ujg
ihygr, iès jgs 4 traèo`ujgs co quc cstè
davadadg cj traèo`ujg ihygr, iès jgs dgs
traèo`ujgs egrihdgs pgr jh jéoch quc davadc hj
traho`ujg ihygr pgr jh iathd, dèodgogs uo
tgthj dc 0.

>4

 
 Jgs dgs khsgs hotcragrcs sgo dc aih`aohkaûo csphkahj co dgs daicosagocs, sao cinhr`g, cxastco
khsgs co jgs quc jh aih`aohkaûo csphkahj rcqucrarè dc rckrchr ea`urhs co trcs daicosagocs, cs dckar,
vgjýicocs. Uchigs hj`uogs khsgs=

Co cstc cmcipjg co phrtakujhr dcncigs tcocr jh

fhnajadhd dc shncr kgo kuèj dc jhs ea`urhs
rcprcscothdh, egrih uo kung. Rhrh cjjg
dcncigs icothjicotc rckrchr jgs dgnjckcs y
gntcocr cj rcsujthdg, quc co cstc khsg cs jh
ea`urh N.

k-K

Hýo iès kgipjakhdg sc prcscoth cstc cmcrkakag

co cj quc fhy quc cokgotrhr jh vasth dcsdc htrès
dc jh ea`urh dc hrranh, gnscrvhigs
dctcoadhicotc phrh dceaoar quá ea`urh
rcprcscoth jh khrh kgotrhrah dc jh aih`co
rcprcscothdh, quc co cstc khsg cs jh aih`co H.

4. Rrgnjcihs
Cj rhzgohiacotg jû`akg cs dc
uoh rhzgohiacotg
fcrrhiacoth ýtaj co iukfhs èrchs. Cj rhzgohiacotg cs cj prgkcsg dc
ushr phsgs rhkagohjcs, sastáiakgs, nhshdgs co prgkcdaiacotgs ihtciètakgs phrh jjc`hr h jh
kgokjusaûo dc uo prgnjcih.
[c pucdco
pucdco shkhr kgokjusagocs nhsèodgogs co fckfgs y praokapags ihtciètakgs.
ihtciètakgs . Jh fhnajadhd dc
rcsgjvcr prgnjcihs ihtciètakgs ushodg cj rhzgohiacotg jû`akg cs uoh `rho fcrrhiacoth co
iýjtapjcs satuhkagocs dcj iuodg rchj.
H kgotaouhkaûo pjhotchrcigs uoh scrac dc prgnjcihs phrh jg`rhr uoh icmgr kgiprcosaûo dcj tcih=
Rrgnjcih 8. Hjcmhodrh vcodc `hjjcths co uoh phstcjcréh. Durhotc jh praicrh fgrh, vcodaû h uo kjacotc
uo tcrkag dc jhs `hjjcths quc fgrocû csc déh. Durhotc jh sa`uacotc fgrh, vcodaû h gtrg kjacotc 82
`hjjcths iès y hotcragrcs.
dc jhs vcoths h icdag déhHjuotcriaohr
kjacotc iès jc kgiprû
cj déh, jh iathd
h Hjcmhodrh dc jhs `hjjcths
jc qucdhrgo quc jc qucdhnho
82 `hjjcths. ·Kuèoths dcspuás
`hjjcths
fgrocû7

>3

 
 Co praicr ju`hr, sc dcnc fhkcr uo .pjho phrh rcsgjvcr cj prgnjcih.
Trhnhmhrcigs fhkah htrès utajazhodg cj pcoshiacotg jû`akg. 82
H Hjcmhodrh jc sgnrhrgo 82 `hjjcths hj tcriaohr cj déh. * '

[hncigs quc jhs 82 `hjjcths quc jc sgnrhrgo, cs jh iathd quc jc

qucdhnho. Rgr jg thotg, jh sc`uodh iathd dc `hjjcths quc sgnrhrgo 82 +829>2
cs 82.
Hotcs dc csg vcodaû gtrhs 82 `hjjcths, jg quc dh kgig rcsujthdg ;2
>2+829;2
`hjjcths.
Durhotc jh praicrh fgrh vcodaû uo tcrkag dcj oýicrg tgthj dc jhs
`hjjcths quc jjcvû, jg quc sa`oaeakh quc fhnéh dgs tcrkags rcsthotcs ;2/>983
quc dh kgig rcsujthdg ;2.
[a dgs tcrkags sgo ;2, uo tcrkag dcnc scr 83. Rgrquc ;2/>983.
[uihodg jh vcoth dc jh praicrh fgrh. 83+;2943. Cotgokcs hfgrh
83+;2943
shncs quc Hjcmhodrh jjcvû 43 `hjjcths h vcodcr h jh phstcjcréh.

Rrgnjcih >. Dc
>. Dc uo `rupg dc hia`gs, shncigs quc Mgsá cs icogr quc Ihyrh.
Ihyrh . Ihoucj
Ihoucj cs ihygr quc
Hotgoag y Ihyrh cs icogr quc Hotgoag. ·Xuaáo cs cj ihygr7
Jgs aodavadugs h kgiphrhr sgo= Ihyrh, Mgsá, Hotgoag y Ihoucj.
Dhtgs= (8) Mgsá cs icogr quc Ihyrh.

(>) Ihoucj cs ihygr quc Hotgoag.

(;) Ihyrh cs icogr quc Hotgoag.

Dcj dhtg 8 sc dcsprcodc quc Mgsá cs icogr quc Ihyrh< dcj dhtg > sc dcsprcodc quc Hotgoag cs
ihygr quc Ihyrh< hsé quc pgocigs h Hotgoag dcspuás dc Ihyrh co jh thnjh< dcj dhtg > gntcocigs
quc Ihoucj cs ihygr quc
quc Hotgoag, pgr thotg jg kgjgkhigs
kgjgkhigs co cj
cj eaohj dc jh thnjh.

Mgsá : Ihyrh : Hotgoag : Ihoucj

Jh rcspucsth
rcspucsth cs Ihoucj

Rrgnjcih ;. Co
;. Co uo khipg dc eýtngj sc cokucotrho 832 heakagohdgs dcj cquapg rgmg y 8>2 dcj cquapg
hzuj. [a dcj tgthj dc heakagohdgs 8;2 trhco pjhycrh dc su cquapg yh sch hzuj g rgmg, ·kuèotgs
heakagohdgs og sc adcotaeakho kgo cj kgjgr dc su pjhycrh7
Kgig praicr phsg, fhkcigs jh suih dc jgs vhjgrcs dc khdh ehktgr. Cmcipjg=
832 pjhycrhs rgmhs iès 8>2 dc hzuj, ogs dh uo tgthj dc >02 heakagohdgs rgmgs y hzujcs. H cstg jc
rcsthigs jgs 8;2 heakagohdgs kgo pjhycrhs y ogs dh 842 heakagohdgs quc og pgrtho jh pjhycrh dc su
cquapg.

>5

 
 Rrgnjcih 4. Cs
4. Cs uo oýicrg dc trcs dé`atgs. Cj dé`atg dc jhs kcotcohs cs cj trapjc dc jhs dckcohs y cj
dé`atg dc jhs dckcohs cs jh iathd
iathd dcj oýicrg dc jhs uoadhdcs.
uoadh dcs. Dctcriaoh
Dctcriaoh kuèj cs cj dé`atg dc jhs
uoadhdcs, sa jh suih
suih dc jgs trcs dé`atgs cs 8>.
Rjhotchigs oucstrg prgnjcih gntcoacodg jhs prciashs dcj prgnjcih=
Rrciashj= Cs uo oýicrg dc trcs dé`atgs.
Rrciash>= Cj dé`atg dc jhs kcotcohs cs cj trapjc quc cj dc jhs dckcohs.
- Rrciash;
Rrci ash;== Cj dé`atg dc jhs dckcohs
dckco hs cs jh iathd dcj oýicrg dc jhs uoadhdcs.
Rrciash4= Jh suih dc jgs trcs dé`atgs dh kgig rcsujthdg 8>.
Jhs uoadhdcs dc dckcoh. Tc dakc quc jh kcotcoh tacoc cj trapjc dc su vhjgr= 8x;9;, >x;95 g ;x;91.
Dcspuás cj vhjgr dc jhs uoadhdcs tacoc cj dgnjc= 8+89>, >+>94 y ;+;95. Hfgrh suih vhjgr kgo vhjgr.
;+j+>95 og ogs sarvc.
5+
5+>+
>+49
49 8> cs ástc cj quc utajazhr
utaj azhrcigs.
cigs.
1+
1+;+
;+59
59 86 sc phsû.
phsû.
Dceaoaigs quc cjcj vhjgr
vhjg r dc jgs trc
trcss dé`atgs co oucstrh aokû`oath
aokû`oath sgo 5>4. [cas cs cj trapjc dc dgs y dgs
dgs
cs jh iathd dc kuhtrg. Q sa suihdgs jgs trcs ogs dh 8>.
Og tgdgs jgs prgnjcihs
prgnj cihs dc rhzgohiacotg sc prcscotho dc jh iasih egrih y kgo jh iasih daeakujthd,
cxastco uoh aoeaoadhd dc vhrahotcs quc pgdcigs cokgotrhr. Jh adch cs hpjakhr cj rhzgohiacotg y
nhsèodgogs co jgs kgogkaiacotgs dc ihtciètakhs kgo jgs quc kgothigs, dhr kgo cj rcsujthdg
kgrrcktg.

>0

 
 KACOK
KAC OKAH
AH[[ A (N
(NAG
AGJG
JG@É
@ÉH)
H) 9,
8. Cj vhjg
vhjgrr dc jh nagdavcrsadhd
8.8. Khrhktcrés
Khrhktcréstakhs
takhs kgiuocs dc jgs scrcs
scrc s vavgs.
Hj gnscrvhr daecrcotcs tapgs dc gr`hoasigs, pcrkanaigs quc tacoco khrhktcréstakhs phrtakujhrcs quc
jh ihtcrah aohoaihdh og tacoc. Csths khrhktcréstakhs sgo kgiphrtadhs pgr tgdgs jgs gr`hoasigs vavgs.
H kgotaouhkaûo hohjazhrcigs hj`uohs dc cjjhs.

Cstrukturh kcjujhr= jh
kcjujhr= jh ihtcrah vavh cstè egrihdh pgr kájujhs, quc sgo jh uoadhd hohtûiakh, euokagohj
y dc gra`co dc tgdgs jgs scrcs vavgs. H jhs kájujhs thinaáo sc jcs kgosadcrh jh pgrkaûo dc ihtcrah vavh
iès pcqucøh, pgrquc kuipjc kgo jhs khrhktcréstakhs prgpahs dc kuhjquacr gr`hoasig. H jgs scrcs
egrihdgs pgr uoh sgjh kájujh, sc jcs kgogkc kgig uoakcjujhrcs
uoakcjujhrcs   (nhktcrahs)< h jgs kgostatuadgs pgr
iukfhs, sc jcs dcogiaoh scrcs pjurakcjujhrcs
scrcs pjurakcjujhrcs (kgig
 (kgig jhs hj`hs, jgs fgo`gs, jhs pjhoths y jgs hoaihjcs).
hoaihj cs).
Jgs fuihogs sgigs gr`hoasigs pjurakcjujhrcs dcnadg h quc oucstrgs tcmadgs y ûr`hogs cstèo
egrihdgs pgr vhrahs kájujhs. Jhs kájujhs sc kgoegriho dc trcs cstrukturhs nèsakhs= jh icinrhoh
kcjujhr, cj katgpjhsih y cj ihtcrahj `coátakg.
Cxastco vhrahs khrhktcréstakhs quc tacoco co kgiýo jgs scrcs vavgs, h kgotaouhkaûo cxpjakhrcigs
hj`uohs dc cjjhs=
Arrathnajadhd= cs jh khphkadhd phrh rchkkagohr h jgs cstéiujgs dcj icdag, kgig jh juz, cj sgoadg g cj
Arrathnajadhd= cs
igvaiacotg. [c prcscoth co scrcs uoakcjujhrcs y pjurakcjujhrcs, y sc rcjhkagoh kgo jh hdhpthkaûo,
pucs pcriatc quc uo gr`hoasig sc hdckýc h jgs khinags dcj hinacotc co cj quc vavc. Rgr cmcipjg,
jh egtgthxah g fhnajadhd dc kacrtgs scrcs phrh dara`arsc h jh juz.
 Hdhpthkaûo. Cs jh khphkadhd quc tacoco jgs scrcs vavgs phrh hdckuhrsc h jgs daecrcotcs khinags dcj
 Hdhpthkaûo. Cs
hinacotc< cstè dhdh pgr jhs khrhktcréstakhs cstrukturhjcs y euokagohjcs quc prcscoth su kucrpg y quc
sc cokucotrho prcscotcs co tgdgs jgs iacinrgs dc su cspckac, cs dckar, quc jh hphrakaûo dc cshs
khrhktcréstakhs cstè rc`adh pgr jh aoegrihkaûo fcrcdathrah dc csh cspckac, dc thj ihocrh quc pucdco
phshr dc `cocrhkaûo co `cocrhkaûo. Jgs gr`hoasigs icmgr hdhpthdgs sgo hqucjjgs quc tacoco
khrhktcréstakhs cstrukturhjcs y euokagohjcs, quc jcs pcriatco sgnrcvavar iès eèkajicotc co uo
hinacotc dctcriaohdg. So cmcipjg dc hdhpthkaûo cs cj khsg dc jgs iurkaájh`gs quc hj vavar dcnhmg
dc jh tacrrh, fho dcmhdg dc ushr jgs gmgs y dcshrrgjjhdg cj gédg phrh vgjhr `uahdgs pgr godhs.
Outrakaûo.  [c rceacrc h jhs egrihs quc jgs gr`hoasigs utajazho phrh gntcocr y hprgvckfhr jgs
Outrakaûo. 
outraicotgs quc rcquacrco phrh jjcvhrh khng hdckuhdhicotc sus euokagocs vathjcs. Co jh ohturhjczh
cxastco dgs tapgs dc outrakaûo= jh hutgtrûeakh y jh fctcrgtrgeah. Co jh praicrh egrih, cj gr`hoasig
pucdc jjcvhr hkhng jh prgdukkaûo dc jhs susthokahs quc utajazhrè kgig outraicotgs, pgr cmcipjg, jhs
pjhoths. Co jh fctcrgtrgeah, jgs gr`hoasigs og prgdukco cj outraicotg quc ockcsatho, pgr jg quc jg
tgiho yh cjhngrhdg dc jgs hutûtrgegs, cmcipjg jgs hoaihjcs.
^csparhkaûo.  Cs uoh dc jhs khrhktcréstakhs iès aipgrthotcs dc jgs scrcs vavgs, pucs kgosastc co jh
^csparhkaûo. Cs
gntcokaûo dc cocr`éh h phrtar dc jgs outraicotgs quc prgvacoco dc jgs hjaicotgs. Dakfh cocr`éh cs
jh quc uo gr`hoasig ockcsath phrh jjcvhr h khng sus euokagocs vathjcs. Co jh ohturhjczh sc rckgogkco
dgs ickhoasigs icdahotc jgs kuhjcs jgs gr`hoasigs pucdco gntcocr jh cocr`éh dc jgs outraicotgs.
Co cj praicr ickhoasig og sc rcquacrc gxé`cog, jg kýhj sc dcogiaoh rcsparhkaûo hohcrgnah. Dc
ihocrh `cocrhj, csth euokaûo kgosastc co quc uoh kájujh prgkcsc quéiakhicotc cj outraicotg

>6

 
 jjhihdg `jukgsh phrh cxtrhcr dc cjjh jh cocr`éh quc kgotacoc. Co cj sc`uodg ickhoasig, kgo jh
phrtakaphkaûo dcj gxé`cog, jh kájujh prgkcsh jgs rcsadugs quc rcsujthrgo dc jh `jukgsh co jh
rcsparhkaûo hohcrgnah y cxtrhc dc cjjgs uoh khotadhd hýo ihygr dc cocr`éh< kgig cstc ickhoasig
rcquacrc gxé`cog phrh jjcvhrsc h khng, cs kgogkadg kgig rcsparhkaûo hcrgnah.
^cprgdukkaûo. Cs jh khrhktcréstakh dc jgs scrcs vavgs pgr jg kuhj sc `cocrho oucvgs gr`hoasigs dc jh
^cprgdukkaûo. Cs
iasih cspckac h phrtar dc jgs quc yh cxastco. Cstc prgkcsg cs cj icdag pgr cj quc sc trhosiatc jh
aoegrihkaûo fcrcdathrah dc uoh `cocrhkaûo h gtrh y sc dastranuyco jhs khrhktcréstakhs hdhpthtavhs co
jhs pgnjhkagocs ohturhjcs. Rgr csth rhzûo, sc dakc quc jh rcprgdukkaûo cs cj ickhoasig dc
prcscrvhkaûo dc jhs cspckacs. Jh rcprgdukkaûo pucdc scr dc dgs tapgs= h) hscxuhj, co jh quc jhs kájujhs
dc uo gr`hoasig sc davadco y egriho gtrg kgipjctg, g h phrtar dc uoh kájujh cspckahj og scxuhj,
kgig co cj khsg dc jhs cspgrhs dc jgs fgo`gs< n) scxuhj, iès kgipjcmh quc jh hscxuhj, pucs aipjakh
quc uo gr`hoasig
gr`hoasig oucvg sc egrihrè h phrt
phrtarar dc jh uoaûo dc dg
dgss kájujhs cspck
cspckahjcs
ahjcs jjhihdhs
jjhihdhs `hictgs<
 `hictgs<  
co jgs hoaihjcs, dakfhs kájujhs sgo cj ûvujg y cj cspcrihtgzgadc.
8.>. Hpgrthkagocs dc Dhrwao phrh cxpjakhr jh cvgjukaûo dc jgs scrcs vavgs.
Co jh gnrh "Cj gra`co dc jhs cspckacs pgr icdag dc jh scjckkaûo ohturhj", Dhrwao gerckc hr`uicotgs
quc cxpjakho kûig jgs gr`hoasigs dc uoh pgnjhkaûo khinaho phrh gra`aohr cspckacs oucvhs.
Rgdcigs rcsuiar jh tcgréh dc jh cvgjukaûo dc Dhrwao co jgs sa`uacotcs puotgs=

Co kuhotg
quc cotrc hcjjgs
su egrih
cxastcyvhrahnajadhd
euokaûo, jgs (daecrcotcs
iacinrgs dc uoh pgnjhkaûodc
ihoaecsthkagocs oguoh
sgo iasih
adáotakgs cotrc sé, yh
khrhktcréstakh
eésakh g euokagohj).
Co uoh pgnjhkaûo, jh vhrahnajadhd gkurrc hj hzhr cotrc sus aotc`rhotcs, og dcpcodc dcj
hinacotc. Dakfhs vhrahkagocs sc trhosiatco h jh dcskcodcokah pgr icdag dc jh rcprgdukkaûo.
Co uoh pgnjhkaûo ohturhj cxastc sgnrcprgdukkaûo dc dcskcodacotcs, sao cinhr`g, cj thihøg
dc jhs pgnjhkagocs pcrihockc kgosthotc dcnadg h uoh thsh dc igrthjadhd hjth. Og
sgnrcvavco tgdgs jgs quc ohkco, cs dckar, fhy uoh egrih dc rc`ujhkaûo hinacothj.
Cotrc jgs iacinrgs dc uoh pgnjhkaûo fhy kgipctcokah pgr jgs rckursgs< dc ásth ihocrh
sgnrcvavco jgs aodavadugs quc tacoco jhs vhrahkagocs quc jcs pcriatco uoh icmgr hdhpthkaûo
hj icdag, h jg kuhj sc jc dcogiaoh scjckkaûo ohturh
ohturhj.j.

8.;. ^cjhkaûo cotrc hdhpthkaûo y scjckkaûo ohturhj.

Hdhpthkaûo= cs uoh prgpacdhd dc jgs gr`hoasigs dc uoh cspckac dhdh pgr hqucjjhs vhrahkagocs quc
pcriatco h dakfgs gr`hoasigs hdckuhrsc hj hinacotc co cj quc vavco. Dc egrih `cocrhj, jh
hdhpthkaûo dc jgs gr`hoasigs dc uoh cspckac sc ihoaeacsth pgrquc tacoco egrihs iès dceakacotcs
dc kgosc`uar sus rckursgs (kgig cj hjaicotg), y dc rcprgdukarsc.
[cjckkaûo ohturhj= Jgs gr`hoasigs kgo vhrahkagocs quc jcs pcriatco uoh icmgr hdhpthkaûo
hdquacrco vcothmhs sgnrc hqucjjgs quc og jhs tacoco, sgo iès ceakacotcs co cj hprgvckfhiacotg dc
rckursgs y jh prgkrchkaûo. Jgs gr`hoasigs co dcsvcothmh hprgvckfho icogs rckursgs y su
rcprgdukkaûo sc daeakujth, dc thj egrih quc juc`g dc vhrahs `cocrhkagocs pucdco dcshphrckcr.
Co rcsuico, jh hdhpthkaûo cs jh ihocrh co jh quc jgs scrcs vavgs sc hmustho hj cotgrog co quc vavco
y jh scjckkaûo ohturhj sa`oaeakh quc sûjg sgnrcvavco jhs cspckacs quc sc hdhptco dc ihocrh cxatgsh h
dakfgs cotgrogs.

>1

 
 8.4. Khrhktc
Khrhktcréstakhs
réstakhs y ehktgrcs dc racs`
racs`g
g dc jh nagdavcrsadhd co Iáxakg.
Rgdcigs dceaoar jh nagdavcrsadhd kgig jh vhracdhd dc cspckacs, hoaihjcs y vc`cthjcs, co su icdag
hinacotc. Jh nagdavcrsadhd g davcrsadhd nagjû`akh cs, sc`ýo cj Kgovcoag Aotcrohkagohj sgnrc jh
Davcrsadhd Nagjû`akh, "cj táriaog pgr cj quc sc fhkc rcecrcokah h jh hipjah vhracdhd dc scrcs vavgs
sgnrc jh Tacrrh y jgs phtrgocs ohturhjcs quc jh kgoegriho, rcsujthdg dc iajcs dc iajjgocs dc høgs
dc cvgjukaûo sc`ýo prgkcsgs ohturhjcs y thinaáo dc jh aoejucokah krckacotc dc jhs hktavadhdcs dcj
scr fuihog". Jh nagdavcrsadhd kgiprcodc a`uhjicotc jh vhracdhd dc ckgsastcihs y jhs
daecrcokahs `coátakhs dcotrg dc khdh cspckac quc pcriatco jh kginaohkaûo dc iýjtapjcs egrihs dc
vadh, y kuyhs iutuhs aotcrhkkagocs kgo cj rcstg dcj cotgrog euodhicotho cj sustcotg dc jh vadh
sgnrc cj pjhocth.
Co oucstrg phés, cxastco satuhkagocs quc pgoco co racs`g cj cquajanrag dc dakfh nagdavcrsadhd. Cotrc
jgs ehktgrcs dc racs`g dc párdadh dc jh nagdavcrsadhd co Iáxakg cokgotrhigs jgs sa`uacotcs=
Rárdadh dc fènathts. 
fènathts.  Jh párdadh y dctcragrg dc jgs fènathts cs jh praokaphj khush dc párdadh dc
nagdavcrsadhd. Hj trhosegrihr scjvhs, ngsqucs, ihtgrrhjcs, phstazhjcs, iho`jhrcs, jh`uohs, y hrrckaecs
co khipgs h`rékgjhs, `hohdcrgs, `rhomhs khihrgocrhs, prcshs, khrrctcrhs y zgohs urnhohs,
dcstruaigs cj fènatht dc iajcs dc cspckacs. Iukfhs vckcs jh trhosegrihkaûo og cs kgipjcth pcrg
cxastc dctcragrg dc jh kgipgsakaûo, cstrukturh g euokaûo dc jgs ckgsastcihs quc aiphkth h jhs

cspckacs y h jgs nacocs y scrvakags quc gntcocigs dc jh ohturhjczh.

Cspckacs aovhsgrhs. Jh
aovhsgrhs. Jh aotrgdukkaûo dc cspckacs og ohtavhs (cxûtakhs) quc sc kgovacrtco co aovhsgrhs
(pjh`hs)
(pjh`h s) cs uoh khush iuy aipgrthotc dc párdadh dc nagdavcrsadhd. Csths cspckacs quc prgvacoco dc
satags jcmhogs dc ihocrh hkkadcothj g dcjancrhdh, dcprcdho h jhs cspckacs ohtavhs, kgipatco kgo
cjjhs, trhosiatco coecricdhdcs, igdaeakho jgs fènathts khushodg prgnjcihs hinacothjcs,
ckgoûiakgs y sgkahjcs. Hj`uohs iuy kgogkadhs sgo jhs rhths y rhtgocs dc Hsah, cj jarag hkuètakg dc
[udhiárakh y cj pcz jcûo dcj Rhkéeakg Gcstc y Gkchoéh.
[gnrcxpjgthkaûo.  Cs jh cxtrhkkaûo dc aodavadugs dc uoh pgnjhkaûo h uoh thsh ihygr h jh dc su
[gnrcxpjgthkaûo. 
rcprgdukkaûo. Kuhodg cstg sukcdc jh pgnjhkaûo dasiaouyc. Ásth fh sadg jh fastgrah dc iukfhs dc jhs
cspckacs quc sc fho sgnrccxpjgthdg pgr dastaoths rhzgocs= jhs nhjjcohs, jgs pckcs, vcohdgs, khktus,
grquédchs, ctk. Iukfhs dc cjjhs hfgrh sc cokucotrho co pcja`rg dc cxtaokaûo. Hj`uohs cspckacs sgo
iès vujocrhnjcs quc gtrhs pgr sus khrhktcréstakhs nagjû`akhs kgig= dastranukaûo rcstrao`adh,
hnuodhokah nhmh, thsh hjth dc igrthjadhd, thsh rcprgduktavh nhmh, hjth kgo`rc`hkaûo dc jh pgnjhkaûo,
cotrc gtrhs. Jhs hktavadhdcs dc khkcréh, thjh, pcskh, kgicrkag ajc`hj dc cspckacs kgo dastaotgs eaocs,
ctk., hecktho h jhs cspckacs hj sgnrccxpjgthr sus pgnjhkagocs.
Kgothiaohkaûo.  Cj huicotg co jh prcscokah dc susthokahs quéiakhs co cj hinacotc kgig rcsujthdg
Kgothiaohkaûo. Cj
dc jhs hktavadhdcs fuihohs tacoc `rhvcs kgosckucokahs phrh iukfhs cspckacs. Jhs hktavadhdcs
aodustrahjcs, h`rékgjhs, `hohdcrhs y urnhohs kgotranuyco sunsthokahjicotc h jh kgothiaohkaûo dcj
harc,, h`u
harc h`uhh y sucjgs. Hdciès dc susthoka
susthokahs
hs quéiakhs thinaáo sc kgosadcrh
kgos adcrh hj cxkcsg dc cocr`éh kgi
kgig
g
sgoadg, khjgr
kh jgr ,g juz kgi
kgig
g uo kgot
kgothiaohotc,
hiaohotc, y h jgs gr`hoasi
gr`hoasigs
gs trhos`áoakgs.
Khinag kjaiètakg. Durhotc
kjaiètakg. Durhotc jgs phshdgs 822 høgs sc fh dgkuicothdg cj huicotg dc jh tcipcrhturh

prgicdag
`hscs dc jh htiûsecrh
dc cecktg y dc
aovcrohdcrg jgs gkáhogs
prgdukadg pgr dcj
dc
jh jqucih
pj
pjhocth
hocthdcdcnadg hhjj aokrcicotg
a okrcicotg
kginustanjcs eûsajcs co jh kgokcotrhkaûo
y pgr dc
jh dcegrcsthkaûo,
uoh kginaohkaûo dc prgdukkaûo co cxkcsg y uoh rcdukadh khphkadhd phrh khpturhr jh

;2

 
 kgothiaohkaûo. Jhs kgosckucokahs sgo khinags rhdakhjcs co jh dastranukaûo dc ckgsastcihs y
cspckacs, huicotg co cj oavcj dcj ihr, dcshphrakaûo dc `jhkahrcs y dc `rhodcs cxtcosagocs dc
kgrhjcs, kjaihs aiprcdck
aiprcdckanjcs
anjcs y cxtrcigs kgi
kgig
g scquéhs y tgricoths.
8.3. Aipgrthokah dc jh kgoscrvhkaûo d
dcc jgs ckgsastc
ckgsastcihs.
ihs.
Jh rohygréh dc jhs cxtaokagocs dc cspckacs gkurradhs cotrc jgs høgs 8222 h >222 sc fho dcnadg h jhs
hkkagocs fuihohs, cspckahjicotc khushdhs pgr jh dcstrukkaûo dc fènathts. Jgs huicotgs co jhs
thshs dc cxtaokaûo sc dcnco hj kgosuig dc jgs rckursgs gr`èoakgs, cspckahjicotc jgs dc jgs ngsqucs
trgpakhjcs. [a naco jh ihygréh dc jhs cspckacs quc sc cstèo cxtao`uacodg og sgo cspckacs ushdhs co
jh hjaicothkaûo fuihoh, su nagihsh cstè sacodg kgovcrtadh co thj hjaicotg kuhodg su fènatht cs
trhosegrihdg co phstazhj, tcrrcog h`rhrag g fucrth. [c khjkujh quc iès dc uo tcrkag dc jh nagihsh
dc jh Tacrrh cstè dcdakhdg h jhs cspckacs quc hjaicotho h jgs fuihogs, thjcs kgig `hohdg y
prgduktgs h`rékgjhs.
Jh csthnajadhd dc jgs ckgsastcihsdasiaouyc kuhodg jhs cspckacs sc cxtao`uco, pgr csg cs aipgrthotc
cstudahr jg quc gkurrc phrh pgdcr cvathr cj kgjhpsg dc ckgsastcihs `jgnhjcs.
Jgs ehktgrcs quc kgotranuyco h párdadh dc nagdavcrsadhd sgo= supcrpgnjhkaûo, dcegrcsthkaûo,
kgothiaohkaûo hinacothj, kgothiaohkaûo dcj harc, dcj h`uh, dcj sucjg y khjcothiacotg `jgnhj g
khinags kjaiètakgs.
8.5. Cquadh
Cquadhd d co cj hprgvckfhi
hprgvckfhiacotg
acotg prcscotc y euturg dc jgs rckursgs= cj cj  
dcshrrgjjg sustcothnjc.
Hotc jh krckacotc dcihodh dc hjaicotgs phrh jh pgnjhkaûo prcscotc y euturh, cs ockcshrag nuskhr
jhs cstrhtc`ahs quc ehvgrczkho cj usg grdcohdg dc rckursgs. H cjjg sc rceacrc cj dcshrrgjjg
sustcothnjc, dceaoadg kgig "cj prgkcsg dc icmgrhiacotg sgstcoadg y cquathtavg dc jh khjadhd dc
vadh dc jhs pcrsgohs, euodhdg co icdadhs hprgpahdhs dc kgoscrvhkaûo y prgtckkaûo dcj icdag
hinacotc, h ihocrh dc og kgiprgictcr jhs cxpckthtavhs dc jhs `cocrhkagocs euturhs". Co sé, h phrtar
dcj dcshrrgjjg sustcothnjc sc prctcodc uo krckaiacotg ckgoûiakg sao dcskuadhr jh kgoscrvhkaûo dc
jh khjadhd hinacothj y jh cquadhd sgkahj.
Jh kacokah y jh tckogjg`éh hpgrtho aipgrthotcs kgogkaiacotgs co hspcktgs rcjhkagohdgs kgo jh
hpjakhkaûo dcj dcshrrgjjg sustcothnjc dara`adg h jh hjaicothkaûo, sacodg su eaohjadhd `hrhotazhr quc

fhyh sueakacotc hjaicotg phrh jhs pgnjhkagocs hktuhjcs y euturhs.

>. Tckogjg`éh y sgkacdhd

>.8. Kacokah y tckogjg`éh co jh aotcrhkkaûo scr fuihog-ohturhjczh.
Co jgs ýjtaigs høgs, jh kacokah y jh tckogjg`éh, fho hvhozhdg dc ihocrh cxpgocokahj. Cstc hvhokc,
khsa co su tgthjadhd, cstè cokhiaohdg hj nacocsthr dcj scr fuihog y h jh shtasehkkaûo dc sus
ockcsadhdcs. Jh kgostrukkaûo dc iès kcotrgs dc pgnjhkaûo, jh ockcsadhd dc hjaicothr h uoh
pgnjhkaûo quá krckc dc ihocrh dcsicsurhdh, cotrc gtrhs kgshs, prgvgkh quc cj scr fuihog tco`h
uoh aotcrvcokaûo ogkavh phrh cj icdag hinacotc.
Jh kacokah y jh tckogjg`éh khdh vcz sc prcgkupho iès pgr quc jgs hvhokcs oucvgs tgico co kucoth
cj cquajanrag cotrc jh rcjhkaûo dcj scr fuihog kgo jh ohturhjczh, aokjuycodg co sus hvhokcs khdh vcz
iès cjcicotgs rcutajazhnjcs, quc kgothiaoho icogs, quc `cocrho icogs nhsurh, ctk.

;8

 
 ;. Trhosegrihkaûo dc ihtcrah y cocr`éh
;.8. Jh egtgséotcs
egtgséotcsas
as kgig prgkcsg dc trhosegrihkaûo dc co cocr`éh
cr`éh y kgig  
kgig
nhsc dc jhs khdcohs hjaicotakahs.
Icdahotc cj prgkcsg dc jh egtgséotcsas, jhs pjhoths trhosegriho h`uh (hnsgrnadh dcj sucjg pgr jhs
rhékcs) y daûxadg dc khrngog (hnsgrnadg dcj harc pgr jhs fgmhs) co hzýkhr (`jukgsh), jh kgiadh phrh jh
pjhoth. Dc csth egrih, jh cocr`éh kgotcoadh co jgs hutûtrgegs sc trhoseacrc h jgs fctcrûtrgegs.
[a unakhigs co dastaotgs oavcjcs h jgs aotc`rhotcs dc uoh khdcoh hjaicothrah pgdcigs egrihr uoh
parèiadc dc ejumg dc cocr`éh co quc vcigs kûig dasiaouyc jh khotadhd dc ihtcrah y cocr`éh
daspgoanjc co khdh cthph dc jh khdcoh hjaicothrah.
Jgs prgduktgrcs (pjhoths) sgo jgs quc ihygr khotadhd dc cocr`éh y ihtcrah pgscco< jcs sa`uco jgs
daecrcotcs tapgs dc gr`hoasigs fctcrûtrgegs, kgig jgs kgosuiadgrcs praihrags (sc hjaicotho
darckthicotc dc jhs pjhoths)< co sc`uadh, jgs sckuodhrags (su hjaicothkaûo jh kgipgoco thotg
gr`hoasigs prgduktgrcs kgig gtrgs kgosuiadgrcs)< y co jh puoth, jgs kgosuiadgrcs tcrkahrags (sc
hjaicotho dc jgs khroévgrgs praihrags). Co cstc tapg dc parèiadc, jgs dcskgipgocdgrcs (dcsaotc`rho
jgs gr`hoasigs phrh hjaicothrsc< kgo jg kuhj jh ihtcrah quc jgs kgostatuéh vucjvc hj hinacotc) sgo
jgs gr`hoasigs quc icogs cocr`éh rckanco< pucs jgs scrcs vavgs cipjcho sûjg jh dákaih phrtc dc jh
cocr`éh quc gntacoc, cj rcstg sc trhosegrih co khjgr y og pucdc scr hprgvckfhdh pgr gtrgs

gr`hoasigs.
jgs rcstgs dcDc
jgsthj ihocrh quc, hj kgostatua
gr`hoasigs. kgos tatuarr ccjj ýjtaig
ýj taig csjhnûo, jgs ffgo`g
go`gss y jhs nhktcrahs dcsaotc`rho

Kgosuiadgrcs tcrkahrgs sc hjaicotho

dc jgs khroévgrgs praihrags

Kgosuiadgrcs sckuodhrags sc
hjaicotho thotg dc pjhoths kgig dc
gtrgs kgosuiadgrcs

Kgosuiadgrcs praihrags sc 

hjaicotho dc jhs pjhoths

Rrgduktgrcs (Rj
(Rjhoth
hoths)
s)

Dcskgipgocdgrcs dcsaotc`rho jgs

gr`hoasigs phrh quc jh ihtcrah vucjvh
hj hinacotc

;>

 
 ;.>. ^csparhkaûo kcjujhr.
Jh rcsparhkaûo kecjujhr cs cj kgomuotg dc rchkkagocs icthnûjakhs pgr icdag dcj kuhj jhs kájujhs
rcdukco cj gxé`cog, kgo prgdukkaûo dc cocr`éh y h`uh. Cs uo prgkcsg icdahotc cj kuhj dctcriaohdgs
kgipucstgs gr`èoakgs sgo dc`rhdhdgs kgipjcthicotc fhsth kgovcrtarsc co susthokahs aogr`èoakhs
quc jh prgpah kájujh hprgvckfh kgig cocr`éh.
Jgs praicrgs gr`hoasigs egrihdgs pgr uoh kájujh aotcrkhinahnho cj gxé`cog y cj daûxadg dc
khrngog icdahotc uo saipjc prgkcsg dc daeusaûo. Kgo cj phsg dcj tacipg sc egrihrgo gr`hoasigs
kgoegrihdgs pgr iès
iès kájujhs y cipczhrgo h sur`ar tcmadgs cs
cspckahjazhdgs
pckahjazhdgs phrh tgihr gxé`cog dcj
dcj
icdag.
Kájujh Uc`cthj

IATGKGOD^AH- KJG^GRJH[TG
^CTÉKSJG 
CODGRJH[IÈTAKG RH^CD KCJSJH^

HRH^HTG KATG[GJ
DC@GJ@A
JA[G[GIH[ 
OSKJCG RC^GVA [GIH[
KATGC[XSCJCTG
ICIN^HOH
RJH[IÈTAKH
UHKSGJH
Dcspuás sur`acrgo gr`hoasigs khphkcs dc saotctazhr sus hjaicotgs h phrtar dc igjákujhs aogr`èoakhs
sao jh ockcsadhd dc kgosuiar gxé`cog, kgig jg fhkco jgs hohcrgnags hktuhjcs. Rgr cmcipjg, jhs
nhktcrahs quc vavco co oucstrg aotcstaog y jhs jcvhdurhs kgo jhs quc sc prgdukc jh kcrvczh y cj vaog.
Jgs praicrgs gr`hoasigs quc tuvacrgo kájujhs cspckahjazhdhs eucrgo saiajhrcs h jhs cspgomhs
hktuhjcs, quc hphrckacrgo co jh tacrrh fhkc iès g icogs quaoacotgs kaokucoth iajjgocs dc høgs.
Cstgs hoaihjcs y jhs cspgomhs, tacoco uogs khohjcs pgr jgs quc phsh cj h`uh dc ihr, quc jjcvh gxé`cog
h jhs kájujhs dc tgdg cj gr`hoasig, pucdc dckarsc quc sgo tcmadgs dgodc sc jjcvh h khng cj prgkcsg
dc jh rcsparhkaûo.
;.;. ^csparhkaûo hcrgnah y hohcrgnah.
Jh rcsparhkaûo cs jh euokaûo quc pcriatc h jgs scrcs vavgs gntcocr jh cocr`éh phrh rchjazhr sus
euokagocs vathjcs kgig krckcr, rcprgdukarsc, kgosc`uar hjaicotg y dcecodcrsc. Co cstc prgkcsg, jh
ihygréh kgosuic gxé`cog y cxpujsh daûxadg dc khrngog.
^csparhkaûo hcrgnah= kgo cj tacipg cvgjukagohrgo gr`hoasigs quc utajazhnho jh juz dcj sgj, daûxadg
dc khrngog y h`uh
h`uh phrh saotctazhr
saotct azhr su hjaicotg
hj aicotg y co cj prgkcsg dcsckfhnho gxé`cog, kgig jhs pjhoths
y tgdgs jgs gr`hoasigs egtgsaotátakgs hktuhjcs.
Cj gxé`cog
gxé`cog sc hkuiujû y egriû jh khph dc gzgog, quc aipadaû qucmh
qucm h ihygréh dc jgs rhygs ujtrhvagjcth
ujtr hvagjcth
jjc`hrho h jh supcreakac dc jh Tacrrh y pcriataû quc jgs iakrggr`hoasigs quc vavého co jhs

;;

 
 prgeuodadhdcs ihraohs fhnathrho co jh supcreakac, sc davcrsaeakhrho y sur`acrho scrcs iès kgipjcmgs,
egrihdgs pgr iès dc uoh kájujh.
Iukfgs dc cstgs kgjgoazhdgrcs, hj a`uhj quc jgs praicrgs quc sur`acrgo, rcqucrého kgicrsc h gtrgs
scrcs vavgs phrh sgnrcvavar y utajazhnho cj gxé`cog phrh gntcocr jh cocr`éh dcj hjaicotg. H cstc
prgkcsg sc jc jjhih ^C[RA^HKAÛO HC^GNAH.
^csparhkaûo hohcrgnah= jgs praicrgs scrcs vavgs quc fhnathrgo jh Tacrrh eucrgo hohcrûnakgs y og
pgdého saotctazhr sus hjaicotgs, pgr jg quc sc hjaicothnho dc igjákujhs gr`èoakhs dcj icdag y
dcsckfhnho daûxadg dc khrngog y icthog.
Hj`uohs nhktcrahs y jhs jcvhdurhs og rcquacrco gxé`cog phrh gntcocr cocr`éh pgr jg quc sc jcs jjhih
gr`hoasigs hohcrûnakgs. Kgig
hohcrûnakgs. Kgig vcrhs, co jh rcsparhkaûo hohcrûnakh jgs gr`hoasigs gntacoco cocr`éh
sao jh prcscokah dcj gxé`cog.
;.4. Egtgséotcsas y rrcsparhkaûo
csparhkaûo co cj kakjg dcj khrngog.
khrngog.
Soh dc jhs khrhktcréstakhs quc dastao`uc h jhs kájujhs vc`cthjcs dc jhs hoaihjcs cs jh prcscokah dc
kjgrgpjhstgs, jgs quc sc cokucotrho praokaphjicotc co jhs kájujhs quc egriho jhs fgmhs. Co ástgs sc
jjcvh h khng
khng jh egtgséo
egtgséotcsas.
tcsas. Jgs
Jgs kjgrgpjhstgs sgo vcrdc
vcrdcss pgr kgotcocr kjgrgeajh,
kjgrgea jh, y sgo csths cstruktur
cstrukturhs
hs
jhs quc khpturho jh cocr`éh juiaogsh.

Jg quc sukcdc dcotrg dc jgs kjgrgpjhstgs cs uo kgomuotg dc rchkkagocs quéiakhs hktavhdhs pgr jh
cocr`éh juiaogsh, co jh quc cj h`uh (F>2) y cj daûxadg dc khrngog (K2>) sc trhosegriho y dho ju`hr
h uo tapg dc hzýkhr jjhihdh `jukgsh
jjhihdh `jukgsh (K5F8>25),
 (K5F8>25), y gxé`cog (2>) kgig susthokah dc dcsckfg. [a naco
uoh phrtc dc cstc prgkcsg dcpcodc dc jh juz, gtrh phrtc aipgrthotc sc jjcvh h khng dc ihocrh
aodcpcodacotc dc jh cocr`éh juiaogsh.
Cj daûxadg dc khrngog, quc egrih phrtc dcj harc quc ogs rgdch, cs gtrh dc jhs susthokahs cscokahjcs
phrh jh egtgséotcsas. Cj daûxadg dc khrngog cotrh h jhs fgmhs dc jhs pjhoths h trhvás dc uogs graeakags
jjhihdgs Cstgihs, quc sc cokucotrho praokaphjicotc co su supcreakac aoecragr. Cstgs pcqucøgs
pgrgs cstèo rgdchdgs pgr dgs dgs kájujhs co egrih dc eramgj quc sc hnrco g kacr
kacrrho,
rho, y kgotrgjho jh cotrhdh
y shjadh dc `hscs dc jhs fgmhs. Cj daûxadg dc khrngog co cj aotcragr dc jhs fgmhs, sc aokgrpgrh h jhs
kájujhs quc kgotacoco uoh `rho khotadhd dc kjgrgpjhstgs, quc cs dgodc sc jjcvh h khng jh hktavadhd
egtgsaotátakh.
;.3. Gr`hoasigs hutûtrgegs y fctcrûtrgegs.
Jgs gr`hoasigs hutûtrgegs sgo hqucjjgs quc, kgig phrtc dc su cstrukturh quéiakh y hohtûiakh,
daspgoco dc ickhoasigs quc jcs pcriatco prgdukar jhs susthokahs dc jhs quc gntacoco jh cocr`éh
phrh sus rchkkagocs quéiakhs icthnûjakhs, pgr icdag dc jh rcsparhkaûo kcjujhr, quc cs uo prgkcsg
quéiakg kgipjcmg jjcvhdg h khng co cj gr`hocjg kcjujhr jjhihdg iatgkgodrah.
iatgkgodrah.   Rgr csth rhzûo, sc
kgosadcrh quc sgo khphkcs dc prgdukar su prgpag hjaicotg. [go hutûtrgegs tgdgs jgs vc`cthjcs, jhs
hj`hs uoakcjujhrcs y pjurakcjujhrcs y hj`uohs nhktcrahs. Co jh daoèiakh dc jgs ckgsastcihs, jh
hutgtrûeakh cs aiprcskaodanjc pgrquc cs jh egrih co jh quc ihtcrah y cocr`éh aogr`èoakh (cs dckar,
quc og prgkcdco dc hj`ýo ecoûicog vavg) sc trhosegriho co ihtcrah y cocr`éh ýtaj phrh jgs
gr`hoasigs. Co jhs khdcohs hjaicothrahs, jgs hutûtrgegs sgo dcogiaohdgs kgig gr`hoasigs gr`hoasigs  
 prgduktgrcs, pucs
 prgduktgrcs,  pucs kgovacrtco jh ihtcrah aogr`èoakh co gr`èoakh quc scrè utajazhdh pgr cj rcstg dc jgs
scrcs vavgs.

;4

 
 Jgs gr`hoasigs fctcrûtrgegs khrckco dc ickhoasigs phrh saotctazhr jh igjákujh dc `jukgsh, pgr jg
quc h jg jhr`g dc su cvgjukaûo fho dcshrrgjjhdg hdhpthkagocs hohtûiakhs y euokagohjcs phrh tgihr
y hprgvckfhr co egrih dc hjaicotg (uoh vcz da`cradg pgr jhs cozaihs da`cstavhs), quc prgdukco jgs
gr`hoasigs hutûtrgegs y gtrgs fctcrûtrgegs.
Dc hkucrdg kgo jh egrih kgig gntacoco jh `jukgsh y sus outraicotgs, sc dastao`uco dgs tapgs dc
fctcrûtrgegs
fctcr ûtrgegs== pgr hnsgrkaûo y pgr ao`cstaûo. Jgs fctcrûtrge
fctcrûtrgegs
gs pgr hnsgrkaûo sgo
sgo jgs fgo`
fgo`gs<
gs< co ástgs,
jhs cozaihs da`cstavhs sgo cxpujshdhs sgnrc jh ihtcrah gr`èoakh co jh quc krckc cj gr`hoasig< hsé,
da`acrco dakfh ihtcrah phrh quc pgstcragricotc cj fgo`g jhs hnsgrnh. Jgs fctcrûtrgegs pgr
ao`cstaûo sgo tgdgs jgs hoaihjcs kgo hphrhtg da`cstavg, cj kuhj euokagoh phrh aotrgdukar y da`crar cj
hjaicotg. Co cstgs gr`hoasigs jh da`cstaûo cs aotcroh hj kucrpg.

4. Outrakaûo y rcsparhkaûo
rcsparh kaûo phrh cj kuadhdg dc jh shjud
4.8. Aipgrthokah dc jh hjaicothkaûo kgrrckth co jh shjud= dacth  dacth 
cquajanrhdh, kgipjcth c fa`aáoakh.
fa`aáoakh.
Cs pgsanjc quc pacoscs quc tu hjaicothkaûo cs hdckuhdh, pucs kgosuics vcrdurhs, eruths, pho y
tgrtajjh, hsé kgig daecrcotcs tapgs dc khrocs. [ao cinhr`g, phrh cvhjuhr tu hjaicothkaûo cs ockcshrag
quc kgogzkhs kûig sc kgoegrih uoh dacth kgrrckth, quá outraicotgs kgotacoco jgs hjaicotgs y
kûig jgs utajazh cj gr`hoasig. Kgo nhsc co cj kgogkaiacotg kacotéeakg dc jh outrakaûo, sc dceaoc kgig
uoh dacth kgrrckth jh quc rcýoc jhs sa`uacotcs khrhktcréstakhs=
Kgipjcth= Xuc kgotco`h tgdgs jgs outraicotgs. Jg adchj cs quc co khdh kgiadh sc aokjuyho
hjaicotgs dc jgs ; `rupgs quc kgoegriho cj Rjhtg dcj Naco Kgicr, quc sgo=
Ucrdurh y Eruth
Jc`uiaogshs
Jc`ui aogshs y hja
hjaicotgs
icotgs dc gra`co hoaihj
Kcrchjcs
Cquajanrhdh= Xuc sus outraicotgs cstáo co jhs prgpgrkagocs rckgicodhdhs phrh khdh pcrsgoh.
Aogkuh= Xuc cstá janrc dc iakrggr`hoasigs, tgxaohs y/g kgothiaohotcs quc pucdho scr uo racs`g
phrh jh shjud.

[ueakacotc= Xuc ykunrh

pcsg shjudhnjc co jgsjhsoaøgs
ockcsadhdcs
hdciès, dc
quckhdh pcrsgoh.
prgpakac Co jgs hdujtgs
uo krckaiacotg uoh outrakaûo
y dcshrrgjjg muotg kgo uo
hdckuhdgs.
Uhrahdh= Xuc sc cjamho daecrcotcs hjaicotgs dc khdh `rupg quc kgoegriho khdh kgiadh.
Hdckuhdh= Xuc sc hdckýc h jhs ockcsadhdcs cocr`átakhs dc khdh pcrsgoh.
4.>. Rrcvcokaûo dc coecricdhdcs rcjhkagohdhs kgo jh outrakaûo
outrakaûo..
Iáxakg, co jgs ýjtaigs høgs, gkuph jgs praicrgs ju`hrcs co sgnrcpcsg y gncsadhd dcotrg dc su
pgnjhkaûo, jgs cstudags hpuotho fhkah uo kgosuig cxkcsavg dc hjaicotgs jjhihdgs dc hjth dcosadhd
cocr`átakh, hsé kgig jh ehjth dc cmcrkakag eésakg. Ástgs hjaicotgs `cocrhjicotc kgotacoco, co pgkgs
`rhigs, cjcvhdhs khotadhdcs dc `rhshs y hzýkhrcs dc nhmg vhjgr outraicothj quc cj gr`hoasig
hjihkcoh kgig tcmadg hdapgsg, hsaiasig, cs erckucotc quc kgotco`ho uo cxkcsg dc shj, jh quc
prgvgkh dcscquajanrags co jh dastranukaûo dc jéquadgs co cj gr`hoasig.

;3

 
 Jh gncsadhd y cj sgnrcpcsg sc dcnco, co jh ihygr phrtc dc jgs khsgs, h uo cxkcsg co cj kgosuig dc
`rhshs y hzýkhrcs, y h jh ehjth dc hktavadhd eésakh. Jhs praokaphjcs coecricdhdcs `rhvcs quc sc hsgkaho
h jh gncsadhd y cj sgnrcpcsg sgo jhs sa`uacotcs= dahnctcs icjjatus, coecricdhdcs khrdagvhskujhrcs y
prcsaûo hrtcrahj hjth.
Jh dcsoutrakaûo sc dcnc h uoh khrcokah co cj gr`hoasig dc iès dc uo outraicotg, praokaphjicotc
prgtcéohs c fadrhtgs dc khrngog. Rucdc dcncrsc thinaáo h gtrhs khushs quc aipadco cj
hprgvckfhiacotg hdckuhdg dc outraicotgs, kgig jh prcscokah dc phrèsatgs g coecricdhdcs pgr
jhs quc cj gr`hoasig og pucdc hprgvckfhr dctcriaohdhs susthokahs, dcshrrgjjhodg hociah.
Jgs trhstgrogs dc jh hjaicothkaûo, kgig sgo jh hogrcxah ocrvagsh y jh nujaiah, tacoco davcrshs khushs,
pcrg `cocrhjicotc sc hsgkaho kgo satuhkagocs psakgjû`akhs y cigkagohjcs, kgig cj tcocr uoh nhmh
hutgcstaih y uoh `rho ockcsadhd dc hprgnhkaûo pgr jgs dciès, hsé kgig og tgjcrhr cj kgictcr
crrgrcs. Tgdg cjjg jc daeakujth rcjhkagohrsc pgsatavhicotc kgo gtrhs pcrsgohs y cs khush dc uoh `rho
scoshkaûo dc erhkhsg, trastczh y hosacdhd.
4.;. Rraokaphjcs khushs y kgosckucokahs dc jh kgothiaohkaûo dc
dc jh 
jh 
htiûsecrh y dcj khjcothiacotg `jgnhj.
Rhrh cj dcshrrgjjg
dcshrrgj jg dc cstc tcih cs aipgrthotc
aipgrthot c csthnj
csthnjckcr
ckcr cj kgokcptg y euokaûo dc jgs `hscs dc
dc cecktg
aovcrohdcrg.
Jgs `hscs dc cecktg aovcrohdcrg, sgo `hscs quc sc cokucotrho co jh htiûsecrh tcrrcstrc y quc
rchjazho jh euokaûo dc rctcocr cj khjgr rckanadg pgr jh tacrrh durhotc cj déh y cvathr quc jhs
tcipcrhturhs nhmco nruskhicotc pgr jh ogkfc. Jh htiûsecrh tcrrcstrc cstè egrihdh pgr`hscs kgig
cj daûxadg dc khrngog, fadrû`cog, vhpgr dc h`uh, icthog y ûxadg oatrgsg.
Co jgs ýjtaigs høgs fh huicothdg jh khotadhd dc daûxadg dá `hscs dc cecktg aovcrohdcrg co jh tacrrh,
co cspckahj dcj daûxadg dc khrngog, dcnadg h jgs prgkcsgs dc kginustaûo quc gkuphigs co oucstrh
vadh kgtadahoh= igtgrcs dc jgs hutgiûvajcs, eènrakhs, prgdukkaûo dc cocr`éh, ctk.
Cj huicotg dc jgs `hscs dc cecktg aovcrohdcrg fh prgvgkhdg quc cj khjgr dc jh tacrrh sc aokrcicotc
khdh vcz iès, jg quc kgogkcigs kgig khjcothiacotg `jgnhj.

Cj khjcothiacotg `jgnhj tacoc kgig praokaphjcs kgosckucokahs=

Xuc jh cvhpgrhkaûo dcj h`uh sch iès rèpadh dasiaouycodg jgs oavcjcs dc régs y jh`gs,
Cj huicotg dc jh cvhpgrhkaûo dcj h`uh prgvgkh quc kakjgocs y furhkhocs sc aotcosaeaquco,
Jh aouodhkaûo dc zgohs kgstcrhs dcnadg hj dcsfacjg dc igothøhs y `jhkahrcs quc huicoth
cj oavcj dcj ihr,
Jgs khsquctcs pgjhrcs euokagoho kgig uo rcejckthotc dc jh rhdahkaûo sgjhr, hj dcskgo`cjhrsc
jgs iasigs, jh rhdahkaûo sc qucdh co oucstrh htiûsecrh h`rhvhodg cj prgnjcih.
4.4. Rrcvcokaûo dc coecricdhdcs
coecricdhdc s rcsparhtgrahs.
Cotrc jhs icdadhs quc hyudho h prcvcoar coecricdhdcs rcsparhtgrahs kgig `rapc, aoejucozh y
ocuigoéh,
ocuig oéh, sc cokucotrho=

;5

 
 Kgosuiar eruths y vcrdurhs, co phrtakujhr hqucjjhs quc hpgrtho vathiaoh K, kgig sgo= nhyhs
rgmhs, lawa, paiaco
paiacotg
tg rgmg y vcrdc, tgihtcs, cspaohkh, jgs mu`gs
mu`gs fckfg
fckfgss dá `uhy
`uhyhnh,
hnh, tgrgomh,
ohrhomh y jaiûo.
Co ápgkh dc eraû, hnra`hrsc hdckuhdhicotc, ushr nuehodhs phrh prgtc`cr jh ngkh y jh ohraz.
Cvathr cxpgocrsc h hinacotcs kgothiaohdgs y, co jh icdadh dc jg pgsanjc, cj kgothktg kgo
pcrsgohss co
pcrsgoh coecrihs.
ecrihs.
Sshr `uhotcs dc jètcx y thphngkhs hj ihoapujhr gnmctgs quc utajazhrgo pcrsgohs coecrihs.
Dcskhoshr hj icogs gkfg fgrhs dahrahs.
Kgosuiar sueakacotc h`uh pgthnjc, pgr jg icogs dgs jatrgs hj déh.
Aokrcicothr jgs fènatgs dc jaipaczh pcrsgohjcs y dc jgs ju`hrcs quc sc erckucotho.
Og euihr y cvathr pcrihockcr co ju`hrcs kcrrhdgs kgo euihdgrcs.

3. ^cprgdukkaûo y scxuhjadhd
3.8. Khrhktcrésta
Khrhktcréstakhs
khs `cocrhjcs dc jh davasaûo kcjujhr pgr iatgsas y i
icagsas.
cagsas.
Jh iatgsas cs jh davasaûo oukjchr hsgkahdh h jh davasaûo dc jhs kájujhs sgiètakhs dc jhs kájujhs dc uo
gr`hoasig cukhréstakg quc og vho h kgovcrtarsc co kájujhs scxuhjcs. Soh kájujh iatûtakh sc davadc y
egrih dgs kájujhs famhs adáotakhs, khdh uoh dc jhs kuhjcs kgotacoc uo muc`g dc krgigsgihs adáotakg
hj dc jh kájujh phrcothj. Jhs pjhoths y jgs hoaihjcs cstèo egrihdgs pgr iajcs dc iajjgocs dc kájujhs
aodavaduhjcs gr`hoazhdhs co tcmadgs y ûr`hogs quc kuipjco euokagocs cspckéeakhs.

Co jh icagsas, jgs gr`hoasigs supcragrcs quc sc rcprgdukco dc egrih scxuhj sc egriho h phrtar dc
jh uoaûo dc dgs kájujhs scxuhjcs cspckahjcs dcogiaohdhs @hictgs.
@hictgs. Jh
 Jh icagsas sc daecrcokah dc jh
iatgsas co quc sûjg sc trhosiatc h khdh kájujh oucvh uo krgigsgih dc khdh uoh dc jhs phrcmhs dc
jh kájujh gra`aohj.
Dhdg quc jh icagsas kgosastc co dgs davasagocs kcjujhrcs, ásths sc dastao`uco kgig icagsas 8 y
icagsas >. Hings sukcsgs daecrcotcs sa`oaeakhtavhicotc dc jgs dc jh iatgsas. Dc ásths jh iès
kgipjcmh y dc iès jhr`h durhkaûo cs jh prgehsc 8, quc tacoc sus prgpahs davasagocs= Jcptgtcog,
Katg`cog, Rhquatcog, Dapjgtcog y Dahkaocsas.
3.>. ^cprgdukkaû
^cprgdukkaûo
o scxuhj y hscxuhj.
Hscxuhj. Rcriatc cj ohkaiacotg dc uoh `rho khotadhd dc aodavadugs h phrtar dc uo sûjg cmcipjhr, pcrg

og zgohs
co sc daecrcokaho uogs
dgodc jhs dc gtrgs, hinacothjcs
kgodakagocs pucs sgo kgpahs adáotakhs.
vhrého Rucdco vavar sao ihygrcs kgipjakhkagocs
iuy pgkg.
Cstc tapg dc rcprgdukkaûo gkurrc praokaphjicotc co cspckacs uoakcjujhrcs. Co csths cspckacs, pcrg
praokaphjicotc co jgs fgo`gs pjurakcjujhrcs, cxastc uoh egrih dc rcprgdukkaûo hscxuhj jjhihdh
Cspgrujhkaûo,  jh ku
Cspgrujhkaûo, kuhj
hj kgosastc co jh davasaûo dc
dcjj oýkjcg dc jh kájujh co ouicrgshs phrtcs y su pgstcragr
co`jgnhiacotg pgr uoh erhkkaûo dc katgpjhsih. Dc csth egrih, khdh uoh dh gra`co h ouicrgshs
oucvhs kájujhs jjhihdhs cspgrhs,
cspgrhs,   khrhktcrazhdhs pgr cokgotrhrsc rgdchdhs dc uoh kèpsujh dc
rcsastcokah quc jcs pcriatc sgnrcvavar co kgodakagocs hdvcrshs, kgig jhs scquéhs.
Co cj rcaog hoaihj thinaáo fhy cmcipjgs dc rcprgdukkaûo hscxuhj. Jhs cspgomhs dc ihr y hj`uogs
`ushogs, kgig jhs pjhohrahs g jhs jginrakcs dc tacrrh, pucdco egrihr uo oucvg gr`hoasig h phrtar
dc uo erh`icotg dc su kucrpg. H cstg sc jc kgogkc kgig erh`icothkaû
erh`icothkaûo.
o.

;0

 
 Thinaáo fhy hoaihjcs kuyh rcprgdukkaûo sukcdc h phrtar dc uo pcqucøg kgomuotg dc kájujhs,
jjhihdh Qcih,
Qcih, jh
 jh kuhj sc egrih co cj kucrpg dc uo gr`hoasig, y quc pgkg h pgkg sc daecrcokah fhsth
kgovcrtarsc co uo oucvg aodavadug, h cstc prgkcsg sc jc jjhih `cihkaû
jjhih  `cihkaûo.
o.
Rgr ýjtaig, hoaihjcs kgig jgs puj`gocs, jhs hncmhs y hj`uohs cspckacs dc pckcs, sc rcprgdukco h
phrtar dc fucvgs quc og eucrgo ecrtajazhdgs< cstc prgkcsg cs jh Rhrtcog`áocsas.
^cprgdukkaûo scxuhj. Hj cvcotg dgodc phrtakapho dgs nhktcrahs, cs kgogkadg kgig rcprgdukkaûo

scxuhj, kuyg
aodavadugs cjcicotg
phrh dastaotavg cs jhhj`g
egrihr dcskcodacotcs, uoaûo y kginaohkaûo
dastaotavg dc jh[caoegrihkaûo
dc jgs phdrcs. daecrcokah dc`coátakh dc dgs
jh rcprgdukkaûo
hscxuhj co quc praokaphjicotc tacotacocc pgr gnmctg jh krchkaûo dc sumctgs adáo
adáotakgs
takgs h jgs
jgs gra`aohjcs y su
sunsckucotc daspcrsaûo. H daecrcokah dc jhs nhktcrahs, jh ihygréh dc jgs gr`hoasigs pjurakcjujhrcs
(ihiéecrgs, hvcs, pckcs, aoscktgs, fgo`gs y pjhoths) sc rcprgdukco dc ihocrh scxuhj, cs dckar, kgo
jh aotcrvcokaûo dc dgs aodavadugs, uo ihkfg y uoh fcinrh, dc jgs kuhjcs uog sc cokhr`h dc eckuodhr
y gtrg cs cj eckuodhdg. Cstc igdg dc rcprgdukkaûo ehvgrckc jh vhrahkaûo aodavaduhj, hspcktg
aipgrthotésaig co jh hdhpthkaûo y jh scjckkaûo ohturhj.
3.;. [hjud rcprgduktavh y hotakgokcptavgs.
[hjud rcprgduktavh cs, sc`ýo jh GI[, "cj csthdg dc kgipjctg nacocsthr eésakg, icothj y sgkahj, co jgs
hspcktgs rcjhtavgs h jh scxuhjadhd y jh rcprgdukkaûo co tgdhs jhs cthphs dc jh vadh". Og cs pgr thotg
uoh icrh huscokah dc coecricdhdcs g dgjcokahs. Jh shjud rcprgduktavh aipjakh quc jhs pcrsgohs
pucdho tcocr uoh vadh scxuhj sc`urh y shtasehktgrah, jh khphkadhd dc tcocr famgs y jh jancrthd dc
dckadar sa quacrco tcocrjgs, kuèodg y kgo quá erckucokah (dcrckfgs rcprgduktavgs). Thotg cj fginrc
kgig jh iumcr tacoco dcrckfg h csthr aoegrihdgs y tcocr hkkcsg h iátgdgs dc rc`ujhkaûo dc jh
ecrtajadhd sc`urgs, ceakhkcs y hscquanjcs, hsé kgig h daspgocr dc scrvakags hkkcsanjcs dc pjhoaeakhkaûo
ehiajahr y shjud pýnjakh quc pcriatho jh hdckuhdh hsastcokah prgecsagohj h jh iumcr cinhrhzhdh,
pcriatho quc cj phrtg sc prgduzkh dc egrih sc`urh y `hrhotakc cj ohkaiacotg dc famgs shogs.
Jgs hotakgokcptavgs, sgo fcrrhiacoths quc cvatho cj cinhrhzg, thj y kgig su oginrc jg dakc, cvatho
jh kgokcpkaûo. Cxastc uoh `rho vhracdhd dc hotakgokcptavgs thjcs kgig= kgodgraás ecicoaogs y
ihskujaogs,, daspgsatavgs aotrhutcrao
ihskujaogs aotrhutcraogs,
gs, fgrigohs, ctk.

3.4. séotgihs
Coecricdhdcs d
dcc trhosiasaûo
y icdadhs scxuhj. H`cotcs khushj
dc prcvcokaûo khushjcs,
cs, praokaphjcs
praokaphjcs  

Jhs aoeckkagocs dc trhosiasaûo scxuhj, sgo coecricdhdcs gra`aohdhs pgr varus y gtrgs
iakrggr`hoasigs quc sc kgoth`aho praokaphjicotc durhotc jhs rcjhkagocs scxuhjcs sao prgtckkaûo,
cotcodacodg kgig prgtckkaûo cj hdckuhdg usg dcj kgodûo, huoquc thinaáo sc pucdco trhosiatar
dc ihocrh darckth pgr kgothktg kgo scico, ejuadgs vh`aohjcs y sho`rc.
Jh icmgr ihocrh dc prcvcoar csths coecricdhdcs cs cvathr cj kgothktg kgo ejuadgs vh`aohjcs, scico
g sho`rc aoeckthdgs. Dcncigs pgocr cspckahj áoehsas co jh prgtckkaûo durhotc jhs rcjhkagocs
scxuhjcs, yh quc kgig su oginrc jg dakc sgo coecricdhdcs dc trhosiasaûo scxuhj y huoquc sc
trhosiatco dc gtrhs ihocrhs, jh praokaphj khush cs ihotcocr rcjhkagocs scxuhjcs kgo hj`uoh pcrsgoh
aoeckthdh, hfé rhdakh jh aipgrthokah dc cmcrkcr uoh scxuhjadhd rcspgoshnjc.
Hj`uohs dc csths coecricdhdcs sgo=

;6

 
 [éeajas. Kuyg oginrc kacotéeakg cs Trcpgocih phjjadui, cs
phjjadui, cs uoh nhktcrah y jh egrih dc trhosiasaûo cs
pgr kgothktg scxuhj g dc egrih kgo`áoath, cs dckar, dcsdc cj ohkaiacotg dc ihdrc h famgs.
@gogrrch. Cs uoh aoeckkaûo prgdukadh pgr uoh nhktcrah quc jjcvh pgr oginrc kacotéeakg Ocasscras
Ocasscras  
 `gogrrfgchc y
 `gogrrfgchc  y sc trhosiatc pgr kgothktg scxuhj.
Kjhiadahsas. Cs uoh aoeckkaûo scxuhj quc sc prgdukc pgr uoh nhktcrah jjhihdh Kfjhiydah
Kfjhiydah  
trhkfgihtas, y
trhkfgihtas,  y sc trhosiatc
trhos iatc pgr kgothktg scxuhj.

Khoda dahsas.
Khodadahsa s. Csth aoeckkaûo sc prgdukc pgr uo fgo`g jjhihdg Kèodad
Kèodadhh hjnakhoa
hjnakhoass y sc trhosiatc pgr
kgothktg scxuhj y pgr aovhsaûo `cocrhj dcj fgo`g co uo sastcih aoiuogjû`akg dánaj.
Trakgigoahsas. Cs uoh aoeckkaûo khushdh pgr uo prgtgzghrag phrèsatg jjhihdg Trakfgigoh vh`aohjas 
vh`aohjas 
y sc trhosiatc pgr kgothktg scxuhj, usg dc nhøgs pýnjakgs y rgkc kgo rgph g tghjjhs aoeckthdhs.
Fcrpcs. Cs uoh aoeckkaûo dc trhosiasaûo scxuhj khushdh pgr uo varus jjhihdg Fcrpcs saipjc tapg > y
> y
sc trhosiatc pgr kgothktg darcktg kgo jh pacj quc tacoc uoh jcsaûo.
Fcphtatas varhjcs. Csth aoeckkaûo dc trhosiasaûo scxuhj cs prgdukadh pgr uo varus dcogiaohdg UFN y
sc trhosiatc pgr kgothktg scxuhj, trhoseusaûo dc sho`rc kgothiaohdh, g pgr usg dc h`umhs
kgiphrtadhs kgo coecrigs.

Rhpajgih fuihog. Co cj khsg dcj phpajgih fuihog jh aoeckkaûo sc trhosiatc pgr uo varus jjhihdg
Uarus dcj Rhpajgih fuihog y
fuihog y jh egrih dc kgoth`ag cs pgr kgothktg scxuhj.
[adh. Cs uoh coecricdhd dc trhosiasaûo scxuhj prgvgkhdh pgr uo varus jjhihdg Uarus dc  dc 
aoiuogdceakacokah fuihoh y
fuihoh y sc trhosiatc pgr kgothktg scxuhj, trhoseusaûo dc sho`rc kgothiaohdh
y pgr usg dc h`umhs kgiphrtadhs kgo coecrigs.
[a sgo dctckthdhs h tacipg tgdhs jhs coecricdhdcs dc trhosiasaûo scxuhj, kgo cxkcpkaûo dcj sadh,
sgo kurhnjcs. Cs aipgrthotc pgocr cspckahj áoehsas co cj kuadhdg dc jh shjud scxuhj phrh cvathr cj
kgoth`ag cotrc jgs hdgjcskcotcs icdahotc jh prgtckkaûo hdckuhdh hj tcocr rcjhkagocs scxuhjcs g jh
hnstaocokah scxuhj.

5. @coátakh, tckogjg`éh
tckogjg`éh y sgkacdhd
5.8. Ecogtapg, `cogtapg, krgigsgihs y `cocs.
@cogtapg y ecogtapg. Tgdgs jgs scrcs vavgs daspgoco dc uo kgomuotg dc aoegrihkaûo quc sc
ihotcodrè durhotc
durho tc tgdh
tgdh su vadh<
vadh < sao cinhr`g, ásth og saciprc sc ihoaeacst
ihoaeacsthh dc jh iasih ihocrh,
yh quc pucdc hktuhr durhotc uo tacipg phrh dcspuás scr "`uhrdhdh" y sustatuadh pgr gtrh. Hj
phquctc kgipjctg dc aoegrihkaûo dc khdh gr`hoasig, sc jc jjhih @cogtapg,
@cogtapg,   cj kuhj cs oucstrh
"nanjagtckh `coátakh kgipjcth" quc kgotrgjh davcrshs euokagocs dcj kucrpg< jh rcprgdukkaûo y
oucstrgs fènatgs, pgr cmcipjg. Kuhodg cj kucrpg tgih dcj `cogtapg uoh phrtc dc jh aoegrihkaûo y
jh cipjch co su euokagohiacotg, hspcktg eésakg y kgipgrthiacotg, dckaigs quc sc cstè
ihoaecsthodg dc ecogtapg. Hsé quc cj `cogtapg cs kgig oucstrg `uhrdhrrgph y cj ecogtapg jh rgph
quc vcstaigs dahrahicotc g sc`ýo jh ápgkh dcj høg. Co gkhsagocs, cj ecogtapg dcpcodc dc jh eucrzh
dc khdh `co phrh ihoaecsthrsc. [a uoh pcrsgoh kgo khncjjg oc`rg, kuygs phdrcs tacoco cj pcjg dcj
iasig kgjgr, sc khsh kgo hj`uaco runag (phdrcs co jh iasih kgodakaûo), su famg, kgo tgdh kcrtczh,
tcodrè khncjjcrh gskurh. Co cstgs khsgs, kuhodg uo khrèktcr scjahkc prcscotc ocutrhjazhodg hj gtrg

;1

 
 sc fhnjh dc uo cvcotg dc dgiaohokah. Khdh ehiajah pgscc khrhktcréstakhs kgiuocs co tgdgs g khsa
tgdgs jgs famgs, jg kuhj sa`oaeakh quc ástgs sgo dgiaohotcs< hj iasig tacipg, gtrgs pucdco csthr
prcscotcs dcotrg dcj `cogtapg, huoquc og sc vcho co cj ecogtapg< h cstgs jgs jjhihigs khrhktcrcs
khrhktcrcs  
rckcsavgs.
Krgigsgihs y `cocs. Jhs praicrhs gnscrvhkagocs hj iakrgskgpag dc kájujhs tcøadhs igstrhnho hj
oýkjcg kgig uoh zgoh aotcoshicotc kgjgrchdh, pgr jg quc hj ihtcrahj oukjchr jg jjhihrgo
Krgihtaoh. Rgstcragricotc,
Krgihtaoh. Rgstcragricotc, jgs naûjg`gs dcskunracrgo quc csth susthokah (HDO) csthnh hsgkahdh h
prgtcéohs, egrihodg jhr`hs khdcohs. Kuhodg jhs kájujhs sc davadco, jh krgihtaoh sc davadc y corgjjh
egrihodg jgs krgigsgihs (phjhnrh quc sa`oaeakh "kucrpgs kgjgrchdgs") y sgo prckashicotc csths
cstrukturhs jhs rcspgoshnjcs dc jh trhosiasaûo dc jh fcrcokah nagjû`akh. Jgs krgigsgihs kgotacoco
jhs uoadhdcs dc jgs khrhktcrcs fcrcdathrags, quc sgo jgs `cocs. Rgdcigs cotcodcr cotgokcs quc jgs
`cocs sgo sc`icotgs dc khdcohs dc HDO quc sc jgkhjazho co jgs krgigsgihs y quc kgotacoco
igjákujhs cspckéeakhs quc sarvco kgig kjhvc phrh dara`ar jh egrihkaûo dc uoh dctcriaohdh prgtcéoh,
jh kuhj egrih phrtc dc jh cstrukturh dc uo gr`hoasig, g phrtakaph co jhs rchkkagocs quéiakhs dc uoh
euokaûo icthnûjakh.
5.>. Iátgdgs, ncoceakags y racs`gs dc jh ihoapujhkaûo `coátakh.
Jh ihoapujhkaûo `coátakh cs cj khinag hktavg dcj ihtcrahj fcrcdathrag dc uoh cspckac, trhycodg
kgig kgosckucokah quc jhs khrhktcréstakhs eamhs co jgs `cocs dc jhs kájujhs dc cstgs gr`hoasigs
khinaco scjcktavhicotc. Jgs khinags jg`rhdgs co jhs cspckacs dcnco scr hqucjjgs quc shtaseh`ho jhs
ockcsadhdcs dcj scr fuihog.
Jgs iátgdgs dc ihoapujhkaûo `coátakh quc sc utajazho sgo iuy kgipjcmgs y sc hdckýho h jhs
ockcsadhdcs dc khdh khsg. Aotcothrcigs cxpjakhrjg dcj igdg iès saipjc pgsanjc phrh quc tgdgs
pucdho cotcodcrjg=

Soh dc jhs tákoakhs quc utajazh jh ao`coacréh `coátakh sc nhsh co cj usg dc jhs jjhihdhs Cozaihs dc  dc 
rcstrakkaûo. Csths
rcstrakkaûo. Csths cozaihs tacoco jh khphkadhd dc rckgogkcr uoh sckucokah dctcriaohdh dc HDO y
cxtrhcrjh dcj rcstg dc jh khdcoh. Gtrh kjhsc dc cozaihs, jhs Ja`hshs,
Ja`hshs, sc
 sc utajazho phrh vgjvcr h kgjgkhr
cj HDO co cj oýkjcg dc jhs kájujhs. Nèsakhicotc jhs cozaihs dc rcstrakkaûo euokagoho kgig uoh tamcrh
dc HDO iacotrhs quc jhs ja`hshs fhkco dc pc`hicotg phrh aoscrthr cj HDO.
Dc csth ihocrh
gr`hoasig, cs pgsanjc
g co gtrh phrtc dckgrthr jh sckkaûo
jh khdcoh dc HDO quc sc dcsch y vgjvcr h aoscrthrjh co gtrg
dc HDO.
Gtrg prgkcsg dc ihoapujhkaûo `coátakh sgo jgs Ucktgrcs. [c jjhih vcktgr h jg q
quc
uc scréh uoh kjgohkaûo
prgpahicotc dakfh, cs dckar, uoh rápjakh dcj ihtcrahj `coátakg dcotrg dc jh kájujh fuáspcd. Cstg
fhkc pgsanjc kgothr kgo iýjtapjcs kgpahs dc HDO, jgquc prgpgrkagoh uoh `rho khotadhd dc ihtcrahj
ihtcrahj  
`coátakg eahnjc kgo cj quc trhnhmhr.

^ckacotcicotc, sc fh dcskunacrtg gtrh cozaih quc sc utajazh co ao`coacréh `coátakh. [c trhth dc jh

HDO pgjaicrhsh, quc euokagoh dc egrih saiajhr h jgs vcktgrcs, kgo jh daecrcokah quc sc rcpjakh cj
HDO dc ihocrh cxpgocokahj co uoh rchkkaûo co khdcoh.
Tgdgs jgs scrcs vavgs cstèo kgipucstgs dc iajcs dc iajjgocs dc kájujhs kgo cj iasig ihtcrahj
ihtcrahj  
`coátakg. Jhs khdcohs dc HDO sc egriho kgo kuhtrg cjcicotgs jjhihdgs Oukjcûtadgs=
Oukjcûtadgs= Hdcoaoh
 Hdcoaoh (H),
@uhoaoh (@), Tahiaoh (T) y Katgsaoh (K). Cstgs kuhtrg kgipgocotcs sc uoco egrihodg jhs khdcohs

42

 
 fcjakgadhjcs quc sgo ýoakhs co khdh cspckac. Icdahotc jh trhosegrihkaûo dc csths khdcohs dc HDO,
cs pgsanjc jh ihoapujhkaûo `coátakh dc kuhjquacr gr`hoasig vavg.

Jh aovcsta`hkaûo sgnrc ihoapujhkaûo `coátakh dcnc jjcvhrsc h khng kgo rcspgoshnajadhd y praokapags
átakgs y igrhjcs. Soh ihjh ihoapujhkaûo dc csth aoegrihkaûo pucdc ar co kgotrh dc jgs hspcktgs
pgsatavgs quc dc cjjh sc pudacrho gntcocr phrh cj fginrc y su egrih dc vadh. Kgig cs co cj khsg dc
jh kjgohkaûo co kájujhs fuihohs, jh `ucrrh nhktcragjû`akh g jh ehjth dc cskjhrckaiacotg dc jgs cecktgs
quc phrh cj icthngjasig dcj scr fuihog pucdc táo táocr
cr cj kgosuig dc hjaicotgs trhos`áoakgs,
trhos`áoa kgs, g naco,
hotc cj aiphktg quc jgs kujtavgs dc cstgs tapgs dc hjaicotgs tacoco co jgs ckgsastcihs quc gkupho.

48

 
 EG^IHKAÛO KÉUAKH Q ÁTAKH
8. Jh egrihka
egrihkaûo
ûo kévakh
kévakh y átakh co cj dcshrrgjjg
dcshr rgjjg sgkahj y pcrsgohj
8.8. Khrhktcréstak
Khrhktcréstakhs
hs dc jh ohturhjczh fuihoh. Kh
Khphkadhd
phkadhd phrh pcoshr y 
 muz`hr jhs prgpahs hkkagocs.
Jgs
Jgs scrcs vavgs tcocigs khrhktcréstakhs kgiuoc
kgiuocss thjcs kgig= ohkcr, krckcr, rcprgdukarog
rcprgdukarogss y igrar.
[ao cinhr`g, dcotrg dc jgs scrcs fuihogs cxastco khrhktcréstakhs quc ogs daecrcokaho dcj rcstg dc

jgs scrcs jgs

kcrcnrhj, vavgs, kgig
kuhjcs, pgr cmcipjg
dctcriaoho oucstrh
oucstrh khphkadhd
khphkadhd phrh dc rhkagkaoag
pcoshr y su
y muz`hr kgosa`uacotc
oucstrhs prgpahs dcshrrgjjg
hkkagocs.
Jgs scrcs fuihogs sgigs scrcs pcoshotcs y kgo khphkadhd dc rhkagkaoag, jg kuhj quacrc dckar quc
tcocigs jh khphkadhd dc rckrchr icothjicotc jhs hkkagocs quc rchjazhigs, fcigs rchjazhdg g
vhigs h rchjazhr y hsé pgdcr tgihr uoh dckasaûo dctcriaohdh.
Dakfh khjaeakhka
Dakfh khjaeakhkaûo
ûo cs dctcriaohdh pgr jgs vhjgr
vhjgrcs
cs quc gnscrvhigs y prhktakhigs co oucstrg cotgrog
cotgr og
sgkahj, jjèicsc ehiajahrcs, cskgjhrcs dc jh kgiuoadhd dgodc vavaigs, ctk. Oucstrh tgih dc
dckasagocs cstè dctcriaohdh pgr jh vhjgrhkaûo quc fhkcigs dc jhs daecrcotcs satuhkagocs h jhs quc
ogs coercothigs, hohjazhigs jh satuhkaûo, hpjakhigs oucstrgs kgogkaiacotgs hdquaradgs,
hotakaphigs jhs kgosckucokahs y rcvashigs jgs dakthdgs dc kgokacokah. Hsé shncigs sa uoh hkkaûo cs
nucoh g ihjh aokjusg hotcs dc rchjazhrjh.
8.>. Jancrthd p phrh
hrh cjc`
cjc`ar
ar y dckadar rcspgoshnjc icotc. Kgodakagocs yy  
rcspgoshnjcicotc.
jéiatcs.
Tgdh sgkacdhd cstè kgipucsth pgr aodavadugs quc co su kgomuotg dctcriaoho jhs rc`jhs pgr jhs quc
sc ra`c, dc cstc igdg tcocigs quc co uo kacrtg ju`hr y tacipg dctcriaohdg cxastc uo kgomuotg dc
ogrihs quc sc hkcptho kgig vèjadhs y khinaho sc`ý
sc`ýoo khinah jh sgkacdhd. Kgig cmcipjg, pgdcigs
dckar quc co cj phshdg jh cskjhvatud crh uoh prèktakh ogrihj y hkcpthdh pgr jh sgkacdhd, iacotrhs
quc co jh sgkacdhd hktuhj og tacoc khnadh.
Khdh uog dc jgs iacinrgs dc jh sgkacdhd tacoc jh khphkadhd dc cjc`ar jh hkkaûo quc dcsch rchjazhr,
hdckuhrsc h jhs rc`jhs dc kgipgrthiacotg `cocrhjcs g vagjcothr jhs iasihs. Rgr cmcipjg pucdc
rcspcthr jgs nacocs dc gtrhs pcrsgohs g og.
Jhs dckasagocs quc uoh pcrsgoh tgih sgnrc uoh satuhkaûo co phrtakujhr, dcnco scr tgihdhs
rcspgoshnjcicotc, htcodacodg h jgs vhjgrcs dc oucstrg cotgrog sgkahj. [a naco cs kacrtg quc khdh
pcrsgoh cs janrc dc tgihr dckasagocs sgnrc uo tcih co phrtakujhr, thinaáo cs kacrtg quc cshs
dckasagocs dcnco hmusthrsc h jhs kgosckucokahs quc `cocrco y hpc`hrsc hj praokapag dc kgovavcokah
hrigoagsh cotrc jgs iacinrgs d dcc jh sgkacdhd. Cs dckar, quc og hecktco jh jancrthd dc tcrk
tcrkcrgs
crgs,,
pucstg quc cstg vujocrh jh kgovavcokah sgkahj.
8.;. Khrhktcréstakhs dc jh hutgogiéh igrhj. Kratcrags quc mustaeakho
mustaeakho  
hkkagocs y dckasagocs pcrsgohjcs.
Rhrh cj dcshrrgjjg dc cstc tcih, praicrg dceaoarcigs jg quc cs jh igrhj. Cj dakkagohrag dc jh ^chj
Hkhdciah dc jh Jco`uh Csphøgjh, ogs dakc quc= "igrhj cs jh kacokah quc trhth dcj naco co `cocrhj, y

dc jhs hkkagocs fuihohs co grdco h su ngodhd g ihjakah".

4>

 
 [c rceacrc h jh daecrcokahkaûo dc jg quc sc kgosadcrh kgig nucog g ihjg co uoh sgkacdhd. [gnrc cstc
phrtakujhr dcncigs dcmhr kjhrg quc jg nucog y jg ihjg sgo dctcriaohdgs pgr uoh sgkacdhd co uo
ju`hr y tacipg dctcriaohdg, pucstg quc jg quc hotcs csthnh naco, quazè co cstc igicotg og cstá
vastg dc jh iasih ihocrh y vakcvcrsh.
Jh hutgogiéh igrhj h quc sc rceacrc cstc khpétujg, og cs iès quc jh khphkadhd quc tacoc tgdh
pcrsgoh dc scr aodcpcodacotc h jh fgrh dc muz`hr uoh hkkaûo pgr sé iasig. Rgr cmcipjg, co jh oaøcz
tgdhs jhs hkkagocs crho muz`hdhs pgr jh igrhj dc jgs phdrcs, y co jh hdgjcskcokah sc dcshrrgjjh csh
kgoskacokah igrhj quc ogs fhkc khphkcs dc dctcriaohr sa uoh dckasaûo quc tgihigs cs nucoh g
ihjh.
Dcotrg dc khdh uog dc ogsgtrgs cxastc jh pgsanajadhd dc fhkcr, g og, uoh kgodukth kgotrhrah h jhs
ogrihs igrhjcs. Cxastco davcrsgs kratcrags phrh vhjgrhr jh hkkaûo hotcs dc fhkcrjh, thjcs kgig sgo cj
rcspctg,, jh fgorhdcz, jh tgjc
rcspctg tgjcrhok
rhokah,
ah, jh jancrthd dc jg
jgss dci
dciès,
ès, cj kuadhdg dcj cotgro
cotgrog,
g, ctk
ctk.<.< tgdgs cjjgs
vhjgrcs quc ogs hyudho h dctcriaohr jhs dckasagocs quc tgihigs déh kgo déh.
8.4. Kgokacokah igrhj aodavaduhj.
Co cstc puotg khnc icokagohr jh aotcrvcokaûo dc jh átakh, quc kgiprcodc uo iéoaig dc rc`jhs g
ogrihs igrhjcs quc pcriatco kgcxastar dc egrih kavajazhdh y phkéeakh kgo jgs aotc`rhotcs dc jh
sgkacdhd. Qh quc ásths sgo hkcpthdhs pgr jh ihygréh dc sus aotc`rhotcs, dcncigs cotgokcs fhkcr
uoh daecrcokahkaûo cotrc átakh y igrhj.
Jh igrhj sgo jhs ogrihs quc ra`co cj kgipgrthiacotg aodavaduhj g kgjcktavg gnscrvhdg pgr jh
sgkacdhd, quc ihoaeacsth uo vhjgr kgovcoadg.
Rgr gtrg jhdg, jh átakh cs cj kgomuotg dc cstrukturhs g ehkujthdcs ockcshrahs phrh muz`hr sgnrc jhs
hktatudcs prgpahs y hmcohs, y khjaeakhrjhs kgig ncoceakagshs g dhøaohs phrh jh sgkacdhd.
Juc`g cotgokcs, jh átakh cs jh khphkadhd dc muz`hr uoh hkkaûo dc hkucrdg h jh igrhj.
Jh kgoskacokah igrhj aodavaduhj sc dctcriaoh co khdh uog dc ogsgtrgs kgig jh khphkadhd dc shncr
y cotcodcr kuhodg uoh hkkaûo cs nucoh g ihjh, og pgr cj scotadg kgiýo dc khdh uog saog pgr jgs
vhjgrcs dctcriaohdgs pgr oucstrg cotgrog sgkahj.
8.3. Jh igrhj sc kgost
kgostruyc
ruyc kgo jgs dciè
dciès=
s= jh ciphta
ciphtahh y cj daèjg`g p
phrh
hrh cj
cj  
dcshrrgjjg igrhj.
Jh igrhj cotcodadh kgig uo kgomuotg dc ogrihs dc kgodukth quc `uého cj kgipgrthiacotg dc jh
sgkacdhd, og sc pucdc cotcodcr sao jh phrtakaphkaûo dc jh prgpah sgkacdhd. Khdh sgkacdhd tacoc sus
prgpahs ogrihs quc sgo hkcpthdhs sc`ýo jgs vhjgrcs quc sc prhktaquco co csc tacipg dctcriaohdg.
Rgodrcigs kgig
kgig cmcipjg jh hota`uh rgih, co jh quc jh vcoth dc cskjhvgs crh uoh prèktakh hkcpthdh
pgr jh sgkacdhd, kgsh quc co oucstrgs déhs cs aohkcpthnjc.
Khdh sgkacdhd dakth sus prgpahs ogrihs igrhjcs dc hkucrdg h jgs vhjgrcs quc prhktakh
euodhicothjicotc co jh ehiajah< khinahrsc igdaeakh, cvgjukagoh, icdahotc cj daèjg`g cotrc jgs
`rupgs sgkahjcs quc kgoegriho jh sgkacdhd.
Jh ciphtah cs jh khphkadhd quc tacoc uo aodavadug dc pgocrsc co cj ju`hr dcj gtrg, sacodg cstg
dctcriaohotc phrh jhs ogrihs igrhjcs pucstg quc sc ra`c pgr cj supucstg dc og fhkcr h ohdac jg

4;

 
 quc og dcschigs phrh ogsgtrgs. Crophtazhr cgo gtrgs aodavadugs dc jh sgkacdhd hyudh h egrihr
vhjgrcs quc dctcriaoho cj dcshrrgjjg igrhj.

8.5. ^c`jhs y tapgs dc ogrihs co jh vadh kgtadahoh. Tapgs dc ogrihs.

Jh vadh dcj scr fuihog co sgkacdhd, cstè dctcriaohdh pgr jhs rcjhkagocs cotrc jgs aodavadugs dc jh
iasih, jg quc phrh uogs cs uo dcrckfg phrh gtrgs cs uoh gnja`hkaûo. Thj cs cj khsg dc jh pcrsgoh
quc pacrdc uo dahihotc y jh pcrsgoh quc jg cokucotrh, jgs dgs krcco tcocr dcrckfg sgnrc cj
dahihotc, pcrg ·Dc quaáo cs7
H jg jhr`g dc jh fastgrah fho sur`adg iukfhs satuhkagocs kgig ásth, quc fho dcravhdg co jh
rchjazhkaûo dc ogrihs phrh rc`ujhr hj`uogs kgipgrthiacotgs dc jgs aodavadugs co sgkacdhd y hsé
jg`rhr uoh icmgr kgovavcokah cotrc jgs iasigs.
Cxastco iukfgs tapgs dc ogrihs quc dcncigs kuipjar dahrahicotc= rc`jhs co jh khsh, jcycs dc
trèosatg, rc`jhicotg cskgjhr, ctk. Khdh uoh dc ásths pcrtcockc h uo tapg cspckéeakg quc h
kgotaouhkaûo
kgotaou hkaûo vcrcigs=
vcr cigs=
Ogrihs Murédakhs= ^c`ujho jh hktavadhd cxtcroh dc jh pcrsgoh y sgo aipucsths kgo nhsc co cj sastcih
 murédakg
 murédakg kgoegric
kgoegric hj
hj kuhj sc
sc ra`c
ra`c uo csthd
csthdg
g ohkagohj.
ohkagohj. [u
[u aokuipjai
aokuipjaiacot
acotg
g dcrav
dcravhh co uoh
uoh shokaûo,
shokaûo, pgr
pgr
cmcipjg rgnhr.
Ogrihs [gkahjcs= ^c`ujho oucstrg kgipgrthiacotg co dctcriaohdhs karkuosthokahs dc jh vadh
sgkahj, dc hkucrdg kgo jhs kgstuinrcs dc jh ápgkh y dcj ju`hr co quc vavcs. Rgr cmcipjg, sa vastcs dc
hj`uoh ihocrh, og tc shokagohrèo dc oao`uoh egrih pcrg tc cxpgocs hj rckfhzg sgkahj.
Ogrihs Tákoakhs= Dara`co jh hktavadhd fuihoh co grdco h jh fhnajadhd y ceakhkah dc jh prgduktavadhd.
Cs dckar, dctcriaoho jgs prgkcdaiacotgs phrh jh gntcokaûo dc uo rcsujthdg. So cmcipjg kjhrg dc csg
cs uoh rckcth dc kgkaoh.
Ogrihs átakhs= Dara`co jh hktavadhd fuihoh co grdco hj naco. Cxa`co cj usg dc jh jancrthd. Hnhrkho
jgs daecrcotcs cstrhtgs dc jh pcrsgoh= su vadh, su rcjhkaûo kgo uo scr hnsgjutg y su rcjhkaûo kgo jhs
dciès pcrsgohs.

>. Jh daicosaû
dai cosaûo
o kévakh y átakh dc ah kgovavcokah
kgovavc okah
>.8. Tapgs dc vhjgrcs= ckgoûiakgs, cstátakgs y igrhjcs.
Khdh pcrsgoh co phrtakujhr hprckah dastaoths kgshs quc sgo aipgrthotcs phrh sé, hsé uo mu`uctc pucdc
tcocr uo `rho vhjgr phrh uo oaøg y uo rckucrdg phrh uo hdujtg. Co jhs sgkacdhdcs phsh jg iasig,
phrh uoh sgkacdhd jh fgocstadhd, jh fgorhdcz, jh saokcradhd, sgo kuhjadhdcs quc tacoco uo `rho vhjgr
y pucdc scr quc phrh gtrhs scho gtrgs jgs vhjgrcs prcpgodcrhotcs.
Cxastco dastaotgs tapgs dc vhjgrcs dcotrg dc oucstrh sgkacdhd thjcs kgig sgo= ckgoûiakgs, cstátakgs
y igrhjcs.

Ckgoûiakgs=

44

 
 Cs cj prckag quc sc jc htranuyc h uoh kgsh (vhjgr ckgoûiakg). [c hpjakh h jhs kgshs dc hkucrdg kgo cj
dcscg quc sc tacoc dc pgsccrjhs, fhkacodg aotcrkhinag yh sch kgo daocrg g dc gtrh ihocrh kgig ccjj
khsg dcj aotcrkhinag pgr gtrg gnmctg.'Cj vhjgr ckgoûiakg dcpcodc og sûjg dcj prckag dcj prgduktg,
saog dc jg quc jh pcrsgoh dcscc dc áj, pucstg quc sc pucdc kgiprhr uogs zhphtgs phrh kunrar uoh
ockcsadhd dc uo prckag igdcrhdg y kgiprhr uogs dc prckag iuy hjtg phrh hphrcothr tcocr uo
csthtus ihygr. Dcpcodc dc khdh uog cj vhjgr quc sc dá h jhs kgshs.
Cstátakgs=
Cs cj quc sc jc htranuyc hj gnmctg dc hkucrdg kgo jh pcrkcpkaûo quc sc tacoc dc áj y quc cstè aoejuadh
pgr cj kgotcxtg. [c rcjhkagoh kgo jh pcrkcpkaûo quc khdh pcrsgoh tacoc dc su cotgrog. Hsé pgdcigs
hearihr quc uoh pcrsgoh pucdc dhr uo `rho vhjgr h uoh gnrh dc hrtc y ph`hr pgr cjjh uo prckag
hjtésaig y og scr dc h`rhdg dc gtrh.
Igrhjcs=
[go h jgs quc
quc fhkéhigs rcecrcoka
rcec rcokahh hj praokapag
pr aokapag dc cstc hphrthdg.
hphrth dg. [go ogrihs dc kgodukth quc `uého
`uého
h uoh icmgr kgovavcokah cotrc
co trc jgs iacinrgs
iacinrgs dc jh sgkacdhd/sgo sgkahjicotc
sgka hjicotc hkcpthdgs y dcstaohdgs
h quc fhyh uoh hrigoéh dcotrg dc jgs iacinrgs dc jh iasih sgkacdhd.

;. Adcotad
Adcotadhd
hd c aotcrkujturhjadhd phrh uoh kaudhdhoéh dcigkrètakh
;.8. Cjcicotgs quc aotcrvacoco co jh egrihkaûo dc jh adcotadhd pcrsgohj< 
pcrsgohj< 
`rupgs dc pcrtcocokah, trhdakagocs, kgstuinrcs, fastgrahs  fastgrahs 
kgiphrtadhs, aostatukagocs sgkahjcs y pgjétakhs.
Dcotrg dc oucstrh sgkacdhd cxastco davcrsgs ehktgrcs quc dctcriaoho jh adcotadhd dc khdh pcrsgoh.
Og gnsthotc, sgigs scrcs sgkahjcs quc kgosthotcicotc tcocigs quc aotcrhktuhr kgo jgs dciès
scktgrcs dc jh sgkacdhd. Cstg trhc kgosa`g uoh `rho oýicrg dc kgoejaktgs, jgs kuhjcs, sa og
hprcodaárhigs h sgjukagohr, oucstrh vadh co sgkacdhd scréh aipgsanjc.
Cj fckfg dc quc tgdgs jgs `rupgs sgkahjcs kgiphrtho uo iasig csphkag, coscøh h jhs sgkacdhdcs h
kgovavar dc ihocrh hriûoakh. Cxastco davcrsgs ehktgrcs quc kgoegriho jh adcotadhd pcrsgohj kgig
sgo=

@rupgs
pcrtcockc,dc kgig
pcrtcocokah. Cstg sc
pgr cmcipjg, pgrrceacrc h qucscfhy
cj trhnhmg `rupgs h=dceaoadgs
pcrtcockc co jhgnrcrgs,
khipcsaogs, sgkacdhdgeakaoasths,
h jgs qucctk.
sc
[ao cinhr`g og sûjg sgo cstgs jgs `rupgs, saog pgr cmcipjg sc`ýo jgs ao`rcsgs ckgoûiakgs, sc
pcrtcockc h uoh kjhsc nhmh, icdah, hjth< dc hkucrdg h jh khrrcrh quc sc cstudac y hsé uoh aoeaoadhd dc
kratcrags dc kjhsaeakhkaûo, og gnsthotc, sc pucdc pcrtcockcrè uog g iès `rupgs h jh vcz, pgr cmcipjg,
sc pucdc scr khipcsaog y csthr dcotrg dc jh kjhsc nhmh.
Trhdakagocs. Co cj khsg dc oucstrg phés, hj kgothr kgo uo tcrratgrag tho cxtcosg kgo rc`agocs tho
daecrcotcs, cxastco uoh aoeaoadhd dc kgiuoadhdcs quc kucotho kgo trhdakagocs davcrshs jhs kuhjcs
rceucrzho cj scotadg dc pcrtcocokah dc jhs pcrsgohs quc jhs rchjazho.
Kgstuinrcs. Cstc hphrthdg cs cj iasig khsg quc cj hotcragr, jhs kgstuinrcs dc uo ju`hr g
kgiuoadhd dctcriaohdg fhkco quc uoh pcrsgoh sc adcotaeaquc kgo jhs pcrsgohs quc jhs jjcvho h
khng.

43

 
 Fastgrahs kgiphrtadhs. Fhkco quc jhs pcrsgohs quc phsho pgr uo sukcsg kgiýo sc adcotaeaquco
cotrc sé y egrico `rupgs dc pcrtcocokah. Cs cj khsg dc pcrsgohs quc sc qucdho sao fg`hr pgr uo
dcshstrc ohturhj, pcrsgohs quc cia`rho h gtrh kaudhd phrh nuskhr uoh icmgr khjadhd dc vadh, ctk.
Aostatukagocs sgkahjcs y pgjétakhs. Co cstc khsg, jhs pcrsgohs quc sc cokucotrho dcotrg dcj khipg
dc hkkaûo sc adcotaeakho cotrc sé pgr tcocr quc hkudar h jhs iasihs phrh sgjukagohr dastaoths
satuhkagocs kgiuocs. Rgr cmcipjg jhs pcrsgohs quc rckurrco h jh sc`uradhd sgkahj, h jhs dcjc`hkagocs
pgjétakhs, h jhs hsgkahkagocs kavajcs, ctk.

4. Jg
Jgss hdgjcskcotcs
hdgjcskc otcs y sus kgotcxtgs dc kgovavcokah
4.8. Khinags eésakgs, sgkahjcs y hecktavgs dc jh hdgjcskcokah
hdgjcskcokah..
Dcotrg dc jh vadh dc jgs scrcs fuihogs cokgotrhigs dastaoths cthphs dctcriaohdhs pgr cj
dcshrrgjjg, thotg eésakg kgig psakgjû`akg.
Soh dc cshs cthphs cs jh hdgjcskcokah. Cs jh cthph quc sc cokucotrh cotrc jh oaøcz y jh cdhd hdujth,
co jh quc icdahotc daecrcotcs prgkcsgs psakgjû`akgs y sgkahjcs, sc dcspacrtho y dcshrrgjjho jhs
khphkadhdcs dc pcoshr, dc tgihr kgokacokah y dc prgeuodazhr co jhs scoshkagocs, jgs scotaiacotgs y
jhs cigkagocs.
Cs jh cthph co jh kuhj kgoejuyco jgs khinags iès scvcrgs co oucstrg gr`hoasig, sc hjkhozh jh

ihdurcz dc oucstrgs
oucstrg kucrpg ûr`hogsu rcprgduktgrcs,
kgig iumcrcs fginrcs. khinah cj tgog dc jh vgz y eésakhicotc sc dceaoc

Rsakgjû`akhicotc sc dcshrrgjjho jhs ockcsadhdcs dc hutghearihkaûo, adcotadhd, aodcpcodcokah, c

aotaiadhd, hdciès dc quc sc pacrdc jh csthnajadhd quc dhnh cj csthtus dc oaøg, y kgig su oginrc
jg dakc, co csth cthph dc jh vadh, sc hdgjckc dc csh csthnajadhd, jg quc fhkc quc tcodhigs h scr iès
cxh`crhdgs co hj`uohs hktatudcs. Kgig icdag dc dcecosh hotc thj satuhkaûo, ogs cogmhigs kgo
ehkajadhd, ogs pgocigs trastcs, rcéigs, ctk.
Cotcodcigs jh hutghearihkaûo kgig jh ockcsadhd dc kgiprgnhr jhs fhnajadhdcs pcrsgohjcs phrh
coercothr
coerco thr prgnjc
prgnjcihs
ihs y hsuiar rcspgos
rcspgoshnajadhdc
hnajadhdcs.
s.
Kgig phrtc dc cstc prgkcsg dc dcshrrgjjg dc jh pcrsgohjadhd, cokgotrhigs quc cj aodavadug
rcquacrc dc kgothr kgo aotaiadhd phrh pgdcr hutgdceaoarsc kgo iès sgjturh.
Jh adcotadhd aipjakh cj kgogkaiacotg dc oucstrhs prgpahs khrhktcréstakhs y oucstrhs daecrcokahs kgo
jgs dciès.
Co csth cthph oucstrgs scotaiacotgs fhkah jhs dciès pcrsgohs khinaho, dc fckfg cs jh cthph co jh
quc kgiacozho h htrhcrogs gtrhs
gt rhs pcrsgo
pcrsgohs,
hs, y rcegr
rcegrzhigs
zhigs jgs jhzg
jhzgss dc hiasthd cotr
cotrcc oucst
oucstrgs
rgs hia`gs
hia`gs..
Csth cthph dctcriaoh jhs pcrsgohs quc scrcigs y jh adcotadhd dc khdh uog dc jgs iacinrgs dc jh
sgkacdhd, h pcshr dc scr uoh dc jhs cthphs iès kgipjakhdhs cigkagohjicotc fhnjhodg, cs jh cthph
quc ogs prcphrh phrh scr hdujtgs, dcnadg h jg kuhj cs dc vathj aipgrthokah phrh tgdgs jgs scrcs
fuihogs.

45

 
 4.>. Dcrckfgs dc jgs hdgjcskcotcs.
hdgjcskcotc s.
Kgig phrtc dc jh sgkacdhd, jgs hdgjcskcotcs tacoco dcrckfgs csthnjckadgs co jhs jcycs, quc jgs
prgtc`co y hyudho co satuhkagocs dc vujocrhnajadhd. Cotcodcigs pgr dcrckfg, uoh ehkujthd quc sc
tacoc y quc sc pucdc fhkcr vhjcr hotc jgs dciès. Hsé pgdcigs cokgotrhr uoh aoeaoadhd dc dcrckfgs
pjhsihdgs co jhs jcycs quc prgtc`co y ehkujtho h jgs hdgjcskcotcs, kgig cj dcrckfg h rckanar
cdukhkaûo jhakh y `rhtuath, cj dcrckfg h jh shjud, cj dcrckfg h uoh hjaicothkaûo hdckuhdh, cj dcrckfg
h og trhnhmhr fhsth jh ihygréh dc cdhd, ctk.

4.;. ^cspgoshnajadhdcs dc jgs hdgjcskcotcs co su cdukhkaûo,  cdukhkaûo, 

hjaicothkaûo, shjud, rckrchkaûo, trhnhmg y phrtakaphkaûo sgkahj
Hj a`uhj quc co cj hphrthdg hotcragr pudaigs gnscrvhr quc cxastco dcrckfgs phrh jgs hdgjcskcotcs,
thinaáo csh cthph dc jh vadh kgojjcvh rcspgoshnajadhdcs prgpahs dc jh cdhd. Hqué couicrhrcigs
hj`uohs.
Cdukhkaûo. [a naco cs kacrtg quc jh cdukhkaûo cs uo dcrckfg kgosh`rhdg co jh kgostatukaûo, thinaáo
cs kacrtg quc cs uoh gnja`hkaûo dc jgs hdgjcskcotcs hprgvckfhr hj ièxaig jh cdukhkaûo quc sc jcs
aiphrtc, pucs sc fhkc uo `hstg aipgrthotc dcj prgduktg aotcrog nrutg dcj phés co cdukhkaûo, phrh
cj ph`g dc ihcstrgs c aosthjhkagocs, hdciès dc jgs janrgs dc tcxtg ctk., tgdg cstg hdciès dc jgs
cseucrzgs dc jhs ehiajahs phrh sustcothr h jgs hjuiogs co jhs cskucjhs, tgdg cstg cxa`c kgig iéoaig
cj kgiprgiasg dc phrtc dcj hjuiog dc hprgvckfhr jh cdukhkaûo quc sc jc aiphrtc.
Hjaicothkaûo. Cs uo hphrthdg aipgrthotc phrh csth cthph y jhs dciès sunsckucotcs dc jh vadh.
Fapûkrhtcs sgstcoéh quc "crcs jg quc kgics", erhsc quc sa`oaeakh quc cj og kgicr dc ihocrh
nhjhokchdh fhkc quc og schigs jhs pcrsgohs quc eésakhicotc dcncigs scr. Hj og hjaicothrogs
hdckuhdhicotc, pgdcigs trhcr prgnjcihs dc tgdg tapg= gncsadhd, hociah, dcsoutrakaûo, cotrc
gtrgs< jgs kuhjcs sc vho h`rhvhodg iacotrhs trhoskurrc cj tacipg. Cj hjaicothrogs dc ihocrh
hdckuhdh, cs uoh gnja`hkaûo dc khdh uog dc ogsgtrgs.
[hjud. Soh dc jhs rcspgoshnajadhdcs iès aipgrthotcs co jgs hdgjcskcotcs cs jg quc rcspckth h jh
shjud, pucstg quc sc dcnco jjcvhr h khng tgdhs jhs hkkagocs cokhiaohdhs h kuadhrjh. Rgr cmcipjg cj
kuadhdg dc jgs
jgs dacotcs, cj hscg pcrsgohj, jh hjaicothkaûo hdckuhdh y tgdhs jhs hkkagocs cokhiaohdhs
h cvathr euturgs prgnjcihs dc shjud.
^ckrchkaûo. Co cstc puotg, cs aipgrthotc rcshjthr quc jh hdgjcskcokah cs uoh dc jhs cthphs iès
prgpakahs phrh jhs rcjhkagocs dc hiasthd pucs sc rceucrzho cstgs jhzgs icdahotc jh rchjazhkaûo dc
hktavadhdcs kgiuocs cotrc jgs kgiphøcrgs g hia`gs. [ao cinhr`g, huohdg h jh jancrthd dc
rckrchkaûo sc dcnc suihr jh gnja`hkaûo dc scr rcspgoshnjc y rcspcthr thotg jh aotc`radhd prgpah
kgig jh dc jgs dciès c aotcothr scr rcspctugsgs dc jh jancrthd dc jgs gtrgs.
Trhnhmg y phrtakaphkaûo sgkahj. Co cstc puotg khnc icokagohr
icokago hr quc cs uo dcrckfg dc jgs hdgjcskcotcs
trhnhmhr fhsth jh ihygréh dc cdhd, sao cinhr`g, jh hdgjcskcokah cs uoh cdhd pcreckth phrh kgicozhr
h tgihr kgoskacokah sgkahj, y tcocr iuy prcscotc quc jh phrtakaphkaûo sgkahj cs praigrdahj phrh quc quc
jh prgpah sgkacdhd euokagoc kgrrckthicotc. Cs aipgrthotc hkcrkhrsc h jgs kcotrgs dc vgjuothrahdg
co jhs aostatukagocs dc hsastcokah sgkahj, co jhs quc sc pucdc hpgrthr hj`g h jh sgkacdhd, yh sch co
kgjckths, rcegrcsthkaûo, hyudh h pcrsgohs dc jh tcrkcrh cdhd, cotrc gtrhs iukfhs hktavadhdcs< yh quc
cstc tapg dc trhnhmgs
trhnh mgs hyudho co `rho
`rho icdadh h `rupgs vujoc
vujocrhnjcs
rhnjcs y dcmho h quaco jgs rchjazh jh `
`rho
rho
shtasehkkaûo pcrsgohj dc hpgrthr hj`g h gtrh pcrsgoh quc jg oákcsath. [c dcnc fhkcr kgoskacokah dc

40

 
 quc jh hdgjcskcokah cs jh cdhd pcreckth phrh egrihrogs kgig pcrsgohs y iacotrhs icmgrcs
dckasagocs tgicigs, icmgrcs y iès kgipjctgs aodavadugs scrcigs co jh cdhd hdujth.
4.4. [atuhkagocs d dcc ra
racs`g
cs`g phrh jh shjud= aoeckkagocs dc trhosiasaûo sgkahj.
Jhs aoeckkagocs dc trhosiasaûo scxuhj, sgo coecricdhdcs gra`aohdhs pgr varus y gtrgs
iakrggr`hoasigs quc sc kgoth`aho praokaphjicotc durhotc jhs rcjhkagocs scxuhjcs sao prgtckkaûo,
cotcodacodg kgig prgtckkaûo cj hdckuhdg usg dcj kgodûo, huoquc thinaáo sc pucdco trhosiatar
dc ihocrh darckth pgr kgothktg kgo scico, ejuadgs vh`aohjcs y sho`rc.
Hj`uogs dc jhs coecricdhdcs pgr trhsiasaûo scxuhj iès kgiuocs sgo=
[éeajas. Kuyg oginrc kacotéeakg cs Trcpgocih phjjadui. Cs uoh nhktcrah y jh egrih dc trhosiasaûo cs
pgr kgothktg scxuhj g dc egrih kgo`áoath, cs dckar, dcsdc cj ohkaiacotg dc ihdrc h famgs.
@gogrrch. Cs uoh aoeckkaûo prgdukadh pgr uoh nhktcrah quc jjcvh pgr oginrc kacotéeakg Ocasscras
`gogrrfgchc, y sc trhosiatc pgr kkgothktg
gothktg scxuhj.
Kjhiadahsas. Cs uoh aoeckkaûo scxuhj quc sc prgdukc pgr uoh nhktcrah jjhihdh Kfjhiydah
trhkfgihtas, y sc trhosiatc pgr kgothktg scxuhj.
Khodadahsas. Csth aoeckkaûo sc prgdukc pgr uo fgo`
fgo`g
g jjhihdg Khodadh
Khodadh hjnakhoas y sc trhsiat
trhsiatcc pgr
kgothktg scxuhj y pgr aovhsaûo `cocrhj dcj fgo`g co uo sastcih aoiuogjû`akg dánaj.
Trakgigoahsas. Cs uoh aoeckkaûo khushdh pgr uo prgtgzghrag phrhsatg jjhihdg Trakfgigoh vh`aohjas
y sc trhosiatc pgr kgothktg scxuhj, usg dc nhøgs pýnjakgs y rgkc kgo rgph g tghjjhs aoeckthdhs.
Fcrpcs. Cs uoh aoeckkaûo dc trhsiasaûo scxuhj khushdh pgr uo varus jjhihdg Fcrpcs saipjc tapg > y
sc trhosiatc pgr kgothktg darcktg kgo jh pacj quc tacoc uoh jcsaûo.
Fcphtatas varhjcs. Csth aoeckkaûo dc trhosiasaûo scxuhj cs prgdukadh pgr uo varus dcogiaohdg UFN y
sc trhosiatc pgr kgothktg scxuhj, trhoseusaûo dc sho`rc kgothiaohdh, g pgr usg dc h`umhs
kgiphrtadhs kgo coecrigs.
Rhpajgih fuihog. Co cj khsg dcj phpajgih fuihog jh aoeckkaûo sc trhosiatc pgr uo varus jjhihdg
Uarus dcj Rhpajgih fuihog y jh egrih dc kgoth`ag cs pgr kgothktg scxuhj.
[adh. Cs uoh coecricdhd dc trhosiasaûo scxuhj prgvgkhdh pgr uo varus jjhihdg varus dc
aoiuogdceakacokah fuihoh y sc trhosiatc pgr kgothktg scxuhj, trhoseusaûo dc sho`rc kgothiaohdh
y pgr usg dc h`umhs kgiphrtadhs kgo coecrigs.
[a sgo dctckthdhs h tacipg, tgdhs jhs coecricdhdcs dc trhosiasaûo scxuhj, kgo cxkcpkaûo dcj sadh,
sgo kurhnjcs. Cs aipgrthotc pgocr cspckahj áoehsas co cj kuadhdg dc jh shjud scxuhj phrh cvathr cj
kgoth`ag cotrc jgs hdgjcskcotcs, icdahotc jh prgtckkaûo hdckuhdh hj tcocr rcjhkagocs scxuhjcs g jh
hnstaocokah scxuhj.
4.3. Tapgs dc vagjcokah fhkah jgs hdgjcskco
hdgjcskcotcs.
tcs.
Jh vagjcokah cs tgdh hktatud h`rcsavh dc uoh pcrsgoh h gtrh. Co cj khsg dc jgs hdgjcskcotcs cs iuy
kgiýo quc scKgig
dcscovucjvco. cokucotrco co uohjhsatuhkaûo
pgr cmcipjg, cskucjh, dc vagjcokah
jh ehiajah, co jgs jgs
jh phrcmh, dastaotgs cotgrogs
hia`gs, ctk. co jgs quc sc

46

 
 Jh vagjcokah sc prcscoth dc dgs ihocrhs=
Eésakh. Xuc kgiprcodc `gjpcs, jhkcrhkagocs, cipumgocs, ctk., y quc khusho dhøgs eésakgs h jh
pcrsgoh quc jgs phdckc.
Rsakgjû`akh. Xuc huoquc og prcscoth dhøg eésakg, prgvgkh dhøg cigkagohj y khush co jh pcrsgoh
quc jg suerc, iacdg, hosacdhd c aosc`uradhd.
4.5. Ihjtrhtg, hnusg y hkgsg scxuhj.
Cxastco dastaotgs tapgs dc vagjcokah quc pucdco suerar co jh hdgjcskcokah. Couicrhrcigs hj`uogs
phrh su hoèjasas.
Ihjtrhtg. [c kgosadcrh ihjtrhtg h tgdhs jhs hkkagocs quc vho co kgotrh dc uo hdckuhdg dcshrrgjjg
eésakg, kg`oatavg y cigkagohj dc uo Aodavadug, kgictadhs pgr pcrsgohs, aostatukagocs g jh prgpah
sgkacdhd. Cj ihjtrhtg pucdc scr dcsdc `gjpcs fhsth hnusgs scxuhjcs g psakgjû`akgs jg quc `cocrh
hktatudcs vagjcoths.
Hnusg scxuhj. Cs tgdh hktavadhd scxuhj cotrc dgs g iès pcrsgohs, sao kgoscotaiacotg dc jh véktaih.
Hkgsg scxuhj. Cs jh ihoaecsthkaûo dc uoh scrac dc kgodukths kgosthotcs dc sgjakatud dc ehvgrcs
scxuhjcs dara`adhs h uoh pcrsgoh, co kgotrh dc su vgjuothd.

4.0. Khphkadhd phrh rcspgodcr hscrtavhicotc

hscrtavhic otc hotc satuhkagocs dc racs`g.
racs`g.
Jh vagjcokah, cj hnusg scxuhj, cj hkgsg y jh cxpjgthkaûo scxuhj, jcsagoho cj dcshrrgjjg aotc`rhj dc
kuhjquacr pcrsgoh, cspckahjicotc dc jgs oaøgs y jgs hdgjcskcotcs. Jhs icdadhs prcvcotavhs dcnco
scr iuy davcrshs. Rgr cmcipjg, rckfhzhr jgs icoshmcs vagjcotgs co jgs icdags dc kgiuoakhkaûo
ihsavh, dascøhr khiphøhs quc ehvgrczkho cj usg shjudhnjc dcj tacipg janrc, prgpgrkagohr h jgs
hdgjcskcotcs aoegrihkaûo hkcrkh dc su dcrckfg h vavar janrcs dc ihjtrhtg y hkgsg scxuhj, ctk.
Cxastco vhrahs aostatukagocs y hsgkahkagocs quc nraodho hyudh phrh pcrsgohs co satuhkagocs dc
vagjcokah. Csthr aoegrihdg cs jh ihocrh iès cecktavh dc cjudar cshs satuhkagocs hdciès dcj daèjg`g
hnacrtg kgo jgs phdrcs y ihcstrgs co kuhjquacr igicotg quc ogs saothigs vujocrhdgs pgr gtrh
pcrsgoh y og pcriatar co oao`ýo igicotg hkcrkhiacotg hj`uog quc vhyh co kgotrh dc oucstrh
aotc`radhd eésakh y scxuhj.

3. Rraokapag
Rraokapagss y vhjgrcs dc jh dcigkrhkah
3.8. Jgs dcrckfgs fuihogs kgig eucotc dc vhjgr= da`oadhd da`oadhd fuihoh, 
fuihoh, 
hutgogiéh, jancrthd dc aodavadugs,
aodavadugs, kgovavcokah dcigkrètakh, rcspctû 
rcspctû 
h jhs daecrcokahs kujturhjcs y mustakah sgkahj.
Jgs dcrckfgs fuihogs sgo uoh fcrrhiacoth euodhicothj co jh sgkacdhd igdcroh y sgo
kgosckucokah dc jh cvgjukaûo adcgjû`akh dcj scr fuihog h eao dc prcscrvhr y `hrhotazhr jh da`oadhd
fuihoh.
Kgig dceaoakaûo pgdcigs hscvcrhr sc`ýo jh Kgiasaûo Ohkagohj dc jgs Dcrckfgs Fuihogs quc jgs
dcrckfgs fuihogs, sgo cj kgomuotg dc prcrrg`htavhs aofcrcotcs h jh ohturhjczh dc jh pcrsgoh, kuyh
rchjazhkaûo cecktavh rcsujth aodaspcoshnjc phrh cj dcshrrgjjg aotc`rhj dcj aodavadug quc vavc co uoh
sgkacdhd murédakhicotc gr`hoazhdh.

41

 
 [go uo kgomuotg dc ogrihs quc co uo tacipg y ju`hr dctcriaohdg sgo dakthdgs kgo cj gnmctg dc
prcscrvhr jh jancrthd, jh a`uhjdhd y jh da`oadhd fuihoh. Co oucstrg phés, cstgs dcrckfgs cstèo
kgotcoadgs co jh kgostatukaûo y co jhs jcycs, sacodg gnja`hkaûo dcj csthdg rckgogkcrjgs y
`hrhotazhrjgs.
H éh phr dc csths ogrihs sc dcnco prgkurhr aostatukagocs quc `hrhotakco cj kuipjaiacotg dc jhs
iasihs, y co khsg dc quc hj`uoh pcrsgoh vch vujocrhdg hj`uog dc cstgs dcrckfgs, sc jc nraodc
hpgyg y prgtckkaûo.
Jgs dcrckfgs fuihogs sc cokhr`ho dc prgtc`cr davcrsgs hspcktgs dá jè vadh co sgkacdhd quc kgig
iéoaig
iéoai g dcnc tcocr uoh pcrsgoh, cotrc cjjgs sc cokucotrho=
Da`oadhd fuihoh. Cs jh kgodakaûo quc pucdc cxa`ar tgdg scr fuihog h scr trhthdg kgig scicmhotc
h jgs dciès. [c nhsh co cj rckgogkaiacotg dc jh pcrsgoh kgig icrckcdgrh dc rcspctg, dcmhodg dc
jhdg sus daecrcokahs ckgoûiakhs, kujturhjcs y sgkahjcs.
Hutgogiéh. Jh sgkacdhd dcnc vcjhr pgr quc khdh scr fuihog quc jh kgipgoc, sch khphz dc vhjcrsc
pgr sé iasig y og dcpcodh dc gtrg phrh sunsastar. Tgdh pcrsgoh tacoc dcrckfg h scr hutûogih co
kuhotg h jh vadh co sgkacdhd, scr khphz dc gntcocr cj sustcotg ockcshrag phrh vavar da`ohicotc y sao
cj kgotrgj dc oao`uoh pcrsgoh g aostatukaûo.

Jancrthd
sc dc jgs aodavadugs.
fh hdquaradg h trhvás dcjCstacipg
uoh kgodakaûo cscokahj
y icdahotc uohco jh vadh
jukfh dc tgdg
sgkahj scr fuihog.
dc iukfgs Csth kgodakaûo
høgs, pucs jgs scrcs
fuihogs og saciprc fho sadg janrcs. Jh jancrthd sa`oaeakh quc khdh pcrsgoh tacoc jh ehkujthd dc
rchjazhr hkkagocs y tgihr dckasagocs pgr sé iasig y oao`ýo scr fuihog pucdc aipgocr su vgjuothd
sgnrc jh jancrthd dc gtrg.
Kgovavcokah dcigkrètakh. Soh dc jhs khrhktcréstakhs dc jhs sgkacdhdcs igdcrohs, jh rcprcscoth jh
dcigkrhkah, quc sa`oaeakh quc cj pgdcr dcj csthdg rcsadh co cj pucnjg. Co oucstrg khsg, cj pgdcr jg
cmcrkc cj pucnjg icdahotc rcprcscothotcs, daputhdgs, scohdgrcs, `gncrohdgrcs dc jgs csthdgs, cj
prcsadcotc dc jh rcpýnjakh, ctk. Jh dcigkrhkah kgig thj, trhc uo sao oýicrg dc adchjcs daecrcotcs,
rcprcscothdgs pgr phrtadgs pgjétakgs g khodadhtgs aodcpcodacotcs quc fhkco quc uoh phrtc dc jh
sgkacdhd sc adcotaeaquc kgo uogs g kgo gtrgs. [ao cinhr`g, csth daecrcokah dc adchjcs og dcnc ouokh

rcprcscothr uoh rupturh

uoh icmgr khjadhd dc vadhsgkahj,
co jh saog hj kgotrhrag,
quc tgdgs dcncsgkahjcs
jgs `rupgs sa`oaeakhr jh phrtakaphkaûo
phrtakapco sgkahjuo
phrh hjkhozhr phrh jg`rhr
nacocsthr
sgkahj. Jgs dcrckfgs fuihogs dcnco vcjhr pgr quc ohdac pucdh aotcrvcoar g aipcdar cj dcrckfg dc
khdh pcrsgoh h pcrtcockcrè uo adchj pgjétakg iacotrhs og vhyh kgotrh jhs jcycs, jh igrhj g jhs nucohs
kgstuinrcs.
^cspctg h jhs daecrcokahs kujturhjcs. Dcotrg dcj tcrratgrag dc uoh ohkaûo, cxastco uo saoeéo dc `rupgs
sgkahjcs quc tacoco uo gra`co y oavcj kujturhj daecrcotc. Oao`uoh pcrsgoh dcnc scr daskraiaohdh pgr
su gra`co átoakg oa su pcrtcocokah h hj`ýo `rupg sgkahj pucs jgs dcrckfgs fuihogs vcjho pgr jh
a`uhjdhd cotrc tgdgs jgs scrcs fuihogs.
Mustakah sgkahj. [c dceaoc h jh mustakah kgig cj fckfg dc dhr h khdh quaco jg quc jc kgrrcspgodc.
Cotcodcigs pgr mustakah sgkahj, cj csthtus quc dcnc tcocr tgdh sgkacdhd kavajazhdh ihotcoacodg jh
a`uhjdhd cotrc jgs kgipgocotcs dc jh iasih y vcjhodg pgr quc tgdgs jgs `rupgs sgkahjcs tco`ho

32

 
 hkkcsg pjcog h jhs aostatukagocs dc mustakah dcj csthdg, phrh hsé jg`rhr uo csthdg dc cquadhd y pjcog
rcspctg dc jgs dcrckfgs fuihogs.
3.>. ^cspgoshnajadhdcs kaudhdhohs co jh dcigkrhkah.
Jh
Jhss sgkacdhdcs dcigkrètakhs
dcigkrèta khs sc khrhkt
khrhktcrazho
crazho pgr quc jh sgncrhoéh quc cs cj pgdcr ièxai
ièxaig
g quc tacoc
áj csthdg y quc rcsadc co cj pucnjg. Cstg hdciès dc scr uo dcrckfg dc jgs kaudhdhogs, thinaáo sc
kgovacrtc co uoh gnja`hkaûo, pucstg quc jgs rcprcscothotcs co cj `gnacrog sgo cjc`adgs pgr jgs
prgpags kaudhdhogs, y cs rcspgoshnajadhd dc jgs iasigs=
Rrgkurhr rc`ujhrazhr su satuhkaûo co cj phdrûo cjcktgrhj phrh pgdcr vgthr.
Khdh quc scho kgovgkhdhs cjckkagocs, prcscothrsc h vgthr.
Cjc`ar h sus rcprcscothotcs dc ihocrh kgoskacotc c aoegrihdh.
Ua`ajhr quc jgs kgiprgiasgs hdquaradgs co jhs khiphøhs, scho kuipjadgs durhotc cj
cokhr`g.
Ua`ajhr quc jgs khr`gs pýnjakgs quc gkupco jhs hutgradhdcs cjc`adhs icdahotc vgthkaûo,
kuipjho kgo su cokhr`g kgo hpc`g h jh jcy y nhmg jgs praokapags dc trhosphrcokah, jc`hjadhd
yfgorhdcz.
- ^cspcthr jgs dciès adchjcs pgjétakgs.
- [a cs cj khsg, prcscot
prcscothrsc
hrsc h hj`ý
hj`ýoo puc
pucstg
stg dc cjckkaûo pg
pgpujhr.
pujhr.

3.;. Khrhktcréstakès dc jh dcigkrhkah.

Jh dcigkrhkah cs uo sastcih pgjétakg co cj kuhj dcnco cxastar daecrcotcs khrhktcréstakhs
euodhicothjcs quc h kgotaouhkaûo couicrhrcigs=
Jgs kaudhdhogs aotcrvacoco hktavhicotc dc ihocrh darckth g aodarckth co jh kgoegrihkaûo
dc jgs ûr`hogs dc `gnacrog.
Jhs hutgradhdcs sgo cjc`adhs icdahotc vgthkagocs.
- Cshs hutgradhdcs durho co cj khr`g uo tacipg dctcriaohd
dctcriaohdg,g, csthnjckadg ccoo jhs jcycs, phrh
dcspuáss scr sustatuadhs pgr gtrhs.
dcspuá
- Cxastc aotcrás y phrtakaphkaûo kaudhdhoh co jh vadh sgkahj g pgjétakh.
So kjaih sgkahj y pgjétakg quc `hrhotakc jh phrtakaphkaûo dc jgs kaudhdhogs.
So daèjg`g kgotaoug, cotrc hutgradhdcs y kaudhdhogs.
So rcspctg h jgs adchjcs pgjétakgs.
5. Rhrtakaphkaûo y kaudhdhoéh dcigkrètakh.
5.8. Kgipgocotcs d
dcj
cj Csthdg icxakhog= pgnjhkaû
pgnjhkaûo,
o, tcrratgrag y `gnacro
`gnacrog.
g.
Cj csthdg icxakhog sc cokucotrh kgoegrihdg pgr trcs kgipgocotcs nèsakgs quc sgo jh pgnjhkaûo,
cj tcrratgrag y cj `gnacrog, iasigs quc cxpjakhigs h kgotaouhkaûo.
Rgnjhkaûo. Jh pgnjhkaûo icxakhoh cstè kgipucsth pgr tgdhs jhs pcrsgohs quc rcsadho dcotrg dcj
tcrratgrag ohkagohj yh scho icxakhogs g cxtrhomcrgs kgo jc`hj rcsadcokah co cj phés. Cstc cs cj iès
Aipgrthotc dc jgs kgipgocotcs dcj csthdg.
Tcrratgrag. Kgiprcodc jh cxtcosaûo tcrratgrahj dcj csthdg icxakhog aokjuycodg jhs ;> cotadhdcs
ecdcrhtavhs hsé kgig cj sunsucjg, cj csphkag hárcg, cj ihr tcrratgrahj, jhs kgsths, jhs asjhs y tgdg jg
kgiprcodadg dcotrg dc cstc csphkag.

38

 
 @gnacrog. Cs jh ihocrh
ihocrh co jh quc cstè kgostatu
kgos tatuadg
adg cj csthdg, su gr`hoazhkaûo y jh ihocrh co jh quc
sc ra`c, quc co cstc khsg sc`ýo jh Kgostatukaûo, cj csthdg icxakhog cstè kgostatuadg kgig uoh
rcpýnjakh ecdcrhj, rcprcscothtavh y dcigkrètakh. H kgotaouhkaûo cxpjakhrcigs khdh uog dc jgs
táriaogs dc cstc kgokcptg.
^cpýnjakh. [a`oaeakhdg prgvcoacotc dcj jhtéo quc quacrc dckar rcs-kgsh pýnjakh-dc tgdgs. [a`oaeakh quc
^cpýnjakh. [a`oaeakhdg
cs hj`g dc tgdgs y kgig thj kgokacroc h tgdgs jgs aotc`rhotcs dcj csthdg su kgoscrvhkaûo.
Ecdcrhj. [a`oaeakh quc cstè kgoegrihdh pgr uoh uoaûo dc csthdgs janrcs y sgncrhogs co kuhotg h su
Ecdcrhj. [a`oaeakh
gr`hoazhkaûo aotcroh y `gnacrog sc rceacrc. [ao cinhr`g, tgdgs jgs rc`jhicotgs, jcycs, pgjétakhs
pýnjakhs, ctk., dcnco ar cokhiaohdgs hj kgokcptg dc uoadhd ohkagohj.
^cprcscothtavh. [a`oaeakh quc cj `gnacrog co euokagocs dcnc scr cjc`adg pgr cj pucnjg y dc cotrc cj
^cprcscothtavh. [a`oaeakh
pucnjg, hsé tgdgs tcocigs uoh rcprcscothkaûo dcotrg dcj `gnacrog dc jh ohkaûo.
Dcigkrètakh. [c rceacrc h quc jgs `gncrohotcs dcnco scr cjc`adgs icdahotc vgthkaûo pgpujhr co jh
Dcigkrètakh. [c
kuhj rcsujtc vcokcdgr cj quc cjamh jh ihygréh dc jgs kaudhdhogs.
5.>. Davasaûo dc pgdcrcs
pgdcrc s dcj Csthdg icxakhog.
Cj `gnacrog icxakhog tacoc uoh davasaûo traphrtath co jh quc jhs euokagocs dc `gnacrog sc davadco co
trcs pgdcrcs=
pgdcrcs= Cmckutavg, Jc`asjhta
Jc`asjhtavg
vg y Mudakahj.
Mudakahj.
Cj pgdcr cmckutavg, rckhc co cj prcsadcotc dc jh rcpýnjakh, quc durh co su khr`g 5 høgs y cs cjc`adg
icdahotc vgthkaûo pgpujhr. [c cokhr`h dc jhs pgjétakhs pýnjakhs dcj csthdg hyudèodgsc dc jhs
sckrcthrahs dc csthdg. Cs cj mcec suprcig dc jhs eucrzhs hrihdhs icxakhohs, prgiuj`hr jhs jcycs quc
cxpadc cj pgdcr jc`asjhtavg, prcscothr hj kgo`rcsg houhjicotc jh jcy dc ao`rcsgs y prcsupucstg dc
c`rcsgs dcj csthdg phrh su hprgnhkaûo, cmckuthr scotcokahs dakthdhs pgr cj pgdcr mudakahj, kuadhr jhs
rcjhkagocs aotcrohkagohjcs, cotrc gtrhs iukfhs
iukfhs euokagocs.
euokagocs.
Cj pgdcr jc`asjhtavg, sc kgoegrih pgr jh kèihrh dc daputhdgs y dc scohdgrcs dcj kgo`rcsg dc jh
uoaûo. Jh kèihrh dc daputhdgs cstè kgipucsth pgr 322 daputhdgs y jh dc scohdgrcs pgr 8>6
scohdgrcs. Jh praokaphj euokaûo dc cstc pgdcr cs dakthr jcycs, sao cinhr`g, thinaáo hprucnh cj
oginrhiacotg dc hj`uogs euokagohrags dc `gnacrog, hprucnh cj prcsupucstg dc c`rcsgs, hktuhjazh,

igdaeakh g cjaiaoh ogrihs hdhpthodg jh jcy h jh rchjadhd sgkahj, cotrc gtrhs euokagocs.
Cj pgdcr mudakahj
mudaka hj cs cj cokhr`hdg dc hpjakhr
hpjakh r jhs jcycs h uo khsg kgokrctg phrh rcsgjvcr
rcsgjv cr uo kgoejaktg dc
aotcrcscs cotrc phrtakujhrcs, cotrc phrtakujhrcs y cj csthdg g cotrc aostatukagocs, tgdg cstg
hdckuèodgsc h jhs euokagocs quc cspckéeakhicotc ihrkho jhs jcycs dcj csthdg. Cstc pgdcr og cs
cjc`adg pgr vgthkaûo pgpujhr. Jgs muckcs, ih`astrhdgs y iaoastrgs, sgo oginrhdgs pgr cj pgdcr
jc`asjhtavg y cmckutavg dc hkucrdg h jgs jaochiacotgs ihrkhdgs co jhs jcycs.
5.;. Dcrckfgs euodhicothjcs
euodhic othjcs dc jgs kaudhdhogs co jjhh Kgostatukaûo
Kgostatukaûo  
Rgjétakh dc jgs Csthdgs Soadgs Icxakhogs y su rcjhkaûo kgo jgs  jgs 
Dcrckfgs Fuihogs.
Fuihogs.
Cj hrtékujg ;3 dc jh Kgostatukaûo, csthnjckc quc jgs dcrckfgs dc jgs kaudhdhogs icxakhogs
icxakhogs sgo jgs
jgs
sa`uacotcs=
Ugthr co cjckkagocs pgpujhrcs,
[cr vgthdg phrh tgdgs jgs khr`gs pýnjakgs,

3>

 
 Hsgkahrsc aodavaduhj y janrcicotc phrh phrtakaphr dc egrih phkéeakh co jgs hsuotgs dcj phés,
Tgihr jhs hrihs co cj cmárkatg g jh `uhrdah ohkagohj phrh jh dcecosh dc jh sgncrhoéh ohkagohj
co jgs táriaogs dc jhs jcycs,
Rgdcr scr oginrhdg phrh kuhjquacr khr`g dcj scrvakag pýnjakg,
Aoakahr jcycs co jgs táriaogs dc jh jcy, y
Ugthr co jhs kgosujths pgpujhrcs dc trhoskcodcokah ohkagohj.
5.4. Ickhoasigs dc rrcprcscothkaûo
cprcscothkaûo dc jgs kaudhdhogs co cj `gnacr
`gnacrog
og  
dcigkrètakg. Rhrtadgs pgjétakg
pgjétakgs.
s.
Dcotrg dcj `gnacrog dcigkrètakg, cs euodhicothj jh rcprcscothkaûo dc jgs kaudhdhogs yh quc jh
ásth cs jh nhsc dc jh dcigkrhkah.
Sog dc jgs dcrckfgs dcj kaudhdhog kgosh`rhdg co jh kgostatukaûo, cs cj dcrckfg h scr vgthdg phrh
uo pucstg dc cjckkaûo pgpujhr. Rhrh csg dcnco prcscothr khodadhturhs aodavaduhjcs g pgr phrtadgs
pgjétakgs.
Jgs phrtadgs pgjétakgs sgo hsgkahkagocs pgjétakhs quc tacoc kgig gnmctavg rcprcscothr uo adchj dc
nacocsthr sgkahj, kgo cj hpgyg dc uo `rho oýicrg dc pcrsgohs jjhihdhs iajathotcs. Csths
hsgkahkagocs prcscotho jh ihygr phrtc dc jhs khodadhturhs h pucstgs dc cjckkaûo pgpujhr y sgo cj
icdag adchj phrh quc hj`uoh pcrsgoh pucdh hkkcdcr h dakfgs pucstgs.
oavcjcs  
5.3. Jhs gnja`hkagocs `uncrohicothjcs kgo jgs kaudhdhogs co jgs oavcjcs
ecdcrhj, csththj y iuoakaphj.
Dcotrg dcj csthdg icxakhog cokgotrhigs quc cxastco trcs oavcjcs dc `gnacrog= ecdcrhj, csththj y
iuoakaphj. Cstgs tapgs dc `gnacrog sûjg sc rceacrco hj hjkhokc tcrratgrahj dc khdh uog dc cjjgs. Rgr
cmcipjg, cj `gnacrog ecdcrhj tacoc kgig khipg dc hkkaûo tgdh jh rcpýnjakh icxakhoh, cj `gnacrog
csththj sûjg tacoc kgig khipg dc hkkaûo cj csthdg dc jh rcpýnjakh quc fhyh sadg cjc`adg y cj
iuoakaphj, co jh karkuoskrapkaûo tcrratgrahj dcotrg dcj csthdg quc fhyh sadg cjc`adg.
Jgs trcs oavcjcs dc `gnacrog tacoco quc kuipjar kgo gnja`hkagocs kgotcoadhs co jh kgostatukaûo
jjhihdhs `hrhotéhs aodavaduhjcs, jhs kuhjcs dcnco scr `hrhotazhdhs phrh cj nuco euokagohiacotg dc
jh sgkacdhd.
Jh Kgostatukaûo dc uo csthdg cs jh jcy euodhicothj. Kgig su oginrc aodakh, cs cj cskratg quc
sustcoth kûig cstè kgostatuadg uo csthdg, sus aostatukagocs y su egrih dc `gnacrog.
Co oucstrg khsg, jh Kgostatukaûo Rgjétakh dc jgs Csthdgs Soadgs Icxakhogs, cs jh jcy euodhicothj dcj
csthdg icxakhog. Cs jh nhsc dc tgdh jh jc`asjhkaûo icxakhoh y dakth jgs jaochiacotgs c aostatukagocs
quc kgoegriho oucstrh ohkaûo.
[c davadc co dgs phrtcs= uoh phrtc gr`èoakh, quc kgig su oginrc jg dakc sc cokhr`h dc jh
gr`hoazhkaûo dcj csthdg y jh gtrh dg`iètakh, quc kgotacoc jhs `hrhotéhs aodavaduhjcs dc tgdgs jgs
icxakhogs.
Jhs `hrhotéhs aodavaduhjcs sgo jgs dcrckfgs iéoaigs kgo jgs quc kucotho jgs icxakhogs y quc vcjho

hj a`uhj quc jgs

kgotaouhkaûo dcrckfgs fuihogs,
hngrdhrcigs jgs iès pgr jh jancrthd,
aipgrthotcs jh da`oadhd
pucs fuihoh yjhsjh gnja`hkagocs
ásths, kgoegriho mustakah sgkahj.dcj
H
`gnacrog phrh kgo jgs kaudhdhogs.

3;

 
 Hjt. 8- Co Iáxakg tgdg aodavadug `gzhrè dc jhs `hrhotéhs quc gtgr`h csth Kgostatukaûo.
Hrt. >> Co Iáxakg cstè prgfanadh jh cskjhvatud.
Hrt. ;> Jh cdukhkaûo co Iáxakg scrè jhakh, `rhtuath y gnja`htgrah.
Hrt. 4>  Cj vhrûo y jh iumcr sgo
sgo a`uhjcs hotc jh jcy. Tg
Tgdh
dh pcrsgoh tacoc cj dcrckfg h jh prgtckkaûo dc
jh shjud. Tgdh ehiajah tacoc dcrckfg h d daser
aseruth
uthrr dc uoh vavacod
vavacodhh da`oh y dckgrgsh. CCss dcncr dc
jgs phdrcs prcscrvhr
prcs crvhr cj dcr
dcrckfg
ckfg dc jgs icogrcs h jh shtasehkkaûo dc sus ockcsadhdcs y h jh shjud eésakh
y icothj. Jh kgipg
kgipgsakaûo
sakaûo dc Iáxakg cs pjuraku
pjurakujturhj
jturhj nhshdh ccoo sus pucnjgs aodé`cohs.
Hrt. 3> Jancrthd dc trhnhmg sacodg jékatg.
Hrt. 5> Jancrthd dc pcoshiacotg sao heckthr h tcrkcrgs y cj dcrckfg h jh aoegrihkaûo.
Hrt. 0> Cs aovagjhnjc jh jancrthd dc cskranar y punjakhr cskratgs sgnrc kuhjquacr ihtcrah.
Hrt. 6> Dcrckfg dc pctakaûo.
Hrt. 1>  Og sc pgdrè kghrthr cj dcrckfg dc hsgkahrsc g rcuoarsc phkéeakhicotc kgo kuhjquacr
gnmctg jékatg.
Hrt . 82
Hrt. 82>> Jg
Jgss fhnathotcs dc Iáxakg tacoco cj dcrckfg dc pgsccr hrihs co su dgiakajag, phrh su
sc`uradhd y jc`étaih dcecosh.
Hrt. 88> Jancrthd dc trèosatg co cj tcrratgrag ohkagohj.
Hrt. 8>> Co Iáxakg sc prgfénco tétujgs dc ognjczh.
Hrt. 8;_ Ohdac pudc scr muz`hdg pgr jcycs pravhtavhs oa pgr tranuohjcs cspckahjcs.
Hrt . 84> H oao`
Hrt. oao`uoh
uoh jcy sscc dhrè cecktg rctr
rctrghktav
ghktavg.
g. Oh
Ohdac
dac pgdrè scr pravhdg dc jh vadh, dc jh jancrthd
g dc sus prgpacdhdcs, pgscsagocs g dcrckfgs, saog icdahotc muakag sc`uadg hotc jgs tranuohjcs
prcvahicotc csthnjck
csthnjckadgs.
adgs.
Hrt. 83>
83> Og sc hutgrazh jh cxtrhdakaûo dc rcgs pgjétakgs.

Hrt. 85> Ohdac pucdc scr igjcsthdg co su pcrsgoh, ehiajah, dgiakajag, phpcjcs g pgscsagocs,
saog co vartud dc uo ihodhiacotg cskratg dc jh hutgradhd kgipctcotc (uo mucz).
Hrt. 80> Ohdac pgdrè fhkcrsc mustakah pgr sé iasig, oa cmcrkcr vagjcokah phrh rckjhihr su dcrckfg.
Hrt. 86> sgjg pgr dcjatg quc icrczkh pcoh kgrpgrhj fhnrè prasaûo prcvcotavh.
Hrt.. 81
Hrt 81>> Oao
Oao`uo
`uohh dctcokaûo cxkcdcr
cxkcdcrèè dc ; déhs, sao quc sc must
mustaeaqu
aeaqucc cj hutg dc egrihj prasaûo.
Hrt. >2
>2>> @hrhoté
@hrhotéhs
hs dc jgjgss hkushdgs= A) Rgdrè scr pucstg co jancrthd nhmg khukaûo, AA) Og pgdrè dckjhr
dckjhrhr
hr
co su kgotrh, AAA) [c jc fhrè shncr co hudacokah pýnjakh dc quc sc jc hkush y quaco jg hkush, AU) [crè
khrchdg kgo jgs tcsta`gs, U) Rgdrè gerckcr prucnhs phrh su dcecosh, UA) [crè muz`hdg co hudacokah
pýnjakh, UAA) [c jc ehkaj
ehkajathr
athrèo
èo jgs dhtgs phrh ssuu dcecosh, AV) [c jc garè co dcecosh pgr sé g pgr pcrsg
pcrsgoh
oh
dc su kgoeahozh.
Hrt. >8> Jh aipgsakaûo dc pcohs cs prgpah y cxkjusavh dc jh hutgradhd mudakahj.

34

 
 Hrt. >>> Xucdho prgfanadhs jhs pcohs dc iutajhkaûo g dc aoehiah y dc iucrtc.
Hrt. >;> Oao`
Oao`ýo
ýo muaka
muakag
g tco
tcodrè
drè iès dc tr
trcs
cs aosthoka
aosthokahs.
hs. Ohd
Ohdac
ac pgdrè scr mmuz`hdg
uz`hdg pgr cj iasi
iasig
g
dcjatg dgs vckcs.
Hrt. >4> Tgdg fginrc cs janrc dc prgecshr jhs krccokahs rcja`agshs quc iès jc h`rhdc.
Hrt. >3> Kgrrcspgodc hj Csthdg jh rcktgréh dcj Dcshrrgjjg Ohkagohj phrh `hrhotazhr quc cstc sch
aotc`rhj, quc egrthjczkh jh sgncrhoéh dc jh Ohkaûo.
Hrt. >5> Cj Csthdg gr`hoazhrè uo sastcih dc pjhochkaûo dcigkrètakh dcj Dcshrrgjjg Ohkagohj
quc aipraih sgjadcz, daohiasig, pcrihocokah y cquadhd hj krckaiacotg dc jh cckgogiéh
kgogiéh phrh jh
Aodcpcodcokah y jh dcigkrhtazhkaûo pgjétakh, sgkahj y kujturhj dc jh Ohkaûo.
Hrt. >0> Jh prgpacdhd dc jhs tacrrhs y h`uhs kgiprcodadhs dcotrg dc jgs jéiatcs dcj tcrratgrag
ohkagohj, kgrrcspgodco gra`aohjicotc h jh Ohkaûo.
Hrt. >61 Co Iáxakg qucdho prgfanadgs jgs igogpgjags, jhs prèktakhs igogpûjakhs.
Hrt . >1> Co jgs khsgs dc Aovhsaûo, pcrturn
Hrt. pcrturnhkaûo
hkaûo `rhvc dc jh phz
phz pýnjakh, û ddcc kuhjquacr gtrg quc
pg
pgo`
o`hh h jjhh sgkacd
sgkacdhd
hd co `rhvc p
pcja`rg
cja`rg g kgoejaktg, sgjhico
sgjhicotc
tc cj Rrcsadcotc,
Rrcsad cotc, pgdrè suspco
suspcodcr
dcr co tgdg
cj phés g co ju`hr dct dctcriaohdg
criaohdg jhs `hrhoté
`hrhotéhs
hs quc eucsc
eucscoo gnstèkujg phrh fhkcr ercotc
erc otc,, rèpadh y
eèkajicotc h jh satuhkaûo.
5.5. ^cktgs dc jh dcigkrhkah cco
o jhs sgkacdhdc
sgkacdhdcss kgotcipg
kgotcipgrèochs.
rèochs.
Jh dcigkrhkah kgiacozh pgr cj cmcrkakag dcj vgtg quc cs jg quc dh jh rcprcscothkaûo h jh sgkacdhd
co cj `gnacrog y hsc`urh jh iasih. [ao cinhr`g, og cs jg ýoakg quc dcncigs fhkcr kgig
kaudhdhogs. Cxastco davcrshs hkkagocs quc sgo jgs rctgs h vcokcr phrh quc jh dcigkrhkah sch pjcoh.
[c dcnco kgogkcr jhs jcycs, quazè og dc uoh ihocrh tákoakh y cspckahjazhdh pcrg pgr jg icogs, jgs
kaudhdhogs, csthigs gnja`hdgs h kgogkcr jgs dcrckfgs euodhicothjcs y quc ogs hecktco
darckthicotc, pgoacodg co cjjg jh vgjuothd dc kuipjarjhs.
Tcoacodg co kucoth quc jhs jcycs sgo dc gnscrvhokah `cocrhj y quc ohdac sc cxkjuyc dc su
kuipjaiacotg, dcncigs phrtakaphr hktavhicotc co jh dcouokah dc jgs hktgs quc vagjco dakfhs jcycs.
Tcocigs kgig gnja`hkaûo praigrdahj hdciès dc kgogkcr jhs jcycs, csthr hj kgrracotc dc jhs rcegrihs
dc jhs iasihs.
Rgr ýjtaig ihotcocr uoh kgiuoakhkaûo cotrc jgs kaudhdhogs y sus rcprcscothotcs, phrh jg`rhr co
kgomuotg cj khiaog kgrrcktg hj nacocsthr sgkahj.
5.0. Rhrtakaphkaûo kaudhdhoh.
Og sc pucdc cotcodcr jh dcigkrhkah dc uoh sgkacdhd sao jh phrtakaphkaûo dc jh kaudhdhoéh.
[c dcnc phrtakaphr hktavhicotc co jh kgoegrihkaûo dc jhs aostatukagocs vgthodg pgr jgs khodadhtgs
quc rcprcscotco oucstrgs gnmctavgs dc nacocsthr sgkahj, dc ihocrh rcspgoshnjc c aoegrihdh.

33

 
 Gtrh ihocrh dc phrtakaphr hktavhicotc cs pcdar jh rcodakaûo dc kucoths dc jhs pcrsgohs kgo khr`gs
pýnjakgs hdciès dc va`ajhr kgosthotcicotc cj dcstaog dc jgs rckursgs ckgoûiakgs quc sc jcs gtgr`h.
Kgosththr quc cj `hstg pýnjakg cstá hpjakhdg hdckuhdhicotc.
Rhrtakaphr hktavhicotc co jhs cjckkagocs pgpujhrcs yh kgig euokagohrag dc khsajjh g kgig
gnscrvhdgr dc jhs vgthkagocs.
Rrcscothr prgpucsths h oucstrgs rcprcscothotcs co cj kgo`rcsg sgnrc aoakahtavhs quc icmgrco
oucstrg cotgrog sgkahj.
Jjc`hr h hkucrdgs kgo jhs eucrzhs pgjétakhs quc `gnacroco co csc igicotg, sao aipgrthr cj phrtadg
pgjétakg hj quc pcrtcoczkho, pucs sûjg kgo cj kgoscosg sc pucdc jg`rhr uo nacocsthr phrh tgdgs.

0. Fhkah
Fhkah uoh kaudhdhoéh
kaudhdho éh aoegri
aoegrihdh,
hdh, kgiprgictad
kgip rgictadhh y phrtakaphtavh
0.8. Jh euokaûo sgkahj dc jg
jgss icdags dc kgiuoakhkaûo.
Co jh hktuhjadhd, dcotrg dc oucstrh sgkacdhd, jgs icdags dc kgiuoakhkaûo muc`ho uo phpcj
suihicotc aipgrthotc, dcnadg hj hjkhokc quc tacoco dcotrg dc tgdgs jgs oavcjcs dc jh iasih
sgkacdhd.
[a naco cs kacrtg quc cj dcrckfg h jh aoegrihkaûo cs uoh dc jhs prcrrg`htavhs euodhicothjcs dcj scr
fuihog, fhy quc cmcrkcr csc dcrckfg dc ihocrh rcspgoshnjc, pucstg quc co iukfhs gkhsagocs jh
aoegrihkaûo quc ogs jjc`h pgr icdag dc cstgs icdags cs pgr dciès crrûoch y ehjth dc vcrhkadhd,
krch cstcrcgtapgs hoaihdgs pgr jh punjakadhd pgr cj heèo dc kgosc`uar uo ncoceakag ckgoûiakg.
H pcshr dc jh rc`ujhkaûo co jh ihtcrah, jh aoegrihkaûo quc rckanaigs dc jgs icdags dc kgiuoakhkaûo
cs hýo dceakacotc y sc dcnc tgihr dc uoh ihocrh krétakh, pucstg quc og fhy ihocrh dc cxkjuarsc
pgr cj `rho hjkhokc dc jgs iasigs.
Jhs rcdcs sgkahjcs sgo gtrh eucotc dc kgiuoakhkaûo co jh quc fhy quc tcocr iès kuadhdg, pucstg
quc kgo iukfh ehkajadhd sc hscvcrho kgicothrags ehjsgs y kgo èoaig dcstruktavg dcnadg h quc og
fhy rc`ujhkaûo cxprcsh quc jg prgfénh.

6. Rcoshr, dckadar
dckadar y hktuhr phrh cj euturg
6.8. Aipgrthokah dc jh rcjhkaûo dc
dcjj scr fuihog kgo su cotgrog ohturhj y 
sgkahj.
Khdh déh jh pgnjhkaûo
Khdh pgnjhkaûo iuodahj huicoth, jhs pcrsgohs khd
khdhh vcz tacoco uoh cxpckthtavh dc vadh ihygr,
dcnadg h jgs hvhokcs dc jh icdakaoh y jhs khdh vcz ihygrcs icdadhs cokhiaohdhs h prcscrvhr jh
vadh. Cstc Krckaiacotg dc jh pgnjhkaûo trhc kgosa`g prgnjcihs khdh vcz iès scvcrgs h oucstrg
cotgrog, jh pgkh pjhochkaûo, jh ehjth dc kgiprgiasg dc jgs `gnacrogs kgo cj icdag hinacotc y jh
prcpgodcrhokah dc jgs vhjgrcs ckgoûiakgs pgr cokaih dc jgs hinacothjcs, fho fckfg quc cj ju`hr
quc fhnathigs khdh vcz sch iès dctcragrhdg.
H| a`uhj quc ockcsathigs hprcodcr h kgovavar kgo oucstrg cotgrog sgkahj, sc dcnc tgihr kgoskacokah
sgnrc cj cquajanrag quc dcnc cxastar, cotrc cj hprgvckfhiacotg quc fhkcigs dc jgs rckursgs
ohturhjcs y jh rcogvhkaûo dc jgs iasigs, phrh quc ástc sch sustcothnjc. [c dcnc pcoshr quc hj`uogs
dc cstgs rckursgs og sgo rcogvhnjcs y quc co hj`ýo igicotg dc jh vadh sc tcriaohrèo. [c dcnc

35

 
 fhkcr uo kgiprgiasg dc rchjazhr uo kgosuig rcspgoshnjc dc oucstrgs rckursgs ohturhjcs y hsé
jg`rhr quc oucstrg cotgrog sch prgpakag phrh ogsgtrgs y jhs dciès cspckacs kgo jhs quc kgovavaigs.

1. ^ckursgs
^ckurs gs y kgodakagocs
kgodakag ocs phrh jh sgjukaûo dc kgoejaktgs sao
sao vagjcokah
1.8. Jh oc`gkahkaû
oc`gkahkaûo
o co jh rcsgjukaûo y i
ihocmg
hocmg dc kgoejaktgs.
Rrgnjcihs cxastco co tgdgs jgs èinatgs dc jh vadh fu
fuihoh,
ihoh, sao cinhr`g, jh cthph dc jh hdgjcskcok
hdgjcskcokah,
ah,
hj kgotcocr thotgs khinags y pcrdcr jh csthnajadhd dc jh oaøcz, cs cspckahjicotc daeékaj, pucs sur`co
davcrsgs kgoejaktgs prgpags dc csth cthph, yh sch kgo jh ehiajah, kgo jgs ihcstrgs, kgo jgs hia`gs,
kgo jhs phrcmhs, ctk.
[c`ýo jh ih`oatud dcj prgnjcih, sgjcigs pcoshr quc sgjukagohrjg dc uoh igdg vagjcotg cs jh
ihocrh iès eèkaj y rèpadh dc sgjukagohr kgoejaktgs, pcrg cstg og fhkc iès quc dhr uoh sgjukaûo
tcipgrhj h jgs iasigs, pucstg quc `cocrh rcokgrcs, y iès vagjcokah.
Soh fcrrhiacoth aipgrthotc phrh sgjukagohr kgoejaktgs, cs jh oc`gkahkaûo, quc kgosastc co cotcodcr
quc og sc pucdc
pucdc tcoc
tcocrr tgdg g ohdh. Fhy gkhsagocs co jhs quc cs icmgr kcdcr uo pgkg y hshséé jg`rhr uo
hkucrdg kgovcoacotc phrh tgdhs jhs phrtcs co kgoejaktg. Dcotrg dc jh oc`gkahkaûo sc dcnc tcocr
ciphtah kgo jh gtrh phrtc y pcoshr quc og tcocigs saciprc jh rhzûo. [c dcnco vhjgrhr jhs sgjukagocs
hj prgnjcih y trhthr dc nuskhr uoh sgjukaûo co jh quc og sgjg uog pacrdh, saog quc jgs dgs kcdho uo
pgkg phrh `hohr. [c dcnc pgocr cspckahj htcokaûo co cothnjhr uo daèjg`g cotrc jhs phrtcs co
kgoejaktg phrh hsé pgdcr kgogkcr cj puotg dc vasth dc tgdhs jhs phrtcs y jg`rhr uoh icmgr oc`gkahkaûo
y pgr kgosa`uacotc uo icmgr hkucrdg quc dcmc kgoegrics h jhs phrtcs.

30

 
 C[RHØGJ
8. Gntcoka
Gntcokaûo
ûo dc aoegrihkaûo
aoegrihkaû o
8.8. Rrgpûsatgs y khrhktcrés
khrhktcréstakhs
takhs dc jhs eakfhs nan
nanjag`rèeak
jag`rèeakhs.
hs.
Dcotrg dc jh aovcsta`hkaûo, rcqucraigs dc vhrahs fcrrhiacoths quc ogs hpgyco y ehkajatco jh thrch
dc grdcohr jh aoegrihkaûo quc gntcocigs, uoh fcrrhiacoth aipgrthotc sgo jhs eakfhs nanjag`rèeakhs.
Jhs eakfhs nanjag`rèeakhs sgo uoh fcrrhiacoth dc aovcsta`hkaûo quc ogs pcriatc grdcohr uo kgomuotg
dc dhtgs quc ehkajatho jh adcotaeakhkaûo dc hj`uohs punjakhkagocs g phrtc dc cjjhs, thjcs kgig sgo=
cskranar uoh ogth hj eaohj dcj tcxtg g pac dc pè`aoh, fhkcr uoh séotcsas dc uoh punjakhkaûo g kath
tcxtuhj, fhkcr cj rcsuico dc uo tcih icigrah g hoèjasas.
Jh eakfh nanjag`rèeakh dcnc kgothr kgo jgs dhtgs sa`uacotcs=
Hutgr dc jh gnrh,
- Tétu
Tétujg
jg d
dcc jh gnrh, co khsg dc scr uoh
uoh trhdukkaûo cj tétuj
tétujgg gra`aohj,
Oýicrg dc cdakaûo,
Ju`hr dc punjakhkaûo,
Cdatgr,
- Høg dc punjakh
punjakhkaûo,
kaûo,
Oýicrg dc pè`aohs,
- Oýicrg dc vgj vgjýicoc
ýicocs,s,
Aodakhkaûo dc thnjhs c ajustrhkagocs,
Tétujg dc jh kgjckkaûo g scrac, y oýicrg dc jh punjakhkaûo dcotrg dc jh scrac.

>. Gr`hoazhkaûo dc aoegrihkaûo

aoegrihkaû o
>.8. Euokagocs y khrhktcréstakhs dc jgs kgipgocotcs `rèeakg
`rèeakgss d
dcj
cj tcxtg=
tcxtg=  
hphrthdgs, sunhphrthdgs, tétu
tétujgs,
jgs, su
suntétujgs,
ntétujgs, éod
éodakcs,
akcs, ajustrhkagocs,
ajustrhkagocs,  
`rèeakhs y thnjhs, sunrhyhdg y rckuhdrgs.
Dcotrg dc uo tcxtg, pgdcigs cokgotrhr davcrsgs kgipgocotcs `rèeakgs quc hyudho h cotcodcr
icmgr su kgotcoadg, ehkajathodg hj jcktgr jh kgiprcosaûo dcj iasig. [go fcrrhiacoths dc jhs quc sc
vhjc cj hutgr phrh rcegrzhr jh adch quc dcsch igstrhr hj jcktgr.
H kgotaouhkaûo, cxpjakhrcigs hj`uogs kgipgocotcs `rèeakgs dcj tcxtg, thjcs kgig sgo=
Hphrthdgs= Cj dakkagohrag dc jh ^chj Hkhdciah dc jh Jco`uh Csphøgjh ogs dakc quc, hphrthdg cs uo
pèrrheg g scrac dc pèrrhegs dcotrg dc uo cskratg, co jgs quc sc kgosadcrh hj`ýo tcih pgr scphrhdg,
uo hphrthdg cs uoh fcrrhiacoth quc sarvc phrh scphrhr jgs tcihs quc sc dcshrrgjjhrho h jg jhr`g dc
uo tcxtg, iasigs quc sc dcsprcodco dc uo tcih `cocrhj, pgr cmcipjg sa cj tcih cs cskucjhs
sckuodhrahs, jgs hphrthdgs scraho cskucjhs sckuodhrahs daurohs, cskucjhs sckuodhrahs tákoakhs,
tcjcsckuodhrahs, ctk.
[unhphrthdgs= Jgs sunhphrthdgs sgo hqucjjh aoegrihkaûo cxtrh kgotcoadh co cj hphrthdg, kgo cj eao
dc hnhrkhr jh aoegrihkaûo kgotcoadh co cj iasig. So cmcipjg dc sunhphrthdgs cs, sa cj tcih
praokaphj cs kgkaoh, cj hphrthdg scréh rcpgstcréh y dcotrg dc ástc= phstcjcs, `hjjcths, ctk.
Tétujgs= Cs jh phjhnrh g rhzûo kgo jh quc sc dh h kgogkcr cj oginrc dc jh gnrh quc csthigs trhthodg.

36

 
 [untétujgs= Cs cj oginrc dc jhs dastaoths phrtcs dcj tcxtg, iasigs quc pcriatco hotakaphr cj
kgotcoadg `cocrhj dcj iasig.
éodakc= Cs jh jasth grdcohdh dc jgs khpétujgs, hrtékujgs, tcihs, suntcihs, ctk., quc cstèo kgotcoadgs
co cj janrg y quc hdciès iucstrh cj oýicrg dc pè`aoh co jh quc sc cokucotrho.
Ajustrhkaûo= Cs tgdh aih`co rcjhkagohdh kgo cj tcxtg, kuyh rhzûo cs vasuhjazhr jh aoegrihkaûo quc sc
dcsch trhosiatar.

@rèeakh= Cs jh rcprcscothkaûo dc dhtgs ouiárakgs pgr icdag dc uoh g vhrahs jéochs, quc fhkco vasanjc
jh rcjhkaûo quc cstgs dhtgs `uhrdho cotrc sé.
Thnjh= Cs uoh aih`co grdcohdh quc csthnjckc khrhktcréstakhs, saiajatudcs g rcjhkagocs cotrc jgs
dastaotgs kgokcptgs g erhscs.
[unrhyhdg= Cj sunrhyhdg kgosastc co kgjgkhr uoh jéoch dcnhmg dc hj`uoh phjhnrh g erhsc dcotrg dcj
tcxtg, kgo
kgo cj eao dc rc
rcshjthr
shjthr su aipgrthokah y hsé kgiprcodcr icmgr cj tcih.
^ckuhdrg= [go kuhdrgs dc tcxtg kgjgkhdgs cstrhtá`akhicotc kgo cj heèo dc rcshjthr aoegrihkaûo
kjhvc dcotrg dcj tcih quc sc dcshrrgjjh.
>.>. Tcih, suntcih, grdco krgogjû`a
krgogjû`akg,
kg, p
prgnjcih
rgnjcih y su sgjukaûo.
Jh eaohjadhd dc jgs tcxtgs aoegrihtavgs cs dhr h kgogkcr dc ihocrh gnmctavh uoh rchjadhd, fckfg g
sukcsg, pgr cjjg cs ockcshrag quc cstáo cstrukturhdgs dc ihocrh jû`akh, jg kuhj ehkajath su
kgiprcosaûo. Jhs cstrukturhs iès kgiuocs phrh gr`hoazhr jh aoegrihkaûo sgo jhs sa`uacotcs=
Tcih. Cxpgoc cj hsuotg g adch praokaphj dcj tcxtg.
[untcih. H phrtar dc jh adch praokaphj, jgs suntcihs dcshrrgjjho, cxpjakho g hipjého kucstagocs dcj
tcih co kucstaûo.
Grdco krgogjû`akg. Soh ihocrh dc cxpgocr uo tcih'dc ihocrh kjhrh y prckash, cs fhkcrjg dc
ihocrh krgogjû`akh, quc quacrc dckar, quc cj tcih sch cxpjakhdg co cj grdco tcipgrhj co cj quc
hkgotckacrgo jgs fckfgs.

Rrgnjcih sgjukaûo.
pjhotchiacotg Soh dc jhs
dcj prgnjcih ihocrhscj iès
y durhotc cecktavhs
dcshrrgjjg dcj dc dcshrrgjjhr
iasig, uo tcih
cokgotrhr cs fhkcr praicrg cj
su sgjukaûo.
>.;. ^ckursgs quc sc utajaz
utajazho
ho phrh dcshrrgjjh
dcshrrgjjhrr jh
jhss adchs co jg
jgss pèrr
pèrrhegs=
hegs=  
cmcipjaeakhkagocs, rcpctakagocs, cxpjakhkagocs g phrèerhsas.
Cxastco davcrshs fcrrhiacoths quc cj hutgr pucdc utajazhr kgig icdag phrh dcshrrgjjhr jhs adchs quc
dcscco cxprcshr èj jcktgr, hj`uohs dc cjjhs sgo=
Cmcipjaeakhkagocs. Cs uog dc jgs rckursgs iès ushdgs y cecktavgs h jh fgrh dc dcshrrgjjhr adchs co
uo tcxtg, kgosastc co quc cj hutgr utajazh uo cmcipjg phrh hkjhrhr h quá sc rceacrc cspckéeakhicotc
co tcih dcshrrgjjhdg.
^cpctakagocs. Kgosastc co quc cj hutgr cskranc dctcriaohdh aoegrihkaûo y co gtrh phrtc dcj tcxtg,
rcpatc jh iasih aoegrihkaûo phrh rchearihr jg quc dcsch trhosiatar.

31

 
 Cxpjakhkagocs. Jhs cxpjakhkagocs sarvco phrh hkjhrhr hj`ýo dhtg dctcriaohdg co cj dcshrrgjjg dc uo
tcxtg, y hsé hipjahr jh aoegrihkaûo quc sc prgpgrkagoh.
Rhrèerhsas. Cs jh cxpjakhkaûo quc cj hutgr dh h uo tcxtg dc gtrg hutgr, kgo jh eaohjadhd dc hipjahrjg g
fhkcrjg cotcodanjc phrh cj jcktgr.

;. Cjcic
Cjcicotgs
otgs quc aotcrvacoc
aotcrvacoco
o co jjhh kgfcrc
kgfcrcokah,
okah, jh kgfcsaûo y jh 
hdckuhkaûo co jgs tcxtgs
;.8. Kgokgrdhokah cotrc cj sumctg y prcdakhdg.
prcdakhdg.
Jhs grhkagocs g couokahdgs, sgo jh ihocrh iès
iès nèsakh dc cxprcs
cxprcshr
hr adchs kgo scotadg y sc kgipgoco
kgipgoco
dc dgs phrtcs= cj sumctg y cj prcdakhdg.
Co cj prcdakhdg sc cokucotrh cj vcrng praokaphj dc jh grhkaûo, quc cs jh phjhnrh quc dctgoh jh hkkaûo
co jh iasih (muc`h, fhkc, kgrrc, ctk.). Cj sumctg dcnc kgokgrdhr kgo cj vcrng y pgr thotg kgo cj
prcdakhdg co oýicrg y pcrsgoh, jg kuhj aodakh
a odakh quc sasa cj sumctg csth co sao`ujhr, cj prcdakhdg thinaáo
csthrè co sao`ujhr, sc`ýo sch cj khsg.
Jh kgrrckth kgokgrdhokah cotrc sumctg y prcdakhdg, fhkc quc jgs tcxtgs scho dc eèkaj kgiprcosaûo
phrh cj jcktgr.

;.>. Ocxgs Ocxgs y adchs=

Ocxgs quc aotrgdukco cxp
cxpr
ad r csagoc
chs=csagocs
hdciès,s pgr cmcipjg, co praicr ju`hr,
ju`hr,  
eaohjicotc.
Co tgdg cskratg cj grdcohiacotg y cj cokhdcohiacotg jû`akg dc jhs adchs pcriatco uoh jckturh ejuadh
y kjhrh. @rhkahs h cstg, jgs jcktgrcs pucdco hprgvckfhr hj ièxaig su kgotcoadg, yh sch phrh cjhngrhr
gtrgs cskratgs g saipjcicotc phrh gntcocr aoegrihkaûo hkcrkh dc uo tcih dc su aotcrás.
Dcotrg dcj dcshrrgjjg dc uo tcxtg, cj hutgr sc dcnc vhjcr dc fcrrhiacoths quc fh`ho quc cj tcxtg
sch cotcodanjc phrh cj jcktgr. Co cstc kgotcxtg, cj hutgr cipjch ocxgs, quc sgo phjhnrhs g kgomuotgs
dc phjhnrhs quc sarvco phrh fajhr adchs g hr`uicotgs hdckuhdhicotc.
Co praicr ju`hr, tcocigs jgs ocxgs quc aotrgdukco adchs hj tcxtg y sgo=

Hdciès= Rhjhnrh utajazhdh phrh h`rc`hr uoh adch cxtrh h uo tcxtg quc sc hocxh h jh yh cxastcotc.
Rgr cmcipjg= Erhsc quc sc ush phrh cmcipjaeakhr uoh adch dcj tcxtg.
Co praicr ju`hr= Ocxg kuyh eaohjadhd cs dhr uoh grdco h jhs khrhktcréstakhs, kuhjadhdcs, satuhkagocs,
ctk., quc sc cokucotrho co uo tcxtg.
Eaohjicotc= Ocxg utajazhdg phrh aotrgdukar uoh kgokjusaûo g kgicothrag eaohj hj tcxtg.
;.;. Ocxgs quc rcjhkagoho tcipgrhjicotc jgs couokahdgs= juc`g,
juc`g,  
dcspuás, praicrg, hotcs.
Jgs ocxgs quc rcjhkagoho tcipgrhjicotc jgs couokahdgs sc cokhr`ho dc csthnjckcr uo grdco
krgogjû`akg h jgs hkgotckaiacotgs rcjhthdgs co uo tcxtg, y ástgs sgo=
Juc`g= Aodakh quc uo sukcsg gkurraû kgo prgotatud co cj tacipg.

52

 
 Dcspuás= Aodakh quc cj sukcsg quc sc quacrc aotrgdukar gkurraû co uo tacipg iès jcmhog dc jh hkkaûo
quc csthigs rcjhthodg, cs dckar, og gkurraû aoicdahthicotc.
Rraicrg= Aodakh quc jh hkkaûo gkurraû co praicr ju`hr.
Hotcs= Aodakh quc jh hkkaûo quc aotrgdukarcigs gkurraû kgo hotcragradhd h jh quc hkhnhigs dc
cxpgocr.
;.4. Cxprcsagocs y ocxgs quc cokhdcoho hr`uicotgs= pcr
pcrg, sao  
g, huoquc, sao
cinhr`g, hýo, h pcshr
pcsh r dc.
Jgs ocxgs quc cokhdcoho hr`uicotgs sgo jgs sa`uacotcs=
Rcrg= [c utajazh phrh kgotrhpgocr uoh adch h gtrh dastaoth. Rgr cmcipjg, cj daocrg tc fhkc rakg, pcrg
og dakfgsg.
Huoquc= Hj a`uhj quc cj ocxg hotcragr sc utajazh phrh kgotrhpgocr uoh adch h gtrh. Tco`g vcaotc phrcs
dc zhphtgs huoquc qucrréh iukfgs iès.
[ao cinhr`g, huo y h pcshr dc= Cstgs ocxgs sc utajazho phrh aodakhr quc jg quc hr`uicothigs og cs
aipcdaicotg phrh quc gtrg hr`uicotg sch vèjadg.
;.3. ^ckursgs jao`úéstakg
jao`úéstakgss quc sc uta
utajazho
jazho ph
phrh
rh dcshrrgjjhr hr`uicotgs co
co  
jgs tcxtgs= ocxgs y cxprcsagocs kgo sa`oaeakhdg khushj, kgokcsavg y  y 
kgodakagohj.
Jh phrtc praigrdahj co uo tcxtg cs cj dcshrrgjjg dc hr`uicotgs quc sustcotho jhs adchs quc cj hutgr
dcsch pjhsihr co cj iasig. Co cstc kgotcxtg, cxastco rckursgs jao`úéstakgs quc sgo dc `rho hyudh
phrh jg`rhr thj eao, kgig sgo=
Ocxgs y cxprcsagocs kgo sa`oaeakhdg khushj= [go jgs ocxgs g cxprcsagocs quc igtavho jg
ihoaecsthdg co uoh grhkaûo praokaphj. Rgr cmcipjg, co jh erhsc "fhkc eraû pgrquc cs aovacrog", cj
ocxg khushj cs jh phjhnrh "pgrquc", yh quc aotrgdukc jh khush quc sc cxpgoc co cj couokahdg.
Ocxgs g cxprcsagocs kgo sa`oaeakhdg kgokcsavg= [go ocxgs quc cxprcsho uoh gnmckaûo g daeakujthd
h jg quc sc dakc co jh grhkaûo praokaphj sao quc csc gnstèkujg aipadh su rchjazhkaûo. Rgr cmcipjg, co
jh erhsc= "ará hj kgokacrtg huoquc jjuávh", jh phjhnrh "huoquc" euokagoh kgig uo ocxg kgokcsavg quc
I c h quá jh hkkaûo sc rchjazhr
rchjazhrèè h pcshr dc jhs karku
karkuosthok
osthokahs,
ahs, cxastc uoh gnmckaûo pcrg oog
g uo
aipcdaicotg.
Ocxgs g cxprcsagocs kgo sa`oaeakhdg kgodakagohj= Co cj khsg dc cstgs ocxgs, sc cxprcsh jh
aotc`rhkaûo dc uoh kgodakaûo phrh quc cj couokahdg sc rchjakc. Rgr cmcipjg, co jh erhsc "ic pgodrá
uo suátcr sa fhkc eraû", jh phjhnrh "sa" euokagoh kgig uo ocxg quc aotrgdukc uoh kgodakaûo h jh
grhkaûo praokaphj.
;.5. Cxprcsagocs quc mcrhrquaz
mcrhrquazho
ho jh aoegrihkaûo= jjhh rhzûo iès aipgrthotc,
aipgrthotc,  
gtrh rhzûo pgr jh quc, pgr cmcipjg, co praicr ju`hr, eaohjicotc, 
eaohjicotc,  
thinaáo.
Kuhodg fhnjhigs dc mcrhrquéh, ogs rcecraigs hj grdco dc aipgrthokah dc uoh scrac dc kgshs,
¡hkgotckaiacotgs, rho`gs, ctk.

58

 
 Jh mcrhrquazhkaûo dc jh Aoegrihkaûo dcotrg dc jgs tcxtgs cs dc vathj aipgrthokah phrh cj hutgr quc
aotcoth dhr ihygr pcsg h uo cxtrhktg dc jh aoegrihkaûo, pgoaáodgjh co uo pjhog dc supcragradhd
hotc jhs dciès phrtcs dcj iasig.
Jhs cxprcsagocs ushdhs phrh mcrhrquazhr jh aoegrihkaûo, sgo=
Jh rhzûo iès aipgrthotc= Co cstc khsg, jh cxprcsaûo aotrgdukc uoh grhkaûo quc scøhjh uoh rcjhkaûo
dc supcragradhd phrh kgo jh dciès, pucstg quc dc uoh khotadhd dc hr`uicotgs cj quc sc aotrgdukc
dcspuás dc csth erhsc cs cj iès aipgrthotc.
Gtrh rhzûo pgr jh quc= Co cstc khsg jh cxprcsaûo dcogth a`uhjdhd cotrc jgs hr`uicotgs.
Rgr cmcipjg= Csth cxprcsaûo phrh aotrgdukar uo fckfg, tcxtg g kjèusujh quc sc kath phrh kgiprgnhr
ajustrhr g hutgrazhr uo hscrtg dgktraoh u gpaoaûo y jg pgoc co uoh rcjhkaûo dc aoecragradhd h jh adch
praokaphj.
Co praicr ju`hr= Cs utajazhdh phrh dhr hj hr`uicotg quc sc dcsch aotrgdukar uoh rcjhkaûo dc
supcragradhd phrh kgo jgs dciès hr`uicotgs.
Eaohjicotc= Rhjhnrh utajazhdh phrh aotrgdukar uoh adch eaohj g kgokjusaûo h jhs adchs hotcs
pjhotchdhs.

Thinaáo= Csth phjhnrh

iasih vhjadcz cs uoh
y mcrhrquéh quc cxprcsaûo
jgs dcièsutajazhdh
cxpucstgsphrh
coaotrgdukar
cj iasig.hj tcxtg uo hr`uicotg quc tacoc jh
;.0. ^ckursgs jao`úéstakgs quc pcriatco cxprcshr sukcsaûo y 
y 
saiujthocadhd dc jhs hkkagocs.
Co cj khsg dc jh rcdhkkaûo dc tcxtgs, cs vathj pgdcr cxprcshr kuhodg uoh sukcsaûo dc adchs g fckfgs,
cstèo gkurracodg saiujtèochicotc g sgo uoh sukcsaûo dc hkgotckaiacotgs.
Rhrh cxprcshr uoh sukcsaûo dc hkgotckaiacotgs, phsgs, hr`uicotgs, ctk., cs ockcshrag vhjcrsc dc
erhscs g phjhnrhs quc dcogtco csh satuhkaûo. Rgr cmcipjg, co ah erhsc= "praicrg sc quatû jh rgph y
dcspuás shjtû hj h`uh", jhs phjhnrhs "praicrg" y "dcspuás", sgo ushdhs phrh pcriatar hj hutgr
igstrhr uoh sukcsaûo dc hkgotckaiacotgs dcotrg dcj tcxtg.
Co cj khsg dc jh saiujthocadhd, sc dcnco ushr rckursgs jao`úéstakgs quc dctcriaoco quc jgs sukcsgs
quc sc ohrrho phsho hj iasig tacipg. Rgr cmcipjg, co jh erhsc= "cjjh dgriéh hj iasig tacipg quc
áj jh iarhnh", jh erhsc "hj iasig tacipg quc", cs ushdh phrh fhkcr shncr hj jcktgr quc jgs fckfgs
ohrrhdgs gkurrco saiujtèochicotc.

 [a`og
 [a` ogss dc puotuh
uotuhkkaûo
;.6. ^ckursgs grtg`rèeakgs quc sc usho phrh kathr y/g rcshjthr aoegrihkaûo
aoegrihkaûo== 
kgiajjhs, dgs puotg
puotgs. s.
Cxastco co jh grtg`rheéh, fcrrhiacoths ýtajcs phrh rcshjthr hj`uoh kath tcxtuhj g coihrkhr hj`uoh erhsc
aipgrthotc dcotrg dc uo tcxtg. Cstgs rckursgs grtg`rèeakgs sgo=
Kgiajjhs {")= Cs uo sa`og grtg`rèeakg quc sc pgoc hj praokapag y hj eao dc jhs erhscs aokjuadhs kgig
kaths g cmcipjgs co uo tcxtg. Thinaáo sc cipjch phrh pgocr dc rcjacvc uoh phjhnrh g erhsc. Rgr
cmcipjg, co uo tcxtg kathigs h Fapûkrhtcs quaco sgstcoéh quc "crcs jg quc kgics".

5>

 
 Dgs puotgs (=)= Dctacoco cj daskursg phrh jjhihr jh htcokaûo sgnrc jg quc sa`uc. Kgig sa`og dc
puotuhkaûo, jgs dgs puotgs sc cskranco pc`hdgs h jh phjhnrh g sa`og quc jcs prckcdc, y scphrhdgs
pgr uo csphkag dc jh phjhnrh quc jc sa`uc. Rgr cmcipjg, co uo tcxtg cskranaigs quc jhs phrtcs dc uoh
sajjh sgo= phths, hsacotg y rcsphjdg.
;.1. Ssg dcj puotg y sc`uadg
sc`uadg y jh kgih phrh scphrhr
scphr hr grhkagocs co
co pèrrhegs.
Jgs pèrrhegs dc uo tcxtg sc kgipgoco dá grhkagocs fajhdhs g scphrhdhs pgr sa`ogs grtg`rèeakgs g
ocxgs, thj sch cj khsg. Co cj
cj khsg dc jh scphrhkaûo dc grhkagocs, tcocigs kgig
kgig rckursgs
rckur sgs grtg`rèeakgs=
Ruotg y sc`uadg= [cphrh couokahdgs dcotrg dcj iasig pèrrheg. [c kgjgkh phrh scphrhr couokahdgs
kuhodg tcriaoh uo pcragdg dcj tcxtg, oû sc khinah dc tcih pcrg tcriaoh uoh adch g hr`uicotg
dcotrg dcj iasig pèrrheg.
Jh kgih (,)= ^cprcscoth co jh cskraturh uoh phush nrcvc quc sc fhkc hj cskranar. [c kgjgkh phrh
scphrhr couokahdgs dc jh iasih adch g hr`uicotg.
;.82. Ssg dc jh kgih co jh gr`hoazhkaûo dc couicrhkagocs y 
kgostrukkagocs kggrdaohdhs.
Dcotrg dcj dcshrrgjjg dc uo tcxtg, co gkhsagocs cs ockcshrag aotrgdukar uoh couicrhkaûo dc
phjhnrhs quc vho ja`hdhs dcotrg dcj iasig grdco dc adchs. Co cstc khsg, cs kuhodg utajazhigs jh
kgih kgig sa`og
couicrhkaûo phrh
co uo scphrhrjh
tcxtg= "Fhnéhcouicrhkaûo dcschdh.shngrcs.
phjcths dc iukfgs Rgr cmcipjg,
Thjcssckgig
ush uoh erhsc quc
iho`g, ercsh,jjcvh uoh
icjûo,
shodéh, ctk."
;.88. Ssg dc jgs sa`ogs
sa`ogs dc puotuhkaûo iès erckucotc
erckucotcss co jgs tcxtgs 
tciètakgs= `uagocs, dgs puotgs, puotgs suspcosavgs, phráotcsas,  
sa`ogss dc aotcrrg`hkaûo y dc hdiarhkaûo.
sa`og
H kgotaouhkaûo cxpjakhrcigs nrcvcicotc jgs sa`ogs dc puotuhkaûo iès erckucotcs co jgs tcxtgs
tciètakgs.
@uagocs (-)= Cs uo sa`og grtg`rèeakg huxajahr egrihdg pgr uo trhzg fgrazgothj dc icogr jgo`atud quc
jh rhyh, y sus euokagocs thinaáo sgo dastaoths. Cj `uaûo og sc cskranc cotrc csphkags co njhokg< kgo
cxkcpkaûo dc kuhodg sc utajazh phrh scphrhr jhs séjhnhs dá uoh phjhnrh. Rgr cmcipjg sun-ao-da-kc.
Gtrh ihocrh dc ushrjg, cs phrh uoar dgs oginrcs dc pajh, kuhodg cj sc`uodg dc cjjgs pucdc
kgoeuodarsc kgo cj hpcjjadû, g phrh egrihr hpcjjadgs kgipucstgs pgr jh suih dc dgs saipjcs. Rgr
cmcipjg= Uhjjc-jokjèo.
Hdciès, cj `uaûo
`uaûo dc ush phrh csthnjckcr
csth njckcr rcjhkagocs cotrc
c otrc jgs
jgs kgokcptgs quc pucdco
pucdco scr eamg
eamgs,
s, g naco
karkuosthokahjcs. Co cstgs khsgs, cj `uaûo tacoc uo vhjgr dc cojhkc saiajhr hj dc uoh prcpgsakaûo g
uoh kgomuokaûo. Rgr cmcipjg, fasphog-fhnjhotc.
Dgs puotgs {=). [a`og grtg`rèeakg kgo cj quc sc aodakh fhncr tcriaohdg cj scotadg `rhihtakhj pcrg
og cj scotadg jû`akg. [c pgoc thinaáo hotás dc tgdh kath dc phjhnrhs hmcohs g aotcrkhjhdhs co cj
tcxtg.

5;

 
 Ruotgs suspcosavgs (...). [a`og grtg`rèeakg kgo quc sc dcogth qucdhr aokgipjctg cj scotadg dc uoh
grhkaûo. [c ush thinaáo phrh aodakhr tcigr, dudh g jg aocspcrhdg y cxtrhøg dc jg quc sc fh dc
cspcrhr dcsp
dcspuás.
uás.
Rhráotcsas= [go sa`ogs grtg`rèeakgs quc cokacrrho cjcicotgs aokadcothjcs g hkjhrhtgrags aotcrkhjhdgs
co uo couokahdg, yh scho nrcvcs g jhr`gs. [c cskranco sao csphkag cotrc cj praokapag y cj eaohj dc jhs
phjhnrhs quc jaiatho jh hkjhrhkaûo. Rgr cmcipjg, co jh erhsc= "cj phpè dc phnjg (quc saciprc sgøû
kgo arh Curgph) phrckéh dcshoaihdg kgo jh khokcjhkaûo dcj vahmc".
[a`ogs dc aotcrrg`hkaûo (·7)= [a`og grtg`rèeakg quc sc pgoc hj praokapag y hj eaohj dc jh phjhnrh g
kjèusujh kgo quc sc prc`uoth. [c ush uog dc jgs sa`ogs phrh hnrar hj praokapag dc jh erhsc (·) y gtrg
phrh kcrrhrjh (7).
(7 ). Rgr cmcipjg= ·Rgrquc fhkcs cstg
cstg77
[a`ogs dc hdiarhkaûo (¡!)= [a`og grtg`rèeakg quc sc pgoc hotcs y dcspuás dc jhs kjèusujhs g phjhnrhs
phrh cxprcshr hdiarhkaûo, qucmh, jèstaih, phrh jjhihr jh htcokaûo fhkah hj`g, pgodcrhrjg g phrh
dcogthr áoehsas. [c kgjgkho dgs sa`ogs, uog quc hnrc (a) y gtrg quc kacrrh (!). Rgr cmcipjg, co jh
erhsc= ¡quá déh iès fcrigsg!

Grhkagocs
;.8>. Grhkagocs praokaphjcs y sckuodhrahs.

Co jgs tcxtgs
hqucjjhs quc, cokgotrhigs grhkagocs
co jhs grhkagocs praokaphjcs
kgipucsths, y sckuodhrahs.
cxprcsho cj muakag Jhs grhkagocs ypraokaphjcs
euodhicothj< sgo
jhs grhkagocs
sckuodhrahs, sgo jhs grhkagocs quc dcpcodco dc jh praokaphj. Rgr cmcipjg, co jh erhsc= "vgy h ar hj
kgokacrtg, huoquc og quacrhs quc vhyh", jh grhkaûo "vgy h ar hj kgokacrtg", cs jh grhkaûo praokaphj
pucs sustcoth jh hkkaûo praokaphj quc dh vadh h jh erhsc y dcspuás dcj ocxg "huoquc", cokgotrhigs
jh grhkaûo "og ic dcmcs", quc sûjg cokucotrh scotadg huohdh h jh erhsc praokaphj.
;.8;. Couokahdgs quc aotrgdukco aoegrihkaûo= grhkagocs tcièta tciètakhs
khs g jhs
jhs  
dceaoakagocs.
Cxastco grhkagocs quc hpgrtho aoegrihkaûo hj tcxtg quc sc cskranc, cstc cs cj khsg dc jhs grhkagocs
tciètakhs g jhs dceaoakagocs.

Grhkaûo
cxprcsh cjtciètakh= Soh
kgotcoadg dcjgrhkaûo
iasig tciètakh cs hqucjjh
y dctcriaoh cj grdcopraokaphj co uo pèrrheg,
dc jhs grhkagocs pucstg quc cs jh quc
sckuodhrahs.
Dceaoakagocs= [go grhkagocs quc cxpgoco kgo kjhradhd y cxhktatud jgs khrhktcrcs `coárakgs y
daecrcokahjcs dc hj`g ihtcrahj g aoihtcrahj. Cxpjakho dc ihocrh kgokrcth, jg quc cs g sa`oaeakh hj`g.
;.84. Couokahdgs quc hipjého jh aoegrihkaûo= cxpjakhkagocs y cmcipjgs.
Cxastco grhkagocs dcotrg dcj tcxtg quc sarvco phrh hdfcrar aoegrihkaûo h jgs pèrrhegs dc uo tcxtg.
Ásths pucdco scr cxpjakhkagocs y cmcipjgs.
Cxpjakhkagocs= [go grhkagocs quc dctcriaoho g hkjhrho jh aoegrihkaûo kgotcoadh co gtrh grhkaûo g
phjhnrh dcotrg dcj tcxtg.

Cmcipjgs= [go grhkagocs quc sc katho phrh kgiprgnhr g ajustrhr jg sustcothdg co uoh grhkaûo
hotcragr.

54

 
 ;.83. Euokagocs scièotak
scièotakhs
hs d
dcj
cj prcscotc saipjc dcj aodakhtavg=
aodakhtavg= F
Fhnat
hnatuhj
uhj,, 
fastûrakg, htcipgrhj.
Kuhodg cskranaigs, dcncigs vhjcrogs dc jh `rhiètakh phrh jg`rhr quc jhs adchs pjhotchdhs co uo
tcxtg scho cotcodanjcs pgr jgs jcktgrcs h jhs quc vho dara`adhs. Co cstc kgotcxtg, ushr kgrrckthicotc
jgs tacipgs vcrnhjcs cs dc vathj aipgrthokah phrh jg`rhr oucstrg gnmctavg. Thj cs cj khsg dcj prcscotc
saipjc dcj aodakhtavg, dcj kuhj, hohjazhrcigs= cj fhnatuhj, fastûrakg y htcipgrhj.

Fhnatuhj=
"ic vgy h[cdgriar
ush phrh aodakhrhuoh
saciprc jhs rcpctakaûo dc hkkagocs
gkfg", couokahdg g prgkcsgs
co quc qucuoh
sc aodakh sc rchjazho.
hkkaûo qucRgr sc
cmcipjg=
rcpatc
fhnatuhjicotc.
Fastûrakg= Cs uoh egrih tépakh dc jgs fckfgs fastûrakgs y ohrrhtavgs quc sc ush phrh aodakhr fckfgs
phshdgs. Rgr cmcipjg co jh erhsc= "co 8161, khc cj iurg dc Ncrjéo", jh phjhnrh "khc" cs utajazhdh phrh
aoecrar uo fckfg phshdg.
Htcipgrhj= Cs utajazhdg co grhkagocs quc og ockcshrahicotc cxprcsho jaiathkaûo tcipgrhj co quc
sc rchjazh jh hkkaûo. Rgr cmcipjg, co jh erhsc= "uo nuco usg dc jh jcy cs Aipcrhtavg".

4. Tapgs dc tcxtgs
^ckursgs jao`úéstakgs
4.8. Igdgs d dcc pjhotchr, cxpjakhr y hr`uicoth
hr`uicothrr jhs adchs co daecrcotcs
daecrcotcs  
tcxtgs.
Dcncigs dctcriaohr cj tapg dc tcxtg quc dcschigs cjhngrhr phrh hsé utajazhr cj pjhotchiacotg
kgrrcktg. Cstc tcih sc rceacrc h quc dcpcodacodg dcj tcxtg quc sc dcsch cjhngrhr, dcncigs cskg`cr
jh icmgr egrih dc pjhsihr jhs adchs. [a cj tcxtg cs uoh ogtakah,
ogtaka h, dcncigs pjhotc
pjhotchr
hr jhs adchs co taci
tacipg
pg
phshdg, hr`uicothr jhs iasihs, sao oao`ýo tapg dc gpaoaûo y ushodg jco`uhmc quc aipjaquc dhr h
kgogkcr jgs fckfgs hj jcktgr. Rhrh cstg utajazhigs cj pjhotchiacotg, jh cxpjakhkaûo y jh
hr`uicothkaûo.
Cj pjhotchiacotg. Rjhotchr sa`oaeakh prgpgocr, suskathr g cxpgocr uo prgnjcih ihtciètakg, uo
tcih, uoh daeakujthd, uoh rcegrih, ctk. Cj pjhotchiacotg cs cj hktg dc pgocr dc ihoaeacstg icdahotc

uo cskratg, uoh satuhkaûo, uo prgnjcih, ctk., h uo jcktgr.

Jh cxpjakhkaûo. Cxpjakhr cs cj hktg icdahotc cj kuhj sc dajukadh cj scotadg dc uoh cxprcsaûo
phrherhschodg cj scotadg dcj sa`oaeakhdg. Jh cxpjakhkaûo tacoc kgig gnmctg dc cstudag cj sa`oaeakhdg
dcj vgkhnjg g jh grhkaûo. Icdahotc jh cxpjakhkaûo aotcothigs quc jg quc sc kgotacoc co uoh erhsc,
qucdc cxprcshdh dc ihocrh iès kjhrh.
Jh hr`uicothkaûo. Kgosastc co utajazhr uo rhzgohiacotg quc sc cipjch phrh prgnhr g dcigstrhr
uoh prgpgsakaûo, g naco phrh kgovcokcr h hj`uaco dc hqucjjg quc sc hearih g sc oac`h dcotrg dc uoh
tcxtg.
4.>. Ssg dc hdmctavgs, phrtakapags y hpgsakagocs co jh dcskrapkaûo d
dcc 
pcrsgohmcs.
Cxastcodcsch
hutgr tcxtgsdcskranar.
quc rcjhtho hj`uoh
H cstc satuhkaûo
rcspcktg co jh quc phrtakapho
cs aipcrhtavg uog g dc
cj usg kgrtcktg ièsjgsaodavadugs,
hdmctavgs jgs kuhjcs, cjy
phrtakapags
hpgsakagocs quc dcskranarcigs h kgotaouhkaûo.

53

 
 Hdmctavg= Cs jh phrtc dc jh grhkaûo quc khjaeakh g dctcriaoh hj susthotavg. Cstg quacrc dckar quc cs jh
phjhnrh quc dakc kgig
kgig cs jh kgsh, jh pcrsgoh, cj hoaihj, ctk.,
ctk. , dcj quc csthigs fhnjhodg. Rgr cmcipjg,
co cj couokahdg= "jh khsh cs cogric", jh phjhnrh "cogric" cs cj hdmctavg quc dctcriaoh jg quc cj
hutgr dcsch dcskranar dc jh khsh.
Rhrtakapag= Cs uoh dc jhs egrihs og pcrsgohjcs dcj vcrng. Cs uo hdmctavg vcrnhj quc fhkc quc cj vcrng
sch suskcptanjc dc rckanar ihrkhs dc `áocrg y ouicrg. Cstg quacrc dckar quc dc hkucrdg hj vcrng
pgdcigs dctcriaohr sa cs ecicoaog, ihskujaog, pjurhj g sao`ujhr. Rgr cmcipjg, co jh erhsc= "csgs
igicotgs sgøhdgs", jh phjhnrh "sgøhdgs" dctcriaoh cj `áocrg ihskujaog y cj pjurhj.
Hpgsakaûo= Cs uoh kgostrukkaûo `rhihtakhj co jh quc uo susthotavg g uo `rupg ogiaohj sa`uc
aoicdahthicotc,
aoicdahth icotc, kgo hutgogiéh tgohj,
tgoh j, h gtrg cjcicotg dc jh i
iasih
asih kjhsc phrh cxpjakhr hj`g rcjhtavg
h áj. Cs dckar, sc cxpjakho co uoh iasih erhsc dgs g iès kgodakagocs rcjhtavhs hj iasig sumctg. Rgr
cmcipjg= "Ihrkgs? ngincrg dc prgecsaûo, sc hkcrkû phrh aotcothr hyudhr".
4.;. Ssg dcj tacipg phshdg
phshdg phrh ohrrhr sukcsgs.
CÉ kgrrcktg usg dc ags tacipgs vcrnhjcs jc dh sa`oaeakhdg h jg quc sc cskranc. Hj ohrrhr jgs fckfgs
gkurradgs sc ush cj tacipg phshdg pucstg quc dctcriaoh quc jgs fckfgs quc sc pjhsiho co cj tcxtg
gkurracrgo hotcragricotc, cs dckar, jgs fckfgs sgo
sgo   hotcragrcs hj tacipg co quc sc cokucotrh cj
jcktgr.

Dcncigs pgocr cspckahj htcokaûo co jh kgomu`hkaûo dc jgs vcrngs dcotrg dc uo pèrrheg, pucstg quc
og dcncigs rchjazhr kgomu`hkagocs co dastaotgs tacipgs phrh og kgoeuodar hj jcktgr.
4.4. Ssg dcj kgprctáratg phrh
phrh dcskranar satuhkagocs dcj khrhktcrazhr 
dcj egodg û khrhktcrazhr 
pcrsgohmcs.
Cj tacipg kgprctáratg, sc ush phrh cxprcshr=
Soh hkkaûo phshdh quc sukcdaû hj iasig tacipg quc gtrh, kgig pgr cmcipjg= "cjjh kgrraû,
iacotrhs yg ic qucdá htûoatg"
- Soh hkkaûo quc og sc shnc kuèodg tcr tcriaoû
iaoû g quc og fh kgokjuadg,
kgokj uadg, pgr cmcipjg=
cmcipj g= "muho
trhnhmhnh co cj iasig ju`hr quc Juas"
Hsé iasig sarvc phrh dcskranar satuhkagocs dc egodg g khrhktcrazhr pcrsgohmcs, cs dckar,
scøhjh hqucjjgs hspcktgs g rhs`gs quc daecrcokaho h uo pcrsgohmc dc gtrgs. Rgr cmcipjg=
"cjjh sc vcéh naco, iuy h pcshr dc jh coecricdhd quc jc hthkhnh".

Tcxtgs
Tcxtgs aaoegrihtavgs
oegrihtavgs
4.3. Rrgpûsatgs dc jgs tcxtgs aoegrihtavgs.
Jgs tcxtgs aoegrihtavgs, sgo tcxtgs quc sc cskranco kgo cj èoaig dc aoegrihr hj jcktgr, sgnrc hj`ýo
tcih co phrtakujhr,
phrtakuj hr, co egrih gnmctavh y vcrédakh.
vcrédak h. Cj hutgr sûjg pjhsih
pjhsih cj fckfg kgo cj ýoakg prgpûsatg
dc trhosiatar uoh aoegrihkaûo hj jcktgr, sao vcrtcr co csth, gpaoaûo, puotg dc vasth g hprckahkaûo
hj`uoh. [c dcnc ihotcocr co tgdg igicotg jh gnmctavadhd dcj hutgr.

55

 
 Dgkuicotgs
Dgkuicotgs jc`
jc`hj
hjcs
cs y hd
hdiaoa
iaoastr
strhta
htavgs
vgs
4.5. Rrgpûsatg dc jgs tcxtgs jc`hjcs y hdiaoastrhtavgs.
Jgs tcxtgs jc`hjcs, sgo tgdgs hqucjjgs tcxtgs quc tacoco quc vcr darckth g aodarckthicotc kgo uoh
jcy. [go tcxtgs quc cxpjakho uoh jcy (murasprudcokah), quc daktho uoh rcsgjukaûo nhshdh co uoh jcy
(scotcokah), g quc sustcoth g cxpjakh uoh jcy (jcy sckuodhrah), ctk.
Cstgs tcxtgs tacoco uo prgpûsatg daecrcotc dcpcodacodg dc jhs khrhktcréstakhs dc khdh uog, pucstg
quc co uogs khsgs uo tcxtg jc`hj pucdc scr ushdg kgo cj prgpûsatg dc rc`ujhr uoh hktavadhd co
phrtakujhr,
phrtakuj hr, kgig pgr cmcipjg
cmcipjg jh jcy ecdcrhj dcj trhnhmg,
trhnhmg , tacoc pgr gnmctg dhr h kgogkcr uoh rcsgjukaûo
dc uo mucz, kgig pgr cmcipjg uo hkucrdg< g aokjusg aipgocr shokagocs pgr vagjhr hj`ýo prckcptg
jc`hj, kgig pgr cmcipjg cj kûda`g pcohj, cj gnmctavg dc cstc tapg dc tcxtgs cs tho vhrahdg kgig jh
jhs rcjhkagocs quc cxastc cotrc jgs cskratgs y jhs jcycs.
Jgs tcxtgs hdiaoastrhtavgs sgo tgdgs hqucjjgs tcxtgs quc sarvco phrh csthnjckcr rcjhkagocs dc
kgiuoakhkaûo cotrc jgs daecrcotcs gr`hoasigs dc jh hdiaoastrhkaûo pýnjakh, cotrc jgs kaudhdhogs y
jh hdiaoastrhkaûo g cotrc aostatukagocs pravhdhs y jh hdiaoastrhkaûo. Tacoco pgr gnmctg fhkcr hj`uoh
pctakaûo, kgotc
kg otcsth
sthrjh
rjh iasih
iasih pctakaûo,
pctaka ûo, fhkcr
fh kcr hj`uoh
hj`uoh hkjhrhkaûo, uoh dcouokah, ctk
ctk.?
.? co rcsuico tgdgs
hqucjjgs hsuotgs quc hthøco h jh hdiaoastrhkaûo pýnjakh y sus euokagocs.
4.0. Ssg y euokaûo dc jgs vcrngs= dcncr, pgdcr, tcocr y fhncr quc.
Cj vcrng dcncr  aipjakh
 aipjakh jh gnja`hkaûo
gnja`hkaûo quc sc tacoc h hj`g pgr uoh
uoh jcy
j cy davaoh, ohtur
oht urhé
hé g p
pgsatavh.
gsatavh. [c dc
dcnc
nc
utajazhr sûjg kuhodg cspckéeakhicotc sc aotcotc cxpjakhr quc cj pcrsgohmc cstè gnja`hdg h rchjazhr
uoh hkkaûo.
Cj vcrng pgdcr   dcskranc jh ehkujthd g pgtcokah dc fhkcr hj`g. [c dcnc utajazhr sûjg phrh fhkcr
rcecrcokah h hkkagocs quc sc tacoco jh ehkujthd dc rchjazhr.
Cj vcrng tcocr   pucdc scr ushdg dcotrg dc jgs tcxtgs dc iukfhs y iuy vhrahdhs ihocrhs kgig
vcrcigs h kgotaouhkaûo=
- [c pucdc hpjakh
hpj akhrh
rh pgsccr hj`g,
hj`g, pgr cmcipjg= "áj tacoc jgs
jgs dgkuicotgs co su pgdcr".
[c hpjakh kgig saoûoaig dc jh phjhnrh ihotcocr. Rgr cmcipjg co jh grhkaûo= "tacoc cj hrih

co jh ihog
Thinaáo sc dcrckfh".
pucdc cokgotrhr co jh egrih dc kgotcocr g kgiprcodcr co sé. Rgr cmcipjg co
cj couokahdg= "jh nanjagtckh tacoc kcrkh dc iaj vgjýicocs".
[c cokucotrh thinaáo co `uhrdhr uoh prgicsh. Kgig pgr cmcipjg co jh erhsc= "kuadhrá dc
cjjh, tacocs ia phjhnrh".
Kuhodg sc dcsch muz`hr g kgosadcrhr h hj`uaco. Rgr cmcipjg co jh erhsc= "quc ihjg rcsujtû
cj scøgr, jg tcoéh pgr nucog".
Hj rcecrarsc h hj`ýo csphkag dc tacipg g ju`hr dctcriaohdg. Co cj praicr khsg uo cmcipjg
scréh= "tco`g uo déh hnurradg". Co cj khsg dcj ju`hr dctcriaohdg, uo cmcipjg jg cokgotrhigs
co jh erhsc= "tcodrá ias vhkhkagocs co Jgodrcs".
[c dcnc tcocr kuadhdg dc hpjakhr cj vcrng tcocr  hdckuhdhicotc
 hdckuhdhicotc co jgs tcxtgs, phrh pjhsihr jh adch

dcj
dcj tcxtg kjhrh y kgrrckthicotc.

50

 
 Cj vcrng fhncr  cs
  cs cj iès Aipgrthotc dc jgs vcrngs utajazhdgs kgig huxajahr dc jgs dciès vcrngs.
Tacoc uoh `rho davcrsadhd dc sa`oaeakhdgs cotrc jgs quc sc cokucotrho= pgsccr, tcocr, hpgdcrhrsc,
hkhckcr, gkurrar,
gku rrar, cecktuhrsc
cecktuhrsc,, csthr fhjjhrsc, cx
cxastar,
astar, fhkcr y prgkc
prgkcdcr.
dcr. Tgdg
Tgdgss cstgs ssa`oaeakhd
a`oaeakhdgs
gs fhk
fhkco
co
quc fhyh quc pgocr cspckahj kuadhdg co cj usg dc cstc vcrng co jgs tcxtgs.
Fhncr quc, sc ush kuhodg sc dcsch cxprcshr quc cs ockcshrag g kgovcoacotc hqucjjg quc cxprcsh cj
vcrng g kjèusujh sa`uacotc. Kgig cmcipjg, tgihrcigs jhs erhscs sa`uacotcs= "fhnrè quc shkhr h
phschr hj pcrrg", "fhy quc vcr quá sc fhkc", "fhy quc tcocr phkacokah".

Tcxtgs
Tcxtgs pcragd
pcra gdéé sta
stakg
kgss
4.6. Rrgpûsatgs dc jhs ogtakahs, rcpgrthmcs y hrtékujgs dc gpagpaoaûo.
oaûo.
Rhrh trhosiatar fckfgs hj jcktgr dc ihocrh kgrrckth, sc dcnc dastao`uar dc ihocrh hkcrthdh, cotrc
uo rcpgrthmc, uoh ogtakah y uo hrtékujg dc gpaoaûo.
Ogtakah= Cs cj kgotcoadg dc uoh kgiuoakhkaûo, hotcs dcskgogkadh. Cs cj tcxtg icdahotc cj kuhj, cj
hutgr aoegrih kgo cj icogr oýicrg dc phjhnrhs pgsanjcs jg euodhicothj dc uo fckfg g uoh
satuhkaûo. [c dcnc pgocr cspckahj htcokaûo co jh gnmctavadhd dcj hutgr, cs dckar, quc cj hutgr og
vacrtc su gpaoaûo pcrsgohj, sûjg sc jaiath h pjhsihr cj fckfg phrh fhkcrjg dcj kgogkaiacotg dcj
jcktgr.
^cpgrthmc= Cs uo trhnhmg pcragdéstakg, kaocihtg`rèeakg, ctk., dc khrèktcr aoegrihtavg. Cs uoh
ohrrhkaûo hipjahdh, cxfhustavh y dgkuicothdh dc uo sukcsg. Cxpgoc dcthjjhdhicotc dcskrapkagocs
dc ju`hrcs, sukcsgs pcrsgohs y fckfgs. Co gkhsagocs sc kgipjcicoth kgo aiè`cocs, h eao dc fhkcr
iès kgiprcosanjc cj icoshmc. [c daecrcokah darckthicotc dc jh ogtakah co quc jh adch dc uo
rcpgrthmc cs aoegrihr hj jcktgr dc uoh ihocrh iès kgipjcth.
Hrtékujg dc gpaoaûo
gpaoaûo== Cs uo tcxtg dcotrg dcj kuhj sc vacrtc jh gpaoaûo dcj hutgr, sgnrc uo fckfg g uoh
satuhkaûo. Cstc cskratg khrckc dc gnmctavadhd y co gkhsagocs dc khrèktcr aoegrihtavg, pucstg quc jh
eaohjadhd og cs aoegrihr, saog fhkcr dcj kgogkaiacotg dcj jcktgr jh gpaoaûo quc cj prgpag hutgr tacoc
sgnrc cj fckfg dcj quc cskranc.
4.1. Daecrcokahs cotrc fckfgs, gpaoagocs, kgicothrags y vhjgrhk
vhjgrhkagocs=
agocs=  
cxprcsagocs quc dastao`uco jh gpaoaûo pcrsgohj= krcg quc, co ia 
ia 
gpaoaûo, pacosg quc, dc hkucrdg kgo,
k go, sa`uacodg jh gpaoaûo dc, sc krcc
krcc  
quc.
Kgicozhrcig
Kgicozhrcigss pgr csthnjckcr jhs daecrcokahs cotr
cotrc=
c= fckfgs
fckfgs gpaoagocs y vhjgrhkagocs.
Fckfgs= So fckfg cs uoh kgsh quc sukcdc. Cs uoh hkkaûo cmckuthdh, uo hkgotckaiacotg gkurradg,
prcscothdg
prcscothdg gnmctav
gnmctavhicotc,
hicotc, kuyh khrhktcrés
khrhktcréstakh
takh praokap
praokaphj
hj cs quc cs dcigstrhnjc
dcigstrhnjc..
Gpaoagocs= Soh gpaoaûo cs uo muakag quc uoh pcrsgoh fhkc sgnrc hj`uaco g hj`g co phrtakujhr.
Uhjgrhkagocs= Soh vhjgrhkaûo cs cj rckgogkaiacotg, cstaihkaûo g hprckahkaûo dc hj`uaco g hj`g. [c
utajazh kuhodg cj hutgr dcsch fhkcr uo muakag vhjgrhtavg dcotrg dcj dcshrrgjjg dcj tcxtg.
Jhs cxprcsagocs quc dastao`uco jh gpaoaûo pcrsgohj, dcnco scr ushdhs dcotrg dc jgs tcxtgs dc
ihocrh kjhrh y hdckuhdh. H kgotaouhkaûo fhrcigs uo rcsuico dc jh ihocrh kgrrckth dc ushr khdh
uoh dc csths.

56

 
 "Krcg quc"= Csth cxprcsaûo sc utajazh kuhodg og sc cstè sc`urg dc jh gpaoaûo quc sc vh h vcrtcr co cj
tcxtg. Cxprcsh quc cj hutgr tacoc pgr kacrth dakfh gpaoaûo. Rgr cmcipjg, kuhodg og sc cstè sc`urg dc
uo hkgotckaiacotg= "krcg quc og euc pcohj".
"Co ia gpaoaûo"= Csth cxprcsaûo sc utajazh kuhodg cj hutgr dcsch aotrgdukar uo dakthico g muakag
sgnrc hj`ýo tcih co phrtakujhr trhthdg co cj tcxtg. Rgr cmcipjg co jh erhsc= "co ia gpaoaûo, og
icrckéh `hohr cj phrtadg".

"Racosg
sgnrc quc"=tcih.
hj`ýo [c cipjch csth cxprcsaûo
Rgr cmcipjg kuhodg cj"pacosg
co cj couokahdg= hutgr dcsch aotrgdukar
quc ástc cs uohhjtcih
tcxtgkgotrgvcrtadg".
uoh kgosadcrhkaûo

"Dc hkucrdg kgo"= Csth cxprcsaûo sc utajazh kuhodg cj hutgr dcsch aotrgdukar hj tcxtg uoh rcecrcokah
sgnrc uo phrtakujhr. Rgr cmcipjg co cj couokahdg= "cs dcjatg dc hkucrdg kgo jg csthnjckadg co cj
kûda`g pcohj".
"[a`uacodg jh gpaoaûo dc"= Co cstc khsg jh cxprcsaûo cs utajazhdh phrh aotc`rhr hj tcxtg jh gpaoaûo dc
gtrh pcrsgoh, Rgr cmcipjg co jh erhsc= "sa`uacodg jh gpaoaûo dcj jakcokahdg Ihrkgs Uhjdcz, quaco
hearih quc cj trhthdg dc janrc kgicrkag cs dhøaog phrh jh ckgogiéh ohkagohj, pgdcigs hearihr
quc...".
"[c krcc quc"= [c utajazh csth cxprcsaûo phrh aodakhr co cj tcxtg, quc hj`uohs pcrsgohs tacoco pgr
kacrtg hj`g quc cj cotcodaiacotg og hjkhozh g quc og cstè kgiprgnhdg g dcigstrhdg. Rgr cmcipjg
co jh erhsc= "sc krcc quc cstc aovacrog og fhrè thotg eraû kgig cj hotcragr".

Tcxtgs punjakathrags
4.82.. Euokaûo c aiphktg dc jh punjakadhd co jh
4.82 jh sgkacdhd.
Jh punjakadhd sc dceaoc kgig jh davuj`hkaûo dc ogtakahs g houokags dc khrèktcr kgicrkahj phrh htrhcr
pgsanjcs kgiprhdgrcs, cspckthdgrcs g usuhrags.
Jh euokaûo dc jh punjakadhd cs aoegrihr jhs kuhjadhdcs dc hj`ýo prgduktg g scrvakag kgo cj eao dc
vcodcr cj prgduktg dcj quc sc fhnjh. Tacoc kgig khrhktcréstakhs praigrdahjcs nraodhr aoegrihkaûo
sgnrc uo prgduktg g scrvakag c aotcothr pcrsuhdar h jhs pcrsgohs h jhs quc vh dara`adh, dc gntcocr
dakfg prgduktg g scrvakag.
Cj aiphktg quc tacoc dcpcodc dcj hjkhokc dc dakfh punjakadhd, h ihygr hjkhokc, ihygr aiphktg. Rgr
cmcipjg, cj aiphktg pucdc jjc`hr dcsdc sgjg gerckcr uo prgduktg fhsth krchr uoh rchkkaûo co ihsh
y su kgosa`uacotc rcspucsth kgosuiasth.
4.88. Cxh`crhkaûo dc jhs kuhjadhdcs
kuhjadh dcs dcj prgduktg.
Kgo cj heèo dc vcodcr uo prgduktg, jhs pcrsgohs cokhr`hdhs dc punjakathr cj iasig aotcotho dgthrjg
dc uohs khrhktcréstakhs ýoakhs, jjc`hodg co gkhsagocs h cxh`crhr jhs iasihs.
[c pacrdc cj scotadg dc jh punjakadhd kuhodg jh cxh`crhkaûo dc jhs kuhjadhdcs dc uo prgduktg fhkco
quc cj pýnjakg hj quc vho dara`adhs, dastgrsagoc jh pcrkcpkaûo rchj quc sc dcnc tcocr dcj iasig.
Csth prèktakh, sc cokucotrh rc`ujhdh pgr jhs jcycs co oucstrg phés, yh quc vujocrh jgs dcrckfgs dc
jgs kgosuiadgrcs hj gerckcr kgshs arrchjcs.

51

 
 KACOKAH[ AA (EÉ[AKH)
8. Cj igvaiacotg.
igvai acotg. Jh dcskrapkaûo
dcskrapka ûo dc jjgs
gs khinags
khin ags dc jh ohturh
ohturhjczh
jczh
8.8. Kgokcptgs dc vcjgkadhd y rhpad
rhpadcz.
cz.
Kgtadahohicotc, ogs rcecraigs h vcjgkadhd y rhpadcz kgig saoûoaigs, phrckacrh quc fhnjhigs dcj
iasig ecoûicog, sao cinhr`g dcncigs daecrcokahr y dceaoar khdh uog dc cstgs kgokcptgs phrh hsé
pgdcr kgiprcodcr y daecrcokahr jgs iasigs.

^hpadcz. Jh rhpadcz cs jh icdadh quc ogs dakc dasthokah

quc tho hprash sc iucvc uo gnmctg, cs jh ^ h p a d c z   9
tacipg
dasthokah rckgrradh pgr uoh uoadhd dc tacipg.
Ucjgkadhd. Cs jh dasthokah rckgrradh pgr uo gnmctg co uoh darckkaûo dctcriaohdh, co uoh uoadhd dc
tacipg. Rgdréhigs dckar quc vcjgkadhd cs uoh rhpadcz pcrg kgo darckkaûo dctcriaohdh.
Co cj kgokcptg dc
dc vcjgkadhd, h daecrcoka
daecrcokahh dcj dc rhpadcz aokjuyc uoh vhrahot
vhrahotcc iès quc cs jh darckkaûo,
juc`g cotgokcs cj kgokcptg dc vcjgkadhd kgosadcrh jh darckkaûo y cj scotadg dcj igvaiacotg,
iacotrhs quc cj dc rhpadcz og dcpcodc dc jh darckkaûo dcj igvaiacotg dcj kucrpg.
Rgr cmcipjg= sa dckaigs quc uoh igtgocth vahmh h 42 li/f, fhnjhigs dc su rhpadcz, pcrg sa dckaigs
quc jh iasih igtgocth vahmh h 42 li/f fhkah cj ogrtc, cotgokcs fhnjhigs dc vcjgkadhd.
8.>. Tapgs ddcc igvaiacotgs ddcc jgs gnmctgs co `rèeakhs dc pgsakaûo
pgsakaûo-tacipg.
-tacipg.
Cxastco vhrags tapgs dc igvaiacotgs, kgig pgr cmcipjg= Igvaiacotg ^cktajéocg Soaegric (I^S) cj
Igvaiacotg ^cktajéocg Soaegric Hkcjcrhdg (I^SH), Igvaiacotg Karkujhr Soaegric (IKS),
Igvaiacotg Rhrhnûjakg (IR), Igvaiacotg Hriûoakg (IH), Igvaiacotg Godujhtgrag (IG), ctk.
Cstgs tapgs dc igvaiacotg, fho sadg, h trhvás dcj tacipg, gnmctg dc cstudag dc jh eésakh, yh quc cstgs
ogs prgpgrkagoho uo kgomuotg dc dhtgs y sgo suskcptanjcs dc `rheakhrsc c aodakho jh trhycktgrah dc
uo gnmctg. H kgotaouhkaûo, hohjazhrcigs hj`uogs dc cjjgs.

Igvaiacotg ^cktajéocg Soaegric

(I^S). Cstc tapg dc igvaiacotg
dcskranc jh trhycktgrah dc uo gnmctg
co jéoch rckth kgo vcjgkadhd
kgosthotc. Cs cj igvaiacotg iès
scokajjg quc sc pucdc cokgotrhr co
uoh `rèeakh pgsakaûo tacipg. Cstc
tapg dc igvaiacotg sc pucdc
`rheakhr dc jh sa`uacotc ihocrh=

02

 
 Igvaiacotg godujhtgrag. Soh godh cs uo ecoûicog quc sc rcpatc dc ihocrh rc`ujhr y quc hjtcrh
hj icdag quc jh rgdch durhotc uo tacipg, co cj quc jh godh sc prgph`h. Jg pckujahr dc jhs godhs cs
quc og trhospgrtho gnmctgs g pcrsgohs, cs dckar, og trhospgrtho ihtcrah sa og cocr`éh.
Jh aoegrihkaûo quc cskukfhigs co cj rhdag, jgs prg`rhihs dc tcjcvasaûo, jhs kgiuoakhkagocs véh
kcjujhr, g cj aotcroct tacoco hj`g co kgiýo, utajazho cj igvaiacotg godujhtgrag, cs dckar, cj
igvaiacotg dc godhs phrh prgph`hrsc.
Jh hjtcrhkaûo quc igdaeakh tcipgrhjicotc cj icdag pgr cj kuhj jh godh sc prgph`h sc kgogkc kgig
pcrturnhkaûo. Cj cmcipjg iès scokajjg jg cokgotrhigs kuhodg jhozhigs uoh pacdrh hj jh`g. Co cstc
khsg cj h`uh dcj jh`g cs cj icdag quc rcsujth pcrturnhdg pgr jh pacdrh.
Jhs pcrturnhkagocs quc sc vho prgph`èodgsc co cj jh`g sc jc kgogkco kgo cj oginrc dc godhs y og
trhospgrtho cj h`uh, sa og cocr`éh. Cj igvaiacotg quc sunc y nhmh dcj h`uh sc jc kgogkc kgig
vanrhkaûo. [a csth vanrhkaûo tacodc h scr pcrpcodakujhr h jh darckkaûo co quc sc prgph`ho jhs godhs,
cj igvaiacotg
igvaiacotg rckanc cj ogioginrc
nrc dc igvaiacotg godujhtgr
godujhtgrag ag trhosvcr
trh osvcrshj.
shj. [a jh pcrturnhka
pcrturnhkaûo
ûo khu
khush
sh
quc cj icdag vanrc co darckkaûo phrhjcjh h cjjh, cj igvaiacotg rckanc cj oginrc dc igvaiacotg
godujhtgrag jgo`atudaohj.
Jéoch dc cquajanrag= 
cquajanrag=  kgrrcspgodc hj csthdg dc rcpgsg dcj icdag, hotcs dc prgdukarsc jh godh g
kuhodg ásth yh fh dctcoadg su igvaiacotg.
Jgo`atud dc godh= sc
godh= sc rcprcscoth kgo jh jctrh "e" y cs cj oýicrg dc godhs ciatadhs co uo aotcrvhjg
dc tacipg dceaoadg. Jh erckucokah sc iadc co kakjgs pgr sc`uodgs (kakjgs/s) g co fcrkags (Fz), jgs
kuhjcs dcnco su oginrc h Fcory Fcrtz (8630-8614), eésakg hjcièo.
Rcrégdg= cs cj tacipg quc sc thrdh co kgipjcthrsc uo kakjg dc godh sgogrh, y cstc h su vcz pcriatc
Rcrégdg= cs
khjkujhr jh erckucokah g vckcs quc sc rcpatc jh godh co uo sc`uadg. Csth khrhktcréstakh ogs pcriatc
dastao`uar cj tainrc dc uo sgoadg kgo rcspcktg h gtrg.
Ogdg= cs cj puotg dgodc jh godh kgaokadc kgo cj vhjgr prgicdag dc jh vanrhkaûo. Co cstc puotg jh
Ogdg= cs
godh tacoc uoh hipjatud oujh.
Cjgo`hkaûo=   cs jh dasthokah
Cjgo`hkaûo=
cotrc
godh ykuhjquacr puotg
su puotg dc dc jh
cquajanrag.
JGO@ATSD DC GODH

 Hipjatud dc godh=godh=   cs jh
ièxaih cjgo`hkaûo g
hjcmhiacotg
hjcmh iacotg dc su pgsakaûo dc
cquajanrag quc hjkhozho jhs
phrtékujhs vanrhotcs dcj
icdag, cs dckar, jh dasthokah
cotrc jh jéoch dc cquajanrag y
jh krcsth, g cotrc jh jéoch dc
cquajanrag y cj vhjjc.
t
UHJJC
t
UHJJC

08

 
 8.;. ^cjhkaûo cotrc jhs `rèeakhs pgsakaûo-tacipg y uo kgomuotg dc dhtgs.
[a kgothigs kgo uo kgomuotg dc dhtgs quc dcskranho cj igvaiacotg dc uo gnmctg co euokaûo h jh
dasthokah rckgrradh pgr cstc, co uo tacipg dctcriaohdg, pgdcigs jjcvhr csh rcjhkaûo h uoh `rèeakh
phrh hsé tcocr uoh icmgr pcrkcpkaûo dcj cstudag dc cstc ecoûicog.
Rgr cmcipjg= tcocigs quc rc`astrhr pgsakaûo dc dgs hutgiûvajcs co euokaûo dcj tacipg, jgs kuhjcs
sc iucvco co jéoch rckth kgo uoh vcjgkadhd dc 32li/f y 62li/f, rcspcktavhicotc.

Kgig praicr phsg, kgostruaigs uoh thnjh.

t(f ) Dasthokah9 v *t p(li) t( f ) Dasthokah9 v*t p(li)
2 d9 32li/f x 2f92 2 2 d9 62li/f x 2f92 2
8 d932li/f x jf932 32 8 d962li/f x jf962 62
> d932li/f x >f9822 822 > d962li/f x >f9852 85
8522
; d932li/f x ;f9832 832 ; d962li/f x ;f9>42 >42
4 d932li/f x 4f9>22 >22 4 d962li/f x 4f9;>2 ;>2

3 d932li/f x 3f9>32 >32 3 d962li/f x 3f9422 422

Tcoacodg jgs dhtgs grdcohdgs, prgkcdcigs h aokjuarjgs co jh thnjh, phrh su cstudag.

— 432 -----------------------  - ------------------------------ =----------

----- ---------=
----=------------------- -----------

2 8 > ; 4 3

Tacipg (f)

8.4. Ucjgkadhd, dcspjhzhiacotg y tacipg.

Rhrh cj dcshrrgjjg dc cstc tcih, ogs phrckc prckasg csthnjckcr jh daecrcokah cotrc ih`oatudcs. Jhs
ih`oatudcs sgo uoadhdcs dc icdadh, co eésakh fhy dc dgs tapgs= cskhjhrcs y vcktgrahjcs
Fhy ih`oatudcs kgig jh dasthokah g jh rhpadcz, quc sgjg tacoco thihøg iacotrhs gtrhs, kgig cj
dcspjhzhiacotg g jh vcjgkadhd, tacoco thihøg y darckkaûo, h jhs praicrhs sc jcs kgogkc kgig
cskhjhrcs y h jhs sc`uodhs vcktgrcs.
Ih`oatud cskhjhr. Cs jh ih`oatud quc sgjhicotc tacoc thihøg.

0>

 
 Ih`oatud vcktgrahj. Co cstc khsg jh ih`oatud tacoc thihøg y darckkaûo.
Jh vcjgkadhd cs jh ih`oatud quc dctcriaoh cj dcspjhzhiacotg dc uo gnmctg co uoh uoadhd dc tacipg
dctcriaohdg y co quá darckkaûo sc iucvc. [c kgipgoc dc trcs cjcicotgs= dcspjhzhiacotg, tacipg
y darckkaûo.
Cj dcspjhzhiacotg cs jh icdadh dc jh trhycktgrah dcsdc cj puotg aoakahj fhsth cj puotg eaohj. Rhrh
shncr fhkah dûodc sc dcspjhzh uo gnmctg, fhy quc kgosadcrhr cj ihrkg dc rcecrcokah.

Cj tacipg, cs jh uoadhd dc tacipg co jh quc cj gnmctg rckgrrc jh trhycktgrah quc sc cstudah.

Jh darckkaûo, cs cj scotadg co cj quc sc dcspjhzh uo gnmctg, cs dckar, fhkah dgodc sc iucvc cj gnmctg
co kucstaûo.
8.3. Cj igvaiacotg kgo vcjgkadhd vhrahnjc= jh hkcjcrhkaûo.
Jh hkcjcrhkaûo cs jh rcjhkaûo dc khinag dc vcjgkadhd dc uo gnmctg co igvaiacotg, co uo aotcrvhjg
dc tacipg.
Kuhodg uo kucrpg huicoth g dasiaouyc su vcjgkadhd sc dakc quc jh hkcjcrhkaûo cs pgsatavh g
oc`htavh rcspcktavhicotc
rcs pcktavhicotc y kuhodg uo iûvaj og vhréh su vcjgkadhd, sc dakc quc
quc tacoc uoh hkcjcrhkaûo
hkcj crhkaûo
oujh.

Jh eûriujh phrh gntcocr jh hkcjcrhkaûo cs jh sa`uacotc=

Khinag co jh
Khinag Ucjgkadhd eaohj - vcjgkadhd
Hkcjcrhka
Hkcj crhkaûo
ûo 9 vcjgkadhd
v cjgkadhdWWWWWWWWWWWWW   9 aoakahj
aoakahj WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
Tacipg trhoskurradg
trhoskur radg Tacipg trhoskurradg
trhoskur radg

8.5. Cj igvaiacotg dc jgs kucrpgs quc khco.

Jh khédh janrc cs uo khsg phrtakujhr dc

igvaiacotg rcktajéocg uoaegric hkcjcrhdg. Co

cstc tapg dcsdc

dcspjhzho dc igvaiacotg, jgs gnmctgs
uoh hjturh dctcriaohdh sc
fhsth
cj sucjg. Jh hkcjcrhkaûo prcscotc co cj
igvaiacotg, cs jh hkcjcrhkaûo dc jh `rhvcdhd. Q
sc dcnc h jh eucrzh dc htrhkkaûo dc jh Tacrrh
sgnrc jgs kucrpgs. Jh hkcjcrhkaûo dc jh
`rhvcdhd sc saingjazh kgo jh jctrh "`" y su vhjgr
cs dc 1.6 i /s >.  Hj`uogs kucrpgs pucdco
khinahr su hkcjcrhkaûo, yh sch hpjakèodgjc gtrg
tapg dc eucrzh (erakkaûo) pucdc scr ihygr su
hkcjcrhkaûo g icogr. Q thinaáo aoejuyc jh
dcosadhd dcj kucrpg, pgr cmcipjg, jhs pjuihs
dc uo hvc.

0;

 
 >. Jhs eucrzhs
eucrzhs.. Jh
Jh cxpjakhkaûo dc jgs khinags
>.8. Eucrzh rcsujthotc.
Kgig praicr phsg, phrh cxpjakhr jh eucrzh rcsujthotc, dceaoarcigs cj kgokcptg dc eucrzh, dakacodg
quc cs jh "khush khphz dc igdaeakhr cj csthdg dc rcpgsg g dc igvaiacotg dc uo kucrpg< g
dcegrihrjg". Co eésakh uoh eucrzh og sc pucdc prcscothr co egrih hasjhdh, og sc prgdukc pgr uo sgjg
kucrpg, cs cj rcsujthdg dc jh aotcrhkkaûo dc dgs g iès eucrzhs.
Cs aipgrthotc shncr kûig sc suiho jhs eucrzhs y hsé pgdcr cotcodcr cj kgokcptg dc eucrzh
rcsujthotc. Co eeésakh
ésakh jhs eucrzhs sgo rcprcscothdhs pgr vcktgrcs.
Jgs vcktgrcs cstèo dgthdgs dc ih`oatud y darckkaûo. Jh rcprcscothkaûo `rèeakh dc jgs iasigs cs uoh
ejckfh.
Co gkhsagocs, sgnrc uo gnmátg hktýho dgs g iès eucrzhs co daecrcotc scotadg, csths dgs eucrzhs sc
suiho vcktgrahjicotc yh quc og sgjg tacoco ih`oatudcs daecrcotcs saog darckkagocs kgotrhrahs. Jh
hkcjcrhkaûo eaohj dcj gnmctg dcpcodcrè dc jh rcsth dc jhs dgs eucrzhs.
Jh eucrzh rcsujthotc g eucrzh tgthj, kgrrcspgodc h jh suih dc tgdhs jhs eucrzhs quc hktýho sgnrc cj
gnmctg.
>.>. Jhs jcycs dc Oc
Ocwtgo
wtgo co jjhh vadh kgtadahoh.
[go trcs jhs jcycs dc Ocwtgo sgnrc cj igvaiacotg dc jgs kucrpgs, jh jcy dc jh aocrkah, jh jcy dc jh
eucrzh jh ihsh y jh hkcjcrhkaûo y jh jcy dc jh hkkaûo y jh rchkkaûo.
Jcy dc jh aocrkah (Rraicrè jcy). "Tgdg
jcy). "Tgdg gnmctg sc ihotacoc co su csthdg dc rcpgsg g dc igvaiacotg
rcktajéocg uoaegric, h icogs quc sc jc hpjaquco eucrzhs quc jg gnja`uco h khinahr dakfg csthdg".
Rhrh kgicozhr, dceaoarcigs aocrkah kgig jh rcsastcokah quc gpgoc uo gnmctg h khinahr su csthdg
dc rcpgsg g dc igvaiacotg. [a jh suih dc jhs eucrzhs quc hktýho sgnrc uo kucrpg cs kcrg, su
hkcjcrhkaûo thinaáo cs kcrg.
^cspcktg hj igvaiacotg dc jgs gnmctgs, csth jcy ogs dakc quc fhy dgs supucstgs, quc cj gnmctg cstc
co rcpgsg g co igvaiacotg, sa sc hpjakh uoh eucrzh h cstc gnmctg, ihotcodrè su aocrkah h pcrihockcr
co rcpgsg g co igvaiacotg, thj sch cj khsg
Jcy dc jh Eucrzh jh ihsh y jh hkcjcrhkaûo ([c`uodh jcy), "kuhodg
jcy), "kuhodg sc hpjakh uoh eucrzh h uo kucrpg y
cstc sc iucvc, sc prgdukc uoh hkcjcrhkaûo quc cs darckthicotc prgpgrkagohj h jh ih`oatud dc jh
eucrzh c aovcrshicotc prgpgrkagohj h jh ihsh dcj iasig".
Jg hotcragr aipjakh quc kuhoth iès eucrzh sc hpjaquc h uo gnmctg, jh hkcjcrhkaûo scrè ihygr y pgr
gtrh phrtc iacotrhs ihygr sch jh ihsh dc uo gnmctg sc rcqucrarè dc ihygr eucrzh phrh igvcrjg.
Jh eucrzh sc iadc co ocwtgos (O) co fgogr h Ashhk Ocwtgo, y uo ocwtgo cquavhjc h jh eucrzh
ockcshrah phrh hkcjcrhr co uo ictrg pgr sc`uodg hj kuhdrhdg uo gnmctg kuyh ihsh cs dc uo
lajg`rhig. Jh rcprcscothkaûo scrah dc csth ihocrh=

8O 9 8 l` i
[>

04

 
 Dgodc jh eucrzh sc iadc co Ocwtgos (O), Jh ihsh dc iadc co lajg`rhigs (l`) y jh hkcjcrhkaûo sc
iadc co ictrgs sgnrc sc`uodgs i/s>.
Jcy dc jh hkkaûo y jh rchkkaûo (Tcrkcrh jcy), "kuhodg
jcy), "kuhodg uo kucrpg H, cmcrkc uoh eucrzh sgnrc uo kucrpg
N, cstc ýjtaig
ýj taig rchkkagoh sgnrc H cmcrkacod
cmcrkacodgg uoh eucrzh dc a`uhj ih
ih`oatud
`oatud y darckkaûo pcrg co scotadg
gpucstg".
Co cstc khsg jh tcrkcrh jcy dc Ocwtgo, fhnjh dc jh hkkaûo y jh rchkkaûo. Cs dckar, sa h uo kucrpg jh

hpjakhigs uoh
co darckkaûo sur.eucrzh co darckkaûo ogrtc, ástc ogs hpjakhrh uoh eucrzh dc jh iasih ih`oatud pcrg
Rgo`higs cj cmcipjg dc uoh pcrsgoh quc sgstacoc uoh pcjgth dc tcoas co jh ihog, csth pcrsgoh
cstè cmcrkacodg uoh eucrzh quc sc gpgoc h jh eucrzh dc jh `rhvcdhd y cxastc uo cquajanrag cotrc jhs
dgs eucrzhs. [a csth pcrsgoh dcmhrh khcr jh pcjgth, jh ýoakh eucrzh quc sc hpjakhréh h jh iasih, scréh
jh dc jh `rhvcdhd y jh pcjgth sc hkcjcrhréh fhkah cj sucjg.
>.;. Rhrcs dc eucrzhs.

Cs uo sastcih dc dgs eucrzhs a`uhjcs

phrhjcjhs,
co dc scotadgs
dgs puotgs kgotrhrags,
dastaotgs, quc ykrcho
hpjakhdhs
uo
igvaiacotg dc rgthkaûo.

Cj cecktg dc cstc ecoûicog cs prgdukar uoh

rgthkaûo co uo puotg aotcricdag dc jh
dasthokah quc jhs scphrh. Rgr cmcipjg=
kuhodg ushigs uoh jjhvc dc kruz phrh
hprcthr g hejgmhr jgs tgroajjgs dc uoh rucdh dc
uo kgkfc, utajazhigs dgs eucrzhs co scotadg
kgotrhrag, jh jjhvc og sc iucvc dc ju`hr pcrg
`arh nhmg jh hkkaûo dc uo phr dc eucrzhs.

>.4. Jhs eucrzhs quc hktýho sgnrc jgs gnmctgs co rcpûsg g i igvaiacotg.
gvaiacotg.
Co oucstrh vadh kgtadahoh pgdcigs hprckahr uoh `rho vhracdhd dc aotcrhkkagocs co jgs khinags quc
suerco jgs gnmctgs, yh sch quc sc iucvho, sc dctco`ho, khinaco dc vcjgkadhd g sc dcegrico.
Soh eucrzh aipjakh jh hkkaûo dc uo kucrpg sgnrc gtrg. Dc thj egrih quc khinac su csthdg, yh sch
dc rcpgsg, dc igvaiacotg g jg dcegric, og cs ockcshrag quc jgs kucrpgs cstáo co kgothktg phrh
quc cstg sukcdh, yh quc fhy eucrzhs quc hktýho h dasthokah kgig vcrcigs h kgotaouhkaûo.
Jh aotcrhkkaûo cjcktrgcstètakh, g eucrzh cjáktrakh gkurrc pgr cmcipjg, cotrc uo `jgng uo swchtcr,
hsé, tgdgs jgs kucrpgs quc fho sadg ergthdgs cotrc sé, tacoco csc iasig tapg dc aotcrhkkaûo
cjcktrgcstètakh, hj`g saiajhr sukcdc cotrc uo aièo y jgs gnmctgs dc facrrg.

03

 
 Jh aotcrhkkaûo h dasthokah cotrc jgs aihocs sc dcogiaoh eucrzh cjcktrgih`
cjckt rgih`oátakh.
oátakh. Csth aotcrhkkaûo
tacoc uoh dc jhs hpjakhkagocs iès hota`uhs co jh ohvc`hkaûo. Jh dcvahkaûo quc suerc jh nrýmujh pgr jh
aotcrhkkaûo kgo cj khipg ih`oátakg dc jh Tacrrh pcriataû jh gracothkaûo dc jgs ohvc`hotcs.
Jh Tacrrh sc kgipgrth kgig uo cogric aièo y tacoc dgs pgjgs ih`oátakgs= cj ogrtc y cj sur. [c fh
dcigstrhdg quc hj`uohs cspckacs dc hvc, kgig jgs phtgs y jhs phjgihs. Stajazho cj khipg ih`oátakg
tcrrcstrc
tcrrc strc phrh gracothrsc durhotc sus ia`rhkagoc
ia`rhkagocs.
s.
Eucrzh `rhvathkagohj. Cs jh eucrzh tcûrakh dc htrhkkaûo quc cxpcraicotho dgs kucrpgs kgo ihsh. Cs
Eucrzh
jh eucrzh rcspgoshnjc dc quc sc egrico `hjhxahs, dc quc cxastho sastcihs cstcjhrcs, dc jh egrihkaûo
dc jgs pjhocths y jhs juohs y cstè rcjhkagohdh kgo jh prgpacdhd dc jh ihtcrah jjhihdh ihsh
Jh `rhvcdhd< jh aotcrhkkaûo h dasthokah dc jh quc og pgdcigs cskhphr, quc ogs sgstacoc co cj sucjg
y pcriatc quc uo gnmctg kha`h hj
hj sucjg
sucj g kuhodg jg sgjthigs, sc kgogkc kgig eucrzh dc `rhvcdhd. Csth
eucrzh hktýh sgnrc tgdgs saciprc. Csth eucrzh thinaáo cstè prcscotc cotrc jh tacrrh y jh Juoh, y cotrc
cj [gj y jh Tacrrh, y hsé pgdcigs hipjahrjh fhkah tgdgs jgs kucrpgs kcjcstcs. Jh Tacrrh cmcrkc uoh
eucrzh dc htrhkkaûo quc ogs ihotacoc sgnrc jh supcreakac y ogs gnja`h h khcr fhkah cjjh.
>.3. Jcy dc @rhvathkaûo Soavcrshj y cj pcsg dc jgs jgs gnmctgs.
Jh jcy dc jh `rhvathkaûo uoavcrshj dc Ocwtgo csthnjckc quc jh ih`oatud dc jh eucrzh dc htrhkkaûo
cotrc uo gnmctg dc ihsh (i8) y gtrg gnmctg dc ihsh (i>), cs darckthicotc prgpgrkagohj hj prgduktg
dc sus ihshs c aovcrshicotc prgpgrkagohj hj kuhdrhdg dc jh dasthokah quc jgs scphrh< jh
rcprcscothkaûo cs=

E 9@_
 d >
Csth jcy ogs dakc quc kuhotg ihygr scho jhs ihshs dc jgs gnmctgs, ihygr scrè jh eucrzh dc htrhkkaûo
quc cmcrkco cotrc sa y iacotrhs jh dasthokah sch ihygr cotrc cjjgs, jh eucrzh dc htrhkkaûo dasiaouarè.
Cj pcsg dc jgs gnmctgs co oucstrg pjhocth, cstè dctcriaohdg pgr jh eucrzh dc htrhkkaûo `rhvathkagohj
quc cmcrkc jh tacrrh sgnrc dakfgs gnmctgs co su supcreakac, cj pcsg dc jgs iasigs gnmctgs, co gtrgs
kucrpgs kcjcstcs, vh h dcpcodcr dc jh eucrzh dc htrhkkaûo quc cmcrzh cj kucrpg kcjcstc sgnrc cj
iasig gnmctg.
Jh ihsh dc uo kucrpg og khinah h icogs quc jc quatcigs uo trgzg pcrg cj pcsg vhréh dcpcodacodg
dc jh eucrzh `rhvathtgrah quc khdh kucrpg kcjcstc cmcrzh sgnrc cj prgpag kucrpg.
>.5. Jh cocr`éh y jh dcskrapkaûo dc jhs trhosegrihkagocs.
trhosegrihkag ocs.
Jh cocr`éh co eésakh, cs jh khphkadhd dc uo gnmctg dc fhkcr trhnhmg. Cj kgokcptg hotcragr, aodakh quc
jh cocr`éh sc cokucotrh dceaoadh co táriaogs dc gtrh khotadhd eésakh jjhihdh trhnhmg.
Cj trhnhmg sc prgdukc kuhodg uo kucrpg sc dcspjhzh co jh iasih darckkaûo dc jh eucrzh octh hpjakhdh
sgnrc áj. Co gtrhs phjhnrhs, kuhodg uo gnmctg fh cxpcraicothdg uo dcspjhzhiacotg h jg jhr`g dc
uoh jéoch rckth, dcspuás dc quc sgnrc áj, hktuhrh uoh eucrzh. Co cstc khsg dckaigs quc jh eucrzh
rchjazg uo trhnhmg sgnrc cj gnmctg.

05

 
 Kgig cmcipjg tcocigs cj dc cipumhr uo kgkfc quc cstè dcskgipucstg, cj dcspjhzhiacotg dcj
kgkfc dcnadg h quc jc hpjakhigs oucstrh eucrzh, sc dcogiaoh trhnhmg.
Jh cocr`éh ickèoakh. Cs jh khphkadhd dc uo kucrpg dc rchjazhr trhnhmg co vartud dc su igvaiacotg,
dá su pgsakaûo g dc hinhs< cs dckar jh cocr`éh ickèoakh cs jh suih dc jh cocr`éh kaoátakh y pgtcokahj.
C i  9 Ck + Cp

Cocr`éh Rgtcokahj. Jh cocr`éh pgtcokahj sc cokucotrh rcjhkagohdh kgo jh khphkadhd quc tacoco jgs
gnmctgs dc rchjazhr trhnhmg co euokaûo dc su pgsakaûo g kgoea`urhkaûo y csth, h su vcz, pucdc
trhosegrihrsc co gtrh egrih dc cocr`éh.
Jh cocr`éh pgtcokahj sc dcnc h jh pgsakaûo dcj kucrpg co kucstaûo. Csth cocr`éh csth "hjihkcohdh" y
co cspcrh dc scr utajazhdh, pgrquc co csc csthdg (dc rcpgsg) tacoc cj pgtcokahj phrh rchjazhr uo
Trhnhmg.
Hj jcvhothr uo kucrpg, cstc hdquacrc Cocr`éh Rgtcokahj y dcpcodc dc su pcsg y dc jh hjturh h jh quc
euc cjcvhdg, pgr jg quc=
 C
 CRR 9 Rf 9 i`f

Cocr`éh Kaoátakh. Cs hqucjjh cocr`éh hsgkahdh h jgs kucrpgs dcnadg h quc sc cokucotrho co
igvaiacotg. Csth dcpcodc`rèeakh
ihsh. [u rcprcscothkaûo dcj kuhdrhdg
cs= dc jh rhpadcz kgo jh quc sc iucvc uo gnmctg, hsé kgig su

Ck 9 >  (ih
(ihsh) (rhpad
adccz)> 9- y U 
Jh cocr`éh kaoáta
kaoátakh
kh sc dcnc hj igvaiacotg dcj kucrpg co kucst
kucstaûo.
aûo. Cs jh cocr`éh quc pgscc uo kucrpg
kuhodg sc iucvc y pucdc rchjazhr uo Trhnhmg, jh kuhj dcpcodc dc su vcjgkadhd y dc su ihsh.
>.0. Jh kgoscrvhkaûo dc jh cocr`éh ickèoakh.
Rgr jg `cocrhj, jhs ihquaohs táriakhs kgig jh jgkgigtgrh, jh ièquaoh dc vhpgr, jgs hutgiûvajcs g
jgs rcera`crhdgrcs trhosegriho cocr`éh táriakh co trhnhmg. Dakfh cocr`éh scrè trhosegrihdh phrh
rchjazhr uo trhnhmg dc hkucrdg kgo jh praicrh jcy dc jh tcrigdaoèiakh.

Dakfh jcy cs cj praokapag dc jh kgoscrvhkaûo dc jh cocr`éh< cs dckar= "jh cocr`éh og sc krch oa sc

dcstruyc, sgjg sc trhosegrih"
Cstc praokapag ogs aodakh quc tgdh ihoaecsthkaûo dc jh cocr`éh, saciprc prgvacoc dc cocr`éh yh
cxastcotc< tgdhs jhs egrihs d
dcc cocr`éh pucdco
pucdco trhosegrihrs
trhosegrihrscc cotrc sé pcrg og krchrsc oa dcstruarsc.
>.6. Khr`hs cjáktrak
cjáktrakhs
hs y egrihs dc cjcktrazhkaûo.

Cj ètgig cs jh phrtc iès pcqucøh co jh quc sc pucdc

davadar uo ihtcrahj y co jh hota`úcdhd sc kgosadcrhnh
aodavasanjc. Hktuhjicotc sc sgstacoc quc cstè egrihdg
pgr uo oýkjcg quc kgotacoc ocutrgocs (dc khr`h
ocutrh) y prgtgocs (kgo khr`h pgsatavh)< y cstè rgdchdg
pgr uoh ounc dc cjcktrgocs jgs kuhjcs tacoco khr`h
cjáktrakh oc`ht
oc`htavh.
avh.

00

 
 [a uog g vhrags
vhra gs cjcktrgocs
cjc ktrgocs sgo cxpujshdgs dcj ju`hr quc gkupho hjrcdcdgr dcj oýkjcn dc sus ètgigs,
ètgigs,
dcmhrho uo dáeakat dc khr`hs oc`htavhs co dakfgs ètgigs, pcrg prgdukarèo uo cxkcsg co cj ju`hr hj
quc sc trhsjhdco.
Cj cxkcsg dc cjcktrgocs co uo kucrpg kgostatuyc uoh khr`h cjáktrakh oc`htavh, iacotrhs quc cj dáeakat
dc jgs iasigs kgostatuarè uoh khr`h cjáktrakh pgsatavh.
Ergthiacotg= Jh ihygréh dc jhs khr`hs
cstètakhs sgo prgdukadhs pgr ergthiacotg.
Kuhodg fhy ergthiacotg cotrc dgs
ihtcrahjcs dastaotgs, uog dc cjjgs pucdc
kcdcr cjcktrgocs hj gtrg. Kuhodg cstg sukcdc
sc prgdukc uoh khr`h cjáktrakh oc`htavh co cj
ihtcrahj quc jgs `hoh y uoh khr`h cjáktrakh
pgsatavh co cj quc jgs kcdc. Hj`uogs
ihtcrahjcs sgo iès suskcptanjcs quc gtrgs
phrh `hohr g pcrdcr cjcktrgocs.

Jh Jcy dc Htrhkkaûo y ^cpujsaûo dc jhs khr`hs quc ogs dakc quc=

"Jhs khr`hs dcj iasig sa`og (+ g -), sc rcpcjco g hjcmho. Iacotrhs quc jhs khr`hs dc sa`ogs gpucstgs
sc htrhco cotrc sé"
>.1. Aihocs y ih`octasig tcrrcstrc.
tcrrcst rc.
Oucstrg pjhocth cs cj iès `rhodc dc jgs aihocs. Jhs h`umhs dc jhs nrýmujhs sc hjaocho kgo cj khipg
cjcktrgih`oátakg tcrrcstrc. Aokjusg jhs phjgihs utajazho cj khipg ih`oátakg dc jh Tacrrh phrh
cokgotrhr cj khiaog dc rc`rcsg h su oadg. [c`ýo aovcsta`hdgrcs, co sus pakgs fhy uohs phrtékujhs
quc fhkco jhs vckcs dc sastcih dc ohvc`hkaûo.
Dcncigs tcocr co kucoth quc uo khipg cjáktrakg `cocrh uog ih`oátakg y vakcvcrsh< pgr jg thotg,
jh cjcktrakadhd y cj ih`octasig saciprc vho dc jh ihog.
So aièo cs uoh ihtcrah khphz dc cmcrkcr eucrzh dc htrhkkaûo g dc rcpujsaûo sgnrc gtrg tapg dc
ihtcrah. Q co cstgs hpjakh jh jcy dc

;. Jhs aotcrhkkago
aotcrhkkagocs
cs dc jh ihtcrah phrhh dcskranar jg quc 
ihtcrah.. So igdcjg phr
og pcrkanaigs
;.8. Cj igdcjg kaoátakg dc phrtékujhs.
phrtékuj hs.
Cj igdcjg kaoátakg dc phrtékujhs, cs uo igdcjg quc cxpjakh cj igtavg dc jgs khinags eésakgs co jh
ihtcrah. [gstacoc quc tgdg cstè fckfg dc phrtékujhs y quc csths cstèo co kgosthotc igvaiacotg, h
ihygr scphrhkaûo dc phrtékujhs, ihygr cj igvaiacotg, dc csth egrih, cj igvaiacotg cs ihygr co
jhs phrtékujhs dcj harc quc co jhs dcj h`uh.
Cj igdcjg kaoátakg dc phrtékujhs hsuic quc=
Tgdh jh ihtcrah cstè egrihdh pgr phrtékujhs daskrcths< jh ihtcrah cs daskgotaouh y jhs phrtékujhs sc
pucdco ouicrhr.
Jhs phrtékujhs dc cocr`éh kaoátakh, cstèo co kgosthotc igvaiacotg.

06

 
 Cj oýicrg dc igjákujhs cs `rhodc.
[a sc muothrho tgdhs jhs igjákujhs y sc khjkujhrh su vgjuico, ástc scréh pcqucøg co kgiphrhkaûo
kgo cj vgjuico dcj rckapacotc quc kgotacoc hj `hs.
[gjg fhy eucrzh hktuhodg sgnrc jhs igjákujhs durhotc uoh kgjasaûo.
Jhs kgjasagocs sukcdco sao párdadh dc cocr`éh kaoátakh y co uo tacipg iuy pcqucøg.
Cj thihøg dc jhs phrtékujhs og khinah kuhodg jh susthokah sc khjacoth, pcrg sa tacoco igvaiacotg
ihygr= h ihygr tcipcrhturh, iès igvaiacotg.
Co jgs sûjadgs y jgs jéquadgs fhy eucrzhs cjáktrakhs quc ihotacoco uoadhs jhs phrtékujhs.
;.>. Khjgr y tcipcrhturh.
Cj khjgr y jh tcipcrhturh co Eésakh tacoco uo sa`oaeakhdg daecrcotc.
Jh tcipcrhturh dc uo gnmctg ogs aodakh quc tho rèpadg sc iucvco sus phrtékujhs. Iacotrhs ihygr
sch su tcipcrhturh, ihygr cs cj igvaiacotg y, pgr cj kgotrhrag, hj dcskcodcr jh tcipcrhturh,
dasiaouyc cj igvaiacotg dc sus phrtékujhs.
phrtékuj hs. Jh rhpadcz dcj igvaiacotg dc jhs phrték
phrtékujhs
ujhs dc uo
uo
kucrpg, su cocr`éh kaoátakh, sc rcjhkagoh darckthicotc kgo su tcipcrhturh. Cotrc ihygr cocr`éh
kaoátakh prgicdag tco`ho jhs phrtékujhs dc uo kucrpg, ihygr scrè jh tcipcrhturh dc cstc.
Kuhodg khjcothigs uo kucrpg, jh dajhthkaûo sc ihoaeacsth co uo ihygr igvaiacotg dc phrtékujhs, y
cj huicotg dc kfgqucs cotrc cjjhs, pgr jg thotg, su vgjuico cs ihygr. So cmcipjg dc cstc
ecoûicog sc dh co jgs tcriûictrgs, quc tacoco uoh khotadhd dc icrkurag quc h tcipcrhturh
hinacotc, khnc co jh phrtc aoecragr dcj tung jjhihdh nujng, hj suicr`arjg co hj`ýo jéquadg, quc tco`h
uoh tcipcrhturh iès hjth quc jh dcj hinacotc, cstc icrkurag sc dajhth y sunc pgr cj tung.
H jg jhr`g
jhr`g dc jh
jh fastgrah,
fastgra h, fho sur`adg vhrahs
vhra hs cskhjhs dc tcipcrhturh
tcipcrht urh,, dc jhs kuhjcs jhs iès
iès hkcpthdhs
sgo= Kcjsaus, Ehfrcofcat
Ehfrcofc at y Lcjvao.
Lcjvao.
Jh cskhjh Kcjsaus, jh quc sc utajazh co Iáxakg y co jh ihygréh dc jgs phéscs dcj iuodg. Tacoc kgig
uoadhd hj `rhdg dcj iasig oginrc (²K). csth cskhjh tacoc dgs puotgs dc rcecrcokah, cj icogr cs cj
vhjgr dc jh tcipcrhturh dc kgo`cjhkaûo dcj h`uh h uoh htiûsecrh dc prcsaûo, hsa`oèodgjc uo vhjgr
dc 2²K, y cj dc ihygr cs cj vhjgr dc jh tcipcrhturh h jh quc facrvc cj h`uh h uoh htiûsecrh dc
prcsaûo, hsa`oèodgjc cj vhjgr dc 822²K. Co csth cskhjh dc tcipcrhturh cokgotrhigs vhjgrcs
oc`htavgs, pgr jg quc sc dakc quc cs uoh cskhjh rcjhtavh.
Jh cskhjh Ehfrcofcat, iuy ushdh co jgs phéscs ho`jgshmgocs, tacoc kgig uoadhd hj `rhdg quc jjcvh cj
iasig oginrc (²E). Csth cskhjh, pgr kucstagocs prèktakhs, thinaáo tacoc dgs puotgs dc rcecrcokah
quc sgo jgs iasigs dc jh Kcjsaus, hj iéoaig, quc cs jh tcipcrhturh dc kgo`cjhkaûo dcj h`uh h uoh
htiûsecrh dc prcsaûo, sc jc hsa`oû cj vhjgr dc ;>²E, y hj ièxaig, quc kgrrcspgodc hj puotg d dcc
cnujjakaûo dcj h`uh
h`uh h uoh
uoh htiûsecrh dc prcsaûo, sc jc hsa`oû
hsa`oû cj vhjgr
vhjg r dc >8>²E. Co csth cskhjh
cokgotrhigs vhjgrcs oc`htavgs, pgr jg quc thinaáo cs uoh cskhjh rcjhtavh dc tcipcrhturh.
Cxastc uoh daecrcokah
daecrco kah sutaj cotrc jhs cskhjhs Kcjsaus
Kcjsaus y Ehfrcofcat.
Ehfrc ofcat. Co jh
jh praicrh, jh dasthokah quc
quc
scphrh jhs tcipcrhturhs dc kgo`cjhkaûo y cnujjakaûo dcj h`uh sc davadc co 822 phrtcs a`uhjcs,

01

 
 jjhihdhs `rhdgs
`rhdgs Kcjsaus. Rgr csg thinaáo sc jc kgogkc kgig cskhjh kcoté
kcoté`rhdh,
`rhdh, cs dcka
dckar,r, cstè davadadh
co 822². Co jh sc`uodh, csh dasthokah sc davadc co 862 phrtcs a`uhjcs, jjhihdgs `rhdgs Ehfrcofcat.
Rhrh trhosegrihr uoh tcipcrhturh quc sc cokucotrh co ²E h su cquavhjcotc co ²K, sc ush jh sa`uacotc
ckuhkaûo=
² E -  ;>
T ²K 9
8.
8.6
6

²K 9 35 ² 8.
E 6-  ;>
8.6
35-;> >4
²K  9
 9 ———
—— 9 — 9 8;
8;.;; ²K 
8.6 8.6

Rhrh trhosegrihr uoh tcipcrhturh quc sc cokucotrh co ²K, h su cquavhjcotc co ²E, sc ush jh sa`uacotc
ckuhkaûo=
²E 9 (8.6) (²K) + ;>
²E 9 (8.6) (8;.;;) + ;>
²E 9 >4 + ;>

²E 9 35
Cj khjgr cs cj ecoûicog quc sc dh kuhodg jh cocr`éh phsh dc uo kucrpg h gtrg y cs khush dc quc sc
cquajanrco sus tcipcrhturhs. Co gtrhs phjhnrhs cs uo ecoûicog co cj quc uo kucrpg kcdc cocr`éh h
gtrg y cj gtrg jh rckanc< jh khotadhd dc cocr`éh quc tgiho jgs kucrpgs og saciprc vh h khushr jgs
iasigs cecktgs co cjjgs.
Co cj sa`jg VAV sc cipczû h rcjhkagohr hj khjgr kgo jh cocr`éh. Euc Mhics Rrcskgtt Mgujc (8686-8661)
quaco dceaoaû hj khjgr kgig jh cocr`éh quc phsh dc uo kucrpg h gtrg, prgvgkhdh pgr jh daecrcokah dc
tcipcrhtur
tcipcr hturhh cotrc cjjgs. Jh cocr`éh khjgréeakh saciprc phsh dcj kucrpg dc ihygr tcipcr
tcipcrhtur
hturhh hj dc
icogr tcipcrhturh.
tcipcrht urh. Dc hkucrdg kgo jg hot
hotcra
cragr,
gr, sa pgocigs uoh
uoh gjjh kgo hh`uh
`uh jéquadh sg
sgnrc
nrc jh ejhih
dc jh cstueh, jh tcipcrhturh dc hinhs huicothrè, yh quc cj euc`g tacoc uoh tcipcrhturh iuy

supcragr y jcs trhosiataû cocr`éh khjgréeakh, thinaáo dcogiaohdh cocr`éh táriakh.

Kgo cj igdcjg kaoátakg dc phrtékujhs thinaáo pgdcigs rcprcscothr jg quc sukcdc kgo cj harc quc
rgdch h uo vhsg dc prckapathdgs kgo h`uh khjacotc quc sc fh dcmhdg phrh coerahrsc sgnrc uoh icsh,
pgr jg quc sus phrtékuj
phrtékujhs
hs vanrho kgo icogr aotcosadhd, y kgig rcsujthdg dc cjjg dcskacodc su
tcipcrhturh.
Rgr icdag dcj igdcjg kaoátakg dc phrtékujhs, jh trhosecrcokah dc khjgr sc pucdc rcprcscothr dc jh
sa`uacotc egrih< co uo kucrpg sûjadg fhy iajjgocs y iajjgocs dc phrtékujhs quc vanrho rèpadhicotc<
sa cstc kucrpg sc pgoc co kgothktg kgo gtrg, jhs phrtékujhs dcj kucrpg iès khjacotc trhosiatco csh
cocr`éh dc igvaiacotg fhkah jhs phrtékujhs vckaohs. Dcsdc juc`g quc iacotrhs jhs phrtékujhs uog
`hoho cocr`éh, jhs phrtékujhs dcj gtrg jh pacrdco. Co gtrhs phjhnrhs, cstc prgkcsg dc trhosecrcokah dc
cocr`éh jjhihdh khjgr, uog dc jgs kucrpgs dasiaouyc su tcipcrhturh< iacotrhs quc cj gtrg jh
huicoth.

62

 
 Csth trhosecrcokah dc cocr`éh tacoc uo praokapag y uo eao. Jh eaohjazhkaûo dc cstc prgkcsg sc jjávh h
khng kuhodg hings kucrpgs phrtakaphotcs jjc`ho h tcocr uoh iasih tcipcrhturh< co csc igicotg
sc dakc quc fho hjkhozhdg uo cquajanrag táriakg.
Cj aotcrkhinag dc tcipcrhturhs
tcipcrhtu rhs pucdc jjc`hr h dhrsc pgr icd
icdag
ag dc trcs egri
egrihs<
hs< jh kgodukkaûo, jh
kgovckkaûo y jh rhdahkaûo.
Jh kgodukkaûo cs cj rcsujthdg dcj kfgquc dc jhs phrtéku
phrtékujhs
jhs quc egriho uo kucrpg. Hj khjcot
khjcothrsc
hrsc cj
cxtrcig dc uo gnmctg, kgig cs cj khsg dc uo shrtáo y uoh kukfhrh, sus phrtékujhs sc iucvco (vanrho)
khdh vcz iès rèpadhicotc. Hj kfgkhr kgo sus vckaohs, dc igvaiacotg iès jcotg, jcs trhoseacrco hj`g
dc su
su cocr`éh kaoátak
kaoátakh,
h, y ccjj igvaiacotg dc jhs vckaoh
vckaohss huicoth thinaáo. Cs hsé kgi
kgig g icdahotc
kfgquc cotrc jhs phrtékujhs dcj kucrpg sc vh trhosiatacodg, pgkg h pgkg, jh cocr`éh kaoátakh, dhodg
kgig rcsujthdg cj khjcothiacotg dc jgs gnmctgs.
Jh kgovckkaûo, cs cj prgkcsg icdahotc cj kuhj sc trhosiatc cj khjgr dcnadg h jh prcscokah dc
kgrracotcs co cj aotcragr dc uo jéquadg g uo `hs, pgr cmcipjg. Kuhodg sc khjacoth uoh gjjh kgo h`uh=
cj jéquadg quc sc cokucotrh co cj egodg sc khjacoth pgr kgodukkaûo, csth h`uh hj khjcothrsc sunc
(rckucrdh quc sc nhmh su dcosadhd), y hj fhkcrjg cj h`uh iès eréh dc hrranh, nhmh hj egodg phrh gkuphr
cj ju`hr dc jh quc sunaû, gra`aohodg uo igvaiacotg dc karkujhkaûo, cstc igvaiacotg co cj aotcragr
dcj jéquadg trhoseacrc jh cocr`éh dc uo ju`hr h gtrg.

Jh vadh sgnrc jh Tacr

Tacrrh
rh dcpcodc dc jh trhose
trhosecrco
crcokah
kah dc coc
cocr`éh
r`éh sgj
sgjhr
hr kgi
kgig
g khjgr, y ásth jjc`h h oucstrg
pjhocth htrhvcshodg cj csphkag sao ockcsadhd dc quc fhyh ihtcrah dc pgr icdag. H cstc prgkcsg dc
trhosecrcokah dc cocr`éh sc jc dcogiaoh rhdahkaûo.
Cj khjgr cs uoh egrih dc cocr`éh y sc kuhotaeakh y/g iadc co Mgujcs. Jh khotadhd dc khjgr sc iadc
thinaáo co khjgréhs. Soh khjgréh sc dceaoc kgig=
"Jh khotadhd dc khjgr quc dcnc hpjakhrsc h uo `rhig dc h`uh, phrh quc aokrcicotc su
tcipcrhturh 8-K"
8 Mgujc 9 2.>4 khj
;.;. Cj igdcjg dc phrtékujhs y jh prcsaûo.

Rrcsaûo sc pucdc dceaoar kgig jh ih`oatud eésakh quc cxprcsh jh eucrzh cmcrkadh pgr uo kucrpg sgnrc
jh uoadhd dc supcreakac. Kuhodg uoh eucrzh hktýh sgnrc uoh supcreakac, cmcrkc sgnrc cjjh uoh prcsaûo.
[u ih`oatud dcpcodc dc jh aotcosadhd dc jh eucrzh cmcrkadh y dcj èrch sgnrc jh quc hktýh. Cstg sc
cxprcsh co jh sa`uacotc ckuhkaûo=
Eucrzh
Rrcsaûo 9
Hrch
Jhs uoadhdcs dc prcsaûo sgo= O/i>. Csth uoadhd tacoc oginrc prgpag y cs cj dc phskhj (Rh). Co fgogr
hj kacotéeakg y tcûjg`g dcj sa`jg VUAA, Njhasc Rhskhj.
Kuhodg sc hpjakh uoh eucrzh daiaouth sgnrc uoh supcreakac `rhodc, jh prcsaûo sgnrc ásth cs pcqucøh,
kuhodg sc hpjakh jh iasih dctcriaohdh eucrzh sgnrc uoh supcreakac icogr, jh prcsaûo sgnrc ásth
huicoth.

68

 
 Jgs `hscs sc pucdco kgipraiar iès eèkajicotc quc jgs jéquadgs y jgs sûjadgs. Cstg jg cxpjakh cj
igdcjg kaoátakg dc phrtékujhs, yh qZac co jgs `hscs jhs phrtékujhs cstèo iès scphrhdhs y fhy iès
csphkag vhkég cotrc cjjgs.
Kuhodg sc jc hpjakh prcsaûo h uo `hs, jhs phrtékujhs quc jg egriho sc pucdco hkcrkhs iès cotrc sé,
pgr jg thotg cj vgjuico dcj `hs dasiaouyc.
Csth dasiaoukaûo co cj vgjuico y jh kcrkhoéh dc jhs phrtékujhs fhkco quc huicotc jh aotcrhkkaûo
cotrc csths. Kuhodg cstg gkurrc, jh ihtcrah pucdc khinahr dc csthdg.
Jgs jéquadgs thinaáo cmcrkco prcsaûo sgnrc jgs gnmctgs aoicrsgs co cjjgs. Iacotrhs h ihygr
prgeuodadhd sc cokucotrc uo gnmctg g pcrsgoh, ihygr scrè cj vgjuico dcj h`uh sgnrc áj y pgr thotg
jh prcsaûo quc rckanc huicothrè.
;.4. Jh ckuhkaûo
ckuhk aûo dcj praokapag dc Rhskhj.
Kuhodg uo ejuadg cstè co uo rckapacotc kcrrhdg y sc jc hpjakh uoh prcsaûo, cstè sc trhosiatc co tgdgs
jgs scotadgs y kgo jh iasih aotcosadhd dcotrg dcj ejuadg htrhphdg co cj rckapacotc.
Soh hpjakhkaûo kacotéeakh hj praokapag dc Rhskhj cs jh jjhihdh prcosh fadrèujakh. Dgodc uo tung csth
dgnjhdg co egrih dc "S". Co uoguog dc sus jhdgs taco
tacocc uo cingjg, quc jjhihrcigs H Hjj , sgnrc cj kuhj jc
hpjakhrcigs uoh eucrzh dcsdc cj cxtcragr dcj tung. Co cj gtrg cxtrcig fhy thinaáo gtrg cingjg,
pcrg ástc rckanc jh eucrzh dcj jéquadg y jg jjhihrcigs H>. [a dc uo jhdg hpjakhigs uoh eucrzh dc
dctcriaohdh ih`oatud, csth prgdukc uoh prcsaûo quc, dc hkucrdg kgo cj praokapag dc Rhskhj, sc
trhosiatc kgo jh iasih ih`oatud co tgdg cj jéquadg. H phrtar dc csth prcsaûo, jh eucrzh quc rckanc cj
cingjg H> cs jh i iasih
asih qu
qucc sc hpjakh co ccjj cingjg H j , pcrg ccoo scotadg kgotr
kgotrhrag.
hrag. Q co oucstrh
ajustrhkaûo
ajustrhka ûo iucstrh quc cj cin
cingjg
gjg H>, tacoc cj dgnjc dc èrch quc ccjj cingjg H j . Cstg quacrc dckar
quc, thinaáo sc dupjakhrh jh ih`oatud dc jh eucrzh y dc a`uhj egrih, co scotadg kgotrhrag.
Eu crzh hpjakhdh hj cingjg
cingjg  24)8 9 82 O 

 È r ch   248) 9 82i> y cj è r ch dc   ( h > ) 9 > 2

2i>
i>

Rr csa ûo co
co cj
cj jéquadg R   9 8 2 O / 8 2 i >  9 8O / i >

·Xuá ih`oatud tacoc jh eucrzh quc rckanc cj cingjg H>7

R r c s a û o R   9 8 O/i.>
Eucrzh
R r c s a û o 9 — ------ < ju
jucc`g-
`g-. Eu crzh 9 Rr csaûo x Hr ch
 È r ch
E u c r z h   24>) 9 8 O / i > x   >2 i >  9 >2 O 

6>

 
 ;.3. Rraokap
Rraokapagag dc jh kgoscrvhkaûo dc jh cocr`éh
cocr`éh..
Cj Rraokapag dc kgoscrvhkaûo dc jh cocr`éh aodakh quc jh cocr`éh og sc krch oa sc dcstruyc< sûjg sc
trhosegrih dc uoh egrih co gtrh. Co csths trhosegrihkagocs, jh cocr`éh tgthj pcrihockc kgosthotc<
cs dckar, jh cocr`éh tgthj cs jh iasih hotcs y dcspuás dc khdh trhosegrihkaûo.
Cj fckfg dc quc phrtc dc jh cocr`éh cjáktrakh quc sc utajazh phrh cokcodcr uo egkg sc kgovacrth co
khjgr, og aipjakh quc csth cocr`éh sc pacrdh, saog quc saipjcicotc cs daeékaj utajazhrjh.
Jh khotadhd dc cocr`éh cjáktrakh quc sc utajazh phrh cokcodcr uo egkg dcnc scr cxhkthicotc a`uhj h
jh khotadhd dc cocr`éh quc ástc kgokgovacrtc
vacrtc co juz suihdh h jh khotadhd dc ccocr`éh
ocr`éh khjgré
khjgréeakh
eakh quc sc
pacrdcc y sc trhosea
pacrd trhoseacrc
crc hj icd
icdag.
ag. Jg hotcragr sc trhdukc ihtciètakhicotc dc jh sa`uacotc ihocrh=
Cocr`éh Cocr`éh
cjáktrakh Cocr`éh juiéoakh + khj
prgdukadh khjgré
gréeakh
eakh quc vh
utajazhdh hj icdag
Gnscrvh quc cjcj tgthj dc jh cocr`éh saciprc sc kgoscrvh, sc usc g og og phrh ccjj trhnhmg dcschdg, pgr jg
quc sc`uaigs hearihod
hearihodg g quc jh coc
cocr`éh
r`éh og sc krch ooaa sc dcstruyc
dcstruyc,, ýoakhicot
ýoakhicotcc sc trho
trhosegri
segrih,
h, jg
kuhj cs vèjadg phrh kuhjquacr sastcih, ièquaoh g hrtcehktg co `cocrhj, yh quc og fhy oao`uog kgo
uo 822% dc ceakacokah.

4. Ihoaecsth
Ihoa ecsthkago
kagocs
cs dc jh cstrukturh
cstru kturh aotcroh dc jh ihtcrah
4.8. Cstrukturh aotcroh dc jh ihtcrah.
Cj praicrg co utajazhr jh phjhnrh ètgig euc cj `rac`g Dciûkratg co cj høg 422 H.K. kgosadcrg quc jh
ihtcrah csthnh kgostatuadh pgr pcqucøésaihs phrtékujhs quc og pgdého scr davadadhs co gtrhs iès

pcqucøhs.
jgs ètgigsRgr
jhs cjjg, jhs jjhiû
kuhjadhdcs dc ètgigs, quc aoiuthnjcs
scr ctcrogs, co `rac`g quacrc dckar "aodavasanjc". Dciûkratg htranuyû h
c aodavasanjcs.

6;

 
 Dciûkratg kgokcnéh jh daecrcokah
daecrcoka h dc jhs prgpacdhdcs dc jgs ihtcrahjcs h phrtar dcj khinag dc thihøg
y dc jh egrih dc jgs ètgigs quc jgs kgoegrihnho, og gnsthotc sus adchs khrckého dc euodhicotg
cxpcraicothj. Dcspuás dc >>22 høgs y uoh vcz quc sc dcshrrgjjhrgo tákoakhs dc cxpcraicothkaûo,
sc rctgiû cj kgokcptg dc ètgig y sc hvhozû co su cotcodaiacotg.
Co 81;>, Mhics Kfhdwakl dcigstrû quc co cj oýkjcg dcj ètgig fhnéh gtrh phrtékujh quc jjhiû
ocutrûo,
ocutrû o, pgr khrc
khrckcr
kcr dc kh
khr`h
r`h cjáktrakh y kgo uoh i
ihsh
hsh dc vhj
vhjgr
gr iuy saia
saiajhr
jhr hj prgtûo. Khnc scøhj
scøhjhr
hr
quc jh prcscokah dc csth phrtékujh yh fhnéh sadg supucsth pgr ^utfcregrd.
Kgo tgdg jg cstudahdg fhsth cotgokcs, sc supg quc jgs ètgigs sc kgipgoco pgr uo oýkjcg y jgs
cjcktrgocs. Co cj pcqucøésaig oýkjcg sc cokucotrh jh ihygr phrtc dc jh ihsh y co su aotcragr cstèo
jgs ocutrgocs (sao khr`h cjáktrakh) y jgs prgtgocs (kgo khr`h pgsatavh). Hjrcdcdgr dcj oýkjcg sc
iucvco jgs cjcktrgocs (kgo khr`h oc`htavh) quc co oýicrg sgo a`uhj hj dc jgs prgtgocs, pgr jg quc
cj ètgig
ètgig sc ihotac
ihotacoc
oc cjáktrakhicotc ocutrg.
Co thihøg, sa cj oýkjcg eucrh uoh pcjgth dc jki dc daèictrg, cj ètgig kgipjctg tcodréh 8 li dc
daèictrg. Cstg ogs rcvcjh quc jh ihygréh dc vgjuico htûiakg cstè dhdh pgr cj vgjuico dc jh rc`aûo
quc gkupho jgs cjcktrgocs y quc cs ihygricotc csphkag vhkég.
4.>. Khphkadhd dc jgs ihtcrahjcs phrh kgodukar jh kgrracotc cjáktrakh.
Iukfgs ihtcrahjcs prcscotho `rho rcsastcokah hj phsg dc jh kgrracotc cjáktrakh pgrquc jgs cjcktrgocs
sc cokucotrho eamgs co jh cstrukturh igjckujhr. Rgr cmcipjg, jh pgrkcjhoh y cj vadrag sgo ihjgs
kgoduktgrcs< co khinag, cj kgnrc y jh pjhth sgo nucogs kgoduktgrcs pgrquc kucotho kgo `rho
oýicrg dc cjcktrgocs janrcs.
4.;. Khipgs ih`oátakgs y khr`hs cjáktrakhs.
Jgs ètgigs tacoco a`uhj oýicrg dc prgtgocs quc dc cjcktrgocs, pcrg jgs cjcktrgocs dc jh phrtc iès
cxtrcih dcj ètgig sc pucdco pcrdcr kgo rcjhtavh ehkajadhd, jg kuhj dh ju`hr h jhs khr`hs
cjcktrgstètakhs. Nèsakhicotc jhs quc pgscco khr`h cjáktrakh, phrh dcspuás cxpcraicothr kgo
htrhkkagocs y rcpujsagocs cjcktrgstètakhs. Rhrh sc`uar hohjazhodg jhs eucrzhs cjcktrgstètakhs dc jgs
kucrpgs, rckgrdcigs quc jhs khr`hs kgo cj iasig sa`og sc rckfhzho, iacotrhs quc jhs khr`hs kgo
dastaotg sa`og sc htrhco. Cstgs cecktgs dc htrhkkaûo g rcpujsaûo cjcktrgstètakh dc jgs kucrpgs sc
dcnco hj igvaiacotg y rchkgigdg dc jhs khr`hs cjáktrakhs dcotrg dc jgs ètgigs. Kuhodg jgs
cjcktrgocs phsho dc uo kucrpg h gtrg hj ergthrjgs, sc dakc quc cstgs sc khr`ho pgr erakkaûo. Rgr gtrg
jhdg, sa dgs kucrpgs prcscotho eucrzhs cjcktrgstètakhs hj hkcrkhrsc uog hj gtrg, pcrg sao tgkhrsc, sc
dakc quc fhy uoh pgjhrazhkaûo dcnadh h uo rchkgigdg dc jhs khr`hs dcotrg dc jgs ètgigs.
4.4. Cxpcraicotgs dc aodukkaûo cjcktrgih`oátakh.

Jh rcjhkaûo cotrc cjcktrakadhd y ih`octasig jh dcskunraû Fhos Kfrastaho Gcrstcd co 86>2, kuhodg
cokgotrû quc hj kgjgkhr uoh nrýmujh kcrkh dc uo hjhinrc pgr cj quc ejuéh kgrracotc cjáktrakh, ásth
khinahnh dc gracothkaûo. Cstg sa`oaeakh quc uoh kgrracotc cjáktrakh quc phsh pgr uo hjhinrc
kgoduktgr, `cocrh uo khipg ih`oátakg.
H rhéz dcj dcskunraiacotg dc Gcrstcd, iukfgs eésakgs c ao`coacrgs pcoshrgo quc pgdréh cxastar cj
cecktg aovcrsg,
quc pucdc cs dckar,uoh
prgdukarsc `cocrhr cjcktrakadhd
kgrracotc cjáktrakhhco
phrtar dcj ih`octasig,
uo hjhinrc Iakfhcj
kuhodg ástc Ehrhdhy
sc iucvc dcskunraû
kgrthodg jhs
jéochs dc uo khipg ih`oátakg.

64

 
 Soh ngnaoh cs uo hjhinrc corcdhdg co egrih kajaodrakh,
sgnrc uo oýkjcg quc pucdc scr saipjcicotc harc g hj`ýo
icthj quc pucdc scr facrg h hj`uoh hjchkaûo ecrrgsh. Hj
ecoûicog
ecoûic og dc prgdukar uo vgjthmc c aodukar kgrracotc, hj vhrahr
jhs jéochs dc khipg ih`oátakg co uoh ngnaoh, sc jc kgogkc
kgig aodukkaûo cjcktrgih`oátakh.
Ehrhdhy kgiprgnû kgo daecrcotcs cxpcraicotgs quc cj ehktgr
aipgrthotc co jh aodukkaûo cjcktrgih`oátakh crh quc cj
khipg ih`oátakg h trhvás dc jh csparhj, khinahnh kgo cj
tacipg. Csc kgogkaiacotg cs cj euodhicotg dc jh hktuhj
prgdukkaûo aodustrahj dc kgrracotc cjáktrakh icdahotc jgs
`cocrhdgrcs g daohigs.

H phrtar dc cstc ecoûicog cs pgsanjc cxpjakhr hj`uohs khrhktcréstakhs dc jgs ihtcrahjcs ih`oátakgs.
Tgdgs jgs ihtcrahjcs cstèo egrihdgs pgr ètgigs, y cstgs tacoco cjcktrgocs quc grnatho hjrcdcdgr
dc jgs oýkjcgs, prgdukacodg kgrracotcs cjáktrakhs iuy pcqucøhs, pcrg quc `cocrho khipgs
ih`oátakgs. Khdh ètgig tacoc uo khipg ih`oátakg pcqucøg hsgkahdg hj igvaiacotg dcj cjcktrûo.
4.3. Khrhktcréstakh
Khrhktcréstakhss dcj igvaiacotg godujhtgrag.
Soh godh cjcktrgih`oátakh cs uoh pcrturnhkaûo quc sc prgph`h co cj csphkag y sc khrhktcrazh pgr
prcscothr khinags co khipgs cjáktrakgs y ih`oátakgs. Hsé iasig, tacoc jh khphkadhd dc trhosiatar
cocr`éh iacotrhs vahmh h uoh vcjgkadhd kgosthotc.

Soh godh cjcktrgih`oátakh pgscc khrhktcréstakhs `cocrhjcs kgig jhs quc sc couicrho h
kgotaouhkaûo=
H daecrcokah dc uoh godh ickèoakh, uoh godh cjcktrgih`oátakh og rcquacrc dc uo icdag dc
prgph`hkaûo cspckahj, pucdc vahmhr co icdags sûjadgs, jéquadgs y `hscgsgs g aokjusg co vhkég.

63

 
 Jh rhpadcz dc su prgph`hkaûo cs uoh kgosthotc quc sc rcprcscoth kgo jh jctrh K y cs a`uhj h ; x 826
i/s co cj vhkég.
Cstè egrihdh pgr uoh pcrturnhkaûo cjáktrakh y uoh pcrturnhkaûo ih`oátakh< csths pcrturnhkagocs
tacoco jh iasih erckucokah, jh iasih jgo`atud dc godh y vahmho dc egrih saiujtèoch kgo a`uhj
rhpadcz.
Co jh ohturhjczh y co iukfgs ecoûicogs eésakgs og ohturhjcs, phrtakapho uo saooýicrg dc godhs
cjcktrgih`oátakhs< jh juz vasanjc quc pcrkanaigs sgjg cs uo pcqucøg kgomuotg dc jhs godhs
cjcktrgih`oátakhs
cjcktrgih`oá takhs cxastcotcs
cxastcotcs..
Hj kgomuotg dc godhs cjcktrgih`oátakhs quc cxastco sc jc dh cj oginrc dc cspcktrg
cjcktrgih`oátakg, cj kuhj, phrh su cstudag, sc fh kjhsaeakhdg co daecrcotcs rc`agocs quc sc
daecrcokaho cotrc sé pgr cj vhjgr dc jh jgo`atud dc godh y erckucokah dc jhs godhs cjcktrgih`oátakhs
aokjuadhs co khdh rc`aûo.
4.5. Jh rhdahkaûo cjcktrgih`oátakh y sus aipjakhkagocs tckogjû`akhs.
Jh rhdahkaûo cjcktrgih`oátakh cs uoh kginaohkaûo dc khipgs cjáktrakgs y ih`oátakgs quc sc hutg
prgph`ho. [go godhs kgo davcrshs erckucokahs quc pucdco trhosiatarsc co cj vhkég h uoh vcjgkadhd
hprgxaihdh dc ;22 222 li/s quc kgostatuyco cj jjhihdg cspcktrg cjcktrgih`oátakg. Trhospgrtho
cocr`éh dc uo pgotg h gtrg y sc egriho h phrtar dc jh rhdahkaûo táriakh g prgkcsgs dc rhdahkaûo og
táriakh.
Jh rhdahkaûo cjcktrgih`oátakh quc ciatco g hnsgrnco jgs kucrpgs ogs dh aoegrihkaûo dc su
kgipgsakaûo, pgr jg thotg, cj hoèjasas dcj cspcktrg dc juz sc utajazh co `rho icdadh phrh kgogkcr dc
quá ihtcrahj cstèo kgipucsths jhs cstrcjjhs jcmhohs. Rgr gtrg jhdg, dcnadg h jh hjth `hih dc
erckucokahs quc hnhrkh jh rhdahkaûo cjcktrgih`oátakh, sc hprgvckfho co davcrshs hktavadhdcs
fuihohs.
Jh rhdahkaûo sgjhr, rrcsadc
csadc darckthicot
darckthicotcc co cj khjcothiacot
khjcothiacotgg dc jh
jh Tac
Tacrr
rrh,
h, co prgkcsgs quéi
quéiakgs
akgs dc
dc
jhs pjhoths y, co `cocrhj, sarvc phrh ihotcocr jh vadh thj kgig jh kgogkcigs.
Jhs godhs dc rhdag sc utajazho co hphrhtgs dc rhdag, jh tcjcvasaûo, jgs kcjujhrcs, jh rcsgohokah
ih`oátakh y co jh tcrigtcrhpah, pucs dhdh jh cocr`éh quc trhospgrtho csths godhs, pcriatco cj
huicotg dc jh
jh karkujhka
karkujhkaûo
ûo sho`uéoch y prgpakaho uoh hkkaûo hohj`ás
hohj`ásakh
akh y hota
hotaaoej
aoejhihtgr
hihtgrah.
ah.
Jgs rhygs aoerhrrgmgs sc cipjcho co jh jckturh dc jgs kûda`gs dc nhrrhs, co cj euokagohiacotg dcj
kgotrgj rcigtg, co jgs sastcihs dc sc`uradhd y co jh jckturh dc daskgs kgiphktgs. Rgr gtrh phrtc, jgs
rhygs x sc utajazho phrh jh dctckkaûo dc icrkhokéhs dc kgotrhnhodg co jhs hduhohs, co jgs
hcrgpucrtgs phrh dctckthr gnmctgs pcja`rgsgs co jgs cquaphmcs, phrh adcotaeakhr jh hutcotakadhd dc
gnrhs dc hrtc y phrh rcsthurhr kuhdrgs. Hsé iasig, sc usho co jh rhdag tcrhpah phrh cj trhthiacotg
kgotrh cj kèokcr y, pgr supucstg, phrh jhs rhdag`rheéhs. Jgs rhygs `hiih sc usho co jh rhdag tcrhpah
y phrh jh cstcrajazhkaûo dc jgs ihtcrahjcs.
4.0. Jgs prasihs y jh dcskgipgsakaûo dc jh ju
juzz
Ocwtgo euc uog dc jgs praicrgs kacotéeakgs co dcdakhr høgs dc cstudag h jh juz. [u kuragsadhd y
krchtavadhd fakacrgo quc cxpcraicothrh kgo cjjh, dc igdg quc fazg phshr juz dcj sgj h trhvás dc uo
prasih dc vadrag y ogtû quc jh juz njhokh sc dcskgipgoéh co jukcs dc kgjgrcs quc shjého co dastaoths

65

 
 darckkagocs, h cstg sc jc kgogkc kgig daspcrsaûo g dcskgipgsakaûo dc jh juz. ^cjhkagoû jgs kgjgrcs
quc shjého dcj prasih kgo jgs quc fhnéh vastg hj`uoh vcz co cj hrkgéras.
Hj ecoûico
ecoûicog g icdahotc cj kuhj sscc dcskgipgoc jh ju
juzz sc jc jjhih daspcrsaûo. Rhrh dcigstr
dcigstrhr
hr quc jjhh
daspcrsaûo dc jh juz og crh uo cecktg dcnadg h jh ohturhjczh dcj prasih, Ocwtgo kgjgkû uo sc`uodg
prasih sgnrc cj fhz dc kgjgrcs y rc`cocrû cj fhz dc juz njhokh gra`aohj. Kgo cstg dcigstrû quc jh
egrihkaûo dcj fhz dc kgjgrcs og sc rcjhkagoh kgo cj prasih, saog kgo jh ohturhjczh dc jh juz
Jh juz sc prgph`h pgr cj harc, kuhodg aokadc g htrhvacsh uo icdag daecrcotc sc dcskgipgoc co
dastaotgs kgjgrcs, h csth `hih dc kgjgrcs sc jc jjhih cspcktrg juiaogsg. Og sgjg jh juz njhokh sc
dcskgipgoc, fhy gtrhs eucotcs dc juz quc `cocrho daecrcotcs tapgs dc cspcktrgs, thj cs cj khsg dc
jh juz ocûo (utajazhdh phrh houokags cspckthkujhrcs) g dc kuhjquacr `hs quc sc khjacoth co cxkcsg.
Rhrh gnscrvhr cj cspcktrg juiaogsg h ihygr dcthjjc sc utajazh uo daspgsatavg quc sc jjhih
cspcktrgskgpag
cspcktrgskgpa g g cspcktrûictr
cspckt rûictrg,
g, h phrtar dc uuoo prasih g dc uoh rcmajjh dc daerhkkaûo.
4.6.. Jh rcerhkk
4.6 rcerhkkaûo
aûo dc jh juz njhokh.
Co cj hrkgéras, jhs `gths dc h`uh sgo cseárakhs, hsé quc iacotrhs khco sc kgipgrtho kgig pcqucøgs
prasihs. Kuhodg jh juz htrhvacsh uoh `gth dc h`uh sc daspcrsh co daecrcotcs kgjgrcs. Khdh kgjgr sc
dcsvéh co dctcriaohdg èo`ujg, h cstg sc jc kgogkc kgig rcerhkkaûo. Co cstc khsg tgdhs jhs `gths sgo
h`uh, pgr jg thotg, cj èo`ujg dc rcerhkkaûo dc khdh kgjgr saciprc cs cj iasig. Kuhodg jjucvc fhy
iajcs dc `gths khycodg y cj cecktg dc uoh sgjh `gth sc hipjaeakh, cotgokcs cs pgsanjc gnscrvhr cj
cecktg dcj hrkgéras.
Jh juz njhokh cstè egrihdh pgr tgdgs jgs kgjgrcs quc gnscrvhigs, hsé kuhodg vcigs uoh pjhycrh
rgmh, co rchjadhd cj ihtcrahj dc jh pjhycrh cstè hnsgrnacodg tgdgs jgs kgjgrcs, cxkcptg cj rgmg, cj kuhj
sc rcejcmh.
Rgr gtrg jhdg, sa uoh phrcd cs njhokh, sa`oaeakh quc og hnsgrnc juz y jh rcejcmh tgdh muoth< iacotrhs
quc sa jh vcigs dc kgjgr oc`rg, jh phrcd hnsgrnc tgdgs jgs kgjgrcs y og rcejcmh oao`uog.
Rgr kgosa`uacotc, jgs kgjgrcs dcpcodco dcj kgjgr dc juz quc aokadc sgnrc cjjgs y dcj ihtcrahj dcj
gnmctg g kucrpg. Dc fckfg, pgdcigs dckar quc cj kgjgr dcj gnmctg cs musthicotc hqucj quc og
hnsgrnc.
4.1.. Jh juz. Jgo`at
4.1 Jgo`atud
ud dc godh, ercku
erckucokah
cokah y cocr`éh.
Hotcragricotc vaigs jhs godhs, sus phrtcs y khrhktcréstakhs praokaphjcs< icokagohigs quc cxastco
dgs tapgs= jgo`atudaohjcs y trhosvcrshjcs. Rgr gtrh phrtc, cj cjcktrgih`octasig cstudah jh rcjhkaûo
cotrc jh cjcktrakadhd y cj cjcktrgih`octasig. Hqué muothrcigs cstgs dgs kgokcptgs phrh hngrdhr jhs
godhs cjcktrgih`oátakhs, vcrcigs sus praokaphjcs khrhktcréstakhs y fhnjhrcigs dc sus daecrcokahs
co kgiphrhkaûo kgo hqucjjhs quc ockcsatho dc uo icdag phrh prgph`hrsc.
Co cj uoavcrsg cxastc cocr`éh quc sc prgph`h co godhs, quc pgr scr co phrtc cjáktrakhs y co phrtc
ih`oátakhs, sc jcs kgogkc kgig godhs cjcktrgih`oátakhs. Csths godhs sc ihoaeacstho kgig
daecrcotcs tapgs dc rhdahkaûo, cotrc cjjhs jh juz vasanjc y iukfhs gtrhs quc og pgdcigs vcr. Hdciès,
og ockcsatho dc oao`ýo icdag phrh prgph`hrsc y sc iucvco h jh iasih vcjgkadhd co cj vhkég,
hprgxaihdhicotc h ;22 222 li/s

60

 
 Jhs scøhjcs dc rhdag, iakrggodhs, cotrá gtrhs, sgo godhs quc og vcigs. Rhrh dctckthrjhs sc utajazho
daspgsatavgs cspckéeakgs, kgig jhs hotcohs dc rhdag, tcjcvasaûo, ctk. Jhs godhs sgogrhs pucdco tcocr
daecrcotc
daecr cotc er
erckucok
ckucokah
ah quc sc hprckah kgo uo khi
khinag
nag dc tgog co cj sgoadg. Dcj
Dcj iasig igdg,
igdg, jhs godh
godhss
cjcktrgih`oátakhs pucdco tcocr daecrcotcs erckucokahs y jgo`atudcs dc godh, pgr jg thotg,
trhospgrtho dastaoth khotadhd dc cocr`éh.
Hj kgomuotg dc tgdhs jhs godhs cjcktrgih`oátakhs sc jc kgogkc kgig cspcktrg cjcktrgih`oátakg. [c
cxtacodc dcsdc jhs godhs dc rhdag (jgo`atudcs dc godh dc lajûictrgs) fhsth rhygs `hiih
(jgo`a
(jgo`atud
tudcs
cs dc go
godh
dh dc 8 V 8 2 -83
-83
Jhs godhs cjcktrgih`oátakhs, hj scr godhs, trhospgrtho uoh kacrth khotadhd dc cocr`éh. Csth cocr`éh
dcpcodcrè dc jh erckucokah quc tco`h dakfh godh. H ihygr erckucokah, ihygr khotadhd dc cocr`éh
trhospgrthdh< h icogr erckucokah, icogr khotadhd
khotadhd dc coc
cocr`éh
r`éh trhospgrthdh.
Jh juz dc ihygr jgo`atud dc godh quc uoh pcrsgoh pucdc hprckahr cs cj kgjgr rgmg< pgr cj kgotrhrag,
jh dc icogr jgo`atud
jgo`atud dc god
godhh cs cj vagj
vagjcth.
cth. Csth zgoh jh kgogkci
kgogkcigsgs kgi
kgigg "juz vas
vasanjc"
anjc" y cokgotrhigs
godhs kuyhs jgo`atudcs vhrého cotrc jgs ;62]82W1i (kgrrcspgodacotc hj kgjgr vagjcth) y jgs
062 V
062  V 82~
82~11i  (prgpags dc
dcjj kgjgr rgm
rgmg).
g). [a muo
muothigs
thigs tgdhs jhs godhs cjcktrgih`oátakhs dc csth zgoh
gntcocigs jh juz njhokh.
Jhs godhs cjcktrgih`oátakhs kgo jgo`atudcs ihygrcs h jh zgoh dc jh juz vasanjc sc jjhiho aoerhrrgmhs.
Csth rhdahkaûo jh ciatco tgdgs jgs gnmctgs pgr cj saipjc fckfg dc tcocr kacrth tcipcrhturh, dcsdc
cj khrnûo aokhodcskcotc fhsth jgs rhdahdgrcs y jgs scrcs fuihogs.
Jhs véngrhs tacoco cjcicotgs scosgrahjcs h phrtar dc jgs kuhjcs dctcktho rhdahkaûo aoerhrrgmh, rhzûo
pgr jh kuhj pucdco khzhrco jh gskuradhd h prcshs dc sho`rc khjacotc, kgig jgs ihiéecrgs.

66

 
 @CG@^HEÉH
8. Cj csphkag
csphk ag `cg`rèeakg y jgs ihphs
8.8. Jg
Jgss kgipgocotc
kgipgocotcss ohturhjcs, sgkahjcs y ckgoûiakgs dcj
dcj csphkag
csphkag  
`cg`rèeakg.

Jgs kgipgocotcs ohturhjcs dcj csphkag `cg`rèeakg sgo tgdg jg rcjhkagohdg kgo jhs egrihs dc
rcjacvc= jgs kjaihs, jgs kucrpgs dc h`uh, jgs régs, jgs jh`gs, jgs ihrcs y gkáhogs, jh vc`cthkaûo, jh

ehuoh
ohturhjy dc
jgsuoh
tapgsrc`aûo
dc sucjg. Co `cocrhj,
dctcriaohdh, sc rceacrc
jjèicsc h tgdgs
csthdg, phés, jgs cjcicotgs
kgotaocotc, ctk.quc kgipgoco cj cotgrog
Jgs kgipgocotcs sgkahjcs sgo jh pgnjhkaûo y sus khrhktcréstakhs, thjcs kgig sgo= su oýicrg,
kgokcotrhkaûo, kgipgsakaûo y igvaiacotgs ia`rhtgrags.
Jgs kgipgocotcs ckgoûiakgs sc rceacrco h jhs hktavadhdcs prgpahs dcj scr fuihog rchjazhdhs kgo
cj heèo dc shtasehkcr sus ockcsadhdcs, thjcs kgig sgo=
Cxpjgthkaûo dc rckursgs ohturhjcs= jh h`rakujturh, jh `hohdcréh, jh pcskh y jh iaocréh.
Trhosegrihkaûo dc rckursgs co prgduktgs= co jh aodustrah y jh ihouehkturh.
[crvakags y kgicrkags quc dastranuyco jgs prgduktgs cotrc jh pgnjhkaûo= cj turasig, jgs
supcricrkhdgs
8.>. Khtc`gréhs dc hoèjas
hoèjasas
as dcj csphkag `cg`rè
`cg`rèeakg=
eakg= jh rc`aû
rc`aûo,
o, ccjj phashmc, cj
cj  
icdag, cj tcrratgrag
tcrratgr ag y cj ju`hr
ju`hr..

Cxastco co `cg`rheéh davcrshs khtc`gréhs quc sarvco phrh hohjazhr uo dctcriaohdg csphkag
`cg`rèeakg. Ásths sgo=
Jh rc`aûo= Cs uoh pgrkaûo dc csphkag `cg`rèeakg dctcriaohdh pgr khrhktcrcs átoakgs g karkuosthokahs
cspckahjcs dc kjaih, prgdukkaûo, tgpg`rheéh, hdiaoastrhkaûo y `gnacrog. Cmcipjg dc rc`aûo pgdréh
scr jh fuhstckh pgtgsaoh, jh pcoéosujh dc Qukhtèo, jh kucokh dcj `gjeg dc Iáxakg, ctk.
Cj phashmc= Jh dceaoakaûo dc phashmc ogs dakc quc cs uoh cxtcosaûo dc tcrrcog quc sc vc dcsdc uo
satag. Co cj khsg dcj hoèjasas dcj csphkag `cg`rèeakg, uo phashmc cs jh aih`co `cg`rèeakh quc sc pcrkanc
h saipjc vasth y quc kgiprcodc tgdgs jgs kgi
kgipgocotcs
pgocotcs dcj csphkag `cg`rèeakg quc sc gnscrvh, thotg
t hotg
ohturhjcs kgig fuihogs. Kgig cmcipjg, hj shjar h khrrctcrh, jg quc sc gnscrvh co cj trhycktg cs cj
phashmc.
Cj icdag= Cj icdag `cg`rèeakg co dgodc sc jjcvho h khng jhs aotcrhkkagocs dc jgs `rupgs fuihogs
kgo jgs kgipgocotcs ohturhjcs phrh jh hktavadhd ckgoûiakh. Rgr cmcipjg, cj icdag pucdc scr rurhj,
urnhog, ctk.
Cj tcrratgrag= Cs jh davasaûo y dcjaiathkaûo dc uo csphkag `cg`rèeakg, dc hkucrdg h jh gr`hoazhkaûo
pgjétakh dc khdh phés g csthdg. Rgr cmcipjg, co Iáxakg, jhs dcjaiathkagocs pgjétakhs sgo= cj phés, jgs
;> csthdgs y jgs iuoakapags g dcjc`hkagocs pgjétakhs.
Cj ju`hr= Cs hqucj csphkag `cg`rèeakg quc pucdc jgkhjazhrsc pgr icdag dc kggrdcohdhs, y cs pgsanjc
rckgogkcrjg pgr su oginrc. Rgr cmcipjg= jh kgjgoah dgodc vavaigs, co jh dcjc`hkaûo g iuoakapag hj

61

 
 quc pcrtcockcigs, quc sc cokucotrh dcotrg dc uo csthdg, tgdgs cstgs csphkags `cg`rèeakgs tacoco
oginrc y sc pucdco unakhr icdahotc kggrdcohdhs.
8.;. Kgokcptgs nèsakg
nèsakgss co cj cstudag dcj csphkag `cg`
`cg`rèeakg
rèeakg (jgkhjazhkaûo,
(jgkhjazhkaûo,  
dastranukaûo, tcipgrhjadhd y rcjhkaûo).

Dcotrg dcj cstudag dc jh `cg`rheéh, cs aipgrthotc dceaoar jgs kgokcptgs nèsakgs kgo jgs quc sc
trhnhmh. H kgotaouhkaûo hohjazhrcigs hj`uogs dc cstgs.

Jgkhjazhkaûo= Jgkhjazhr cs jh hkkaûo dc dctcriaohr cj ju`hr co quc sc fhyh hj`uaco g hj`g. Jh

jgkhjazhkaûo co `cg`rheéh, kgosastc co csh iasih hkkaûo, dctcriaohr jh unakhkaûo dc uoh rc`aûo, dc
uo tcrratgrag, dc uo ju`hr< phrh pgdcr rchjazhr kgrrckthicotc cj cstudag y gr`hoazhkaûo dc jgs
rcsujthdgs dcj iasig.
Dastranukaûo= [c rceacrc h jh ihocrh co quc sc rcphrtco (gs cjcicotgs quc kgoegriho uo csphkag
`cg`rèeakg dcotrg dcj
dcj iasig. Rgr cmcipjg= jgs hoèjasas dc dastranukaûo dc jh pgnjhkaûo co
co cj tcrratgra
tcrra tgrag
g
icxakhog.
Tcipgrhjadhd= Jhs khrhktcréstakhs quc sc tacoco hktuhjicotc co uo ju`hr dctcriaohdg, og sgo jhs
iasihs quc sc tcoého fhkc 32 høgs. Jgs cjcicotgs dcj csphkag `cg`rèeakg cstèo co kgosthotc
khinag h trhvás dcj tacipg, dcnadg cstg h iukfgs y iuy vhrahdgs ehktgrcs.
Jh tcipgrhjadhd sc rceacrc h pgdcr dctcriaohr cj igicotg co cj tacipg g jh durhkaûo co cj iasig
dc uoh dctcriaohdh khrhktcréstakh `cg`rèeakh.
^cjhkaûo= Jgs kgipgocotcs dcj csphkag `cg`rèeakg cstèo co uoh kgosthotc aotcrhkkaûo. [a uo
kgipgocotc dcj csphkag `cg`rèeakg cs igdaeakhdg, tcodrè rcjhkaûo kgo jgs khinags gkurradgs co
gtrg cjcicotg dcj iasig csphkag `cg`rèeakg,
`cg`rèeakg, pucstg quc cstèo vaokuj
vaokujhdgs
hdgs cotrc sé. Hsé, pgr cmcipjg,
tcocigs quc sa co uo ju`hr dctcriaohdg sc kgostruyc uoh prcsh phrh prgdukar cjcktrakadhd, jh ejgrh
ehuoh, rcjacvc, ctk., sc vcrèo heckthdgs pgr cjjg.
8.4. Kérkujgs y puo
puotgs
tgs dc jh supcreakac tcrrcstrc= phrhjcjgs, icradahogs yy  
pgjgs< kggrdcohdhs `cg`rèeakhs= jhtatud, jgo`atud y hjtatud. Fusgs 
Fusgs 
fgrhrags.

Co jh hota`úcdhd, jgs `rac`gs adchrgo uoh rcd dc

jéochs aih`aohrahs sgnrc jh tacrrh jhs kuhjcs sc
dcogiaohrgo phrhjcjgs y icradahogs.

Jgs phrhjcjgs= [go kérkujgs aih`aohrags

cquadasthotcs quc rckgrrco jh supcreakac
tcrrcstrc dc cstc h gcstc, dcsdc cj ckuhdgr
fhsth jgs pgjgs sc trhzho dc 2² h 12² `rhdgs
fhkah cj ogrtc g sur. Cj ckuhdgr cs cj praicr
phrhjcjg g phrhjcjg 2.

12

 
 Jgs icradahogs= [go sciakérkujgs aih`aohrags
quc kgovcr`co co jgs pgjgs, rckgrrco jh
supcreakac tcrrcstrc dc uo pgjg h gtrg, sc trhzho
dc 2gh 862² `rhdgs dc jgo`atud hj cstc u gcstc
dcj icradahog dc @rccowakf, quc cs cj
icradahog dc gra`co g icradahog 2.

Jgs pgjgs= [go
pgjgs= [go jgs puotgs aih`aohrags co jgs cxtrcigs ogrtc y sur dc jh tacrrh dctcriaohdgs pgr jgs
puotgs dc shjadh dc jh jéoch aih`aohrah quc htrhvacsh jh tacrrh jjhihdh cmc dc rgthkaûo.
Jhs kggrdcohdhs sgo jh rcjhkaûo quc `uhrdho jgs phrhjcjgs y icradahogs tcrrcstrcs y quc ogs
pcriatco adcotaeakhr jh unakhkaûo cxhkth dc uo puotg dcotrg dcj `jgng tcrrèqucg. [c dcnco dceaoar
kjhrhicotc jgs kgokcptgs utajazhdgs co jh unakhkaûo dc jhs kggrdcohdhs, thjcs kgig sgo=
Jhtatud= [c iadc pgr icdag dc jgs phrhjcjgs y cs jh dasthokah ho`ujhr, cxprcshdh co `rhdgs, iaoutgs
y sc`uodgs
sc`uodgs dc kuhjquacr puotg dc jh supcrea
supcreakac
kac tcrr
tcrrcst
cstrc
rc rcspcktg hj ckuhdgr. Jh jhtatud sc i
iadc
adc ccoo
darckkaûo ogrtc g sur, pgr jg quc saciprc scrè ogrtc sa sc jgkhjazh fhkah cj fciasecrag ogrtc y sa cs hj
fciasecrag sur scrè jhtatud sur.
Jgo`atud= [c iadc pgr icdag dc jgs icradahogs, jg kuhj rcprcscoth jh dasthokah ho`ujhr, cxprcshdh
co `rhdgs, iaoutgs y sc`uodgs, dc kuhjquacr puotg dc jh supcreakac tcrrcstrc hj icradahog dc
@rccowakf, sc iadc hj cstc g hj gcstc dcpcodacodg dcj icradahog hotcs oginrhdg.
Hjtatud= Cs jh dasthokah vcrtakhj quc cxastc cotrc uo puotg dc jh supcreakac tcrrcstrc y cj oavcj icdag
dcj ihr. [u vhjgr iéoaig cs dc 2 ictrgs y kgrrcspgodc h ju`hrcs satuhdgs hj oavcj dcj ihr.

Jgs fusgs fgrhrags, sgo khdh uoh dc jhs phrtcs co quc

qucdh davadadh jh supcreakac tcrrcstrc pgr >4
icradahogs a`uhjicotc csphkahdgs y co quc sucjc
rc`ar kgovcokagohjicotc uo iasig fgrhrag. Jh tacrrh
thrdh >4 fgrhs co dhr uoh vucjth cotcrh sgnrc su
prgpag cmc, cstc fckfg sc kggrdaoh pcreckthicotc
kgo >4 icradahogs co tgdg cj pjhocth.

18

 
 8.3. Khrhktcrés
Khrhktcréstakhs
takhs dc ags daecrcotcs tapgs dc rcprcscothka
rcprcscothkaûo
ûo d
dcj
cj csphkag
csphkag  
`cg`rèeakg (krgquas, pjhogs, ihphs, htjhs, `jgng tcrrèqucg,  tcrrèqucg,  
egtg`rheéhs hárchs, aiè`cocs dc shtájatc y igdcjgs tradaicosagohjcs).

Cxastco vhrahs ihocrhs dc rcprcscothr cj csphkag `cg`rèeakg, h kgotaouhkaûo cxpjakhrcigs jgs iès
aipgrthotcs=
Krgquas. Cs uo dascøg ja`crg dc uo tcrrcog, phashmc, ctk. quc sc fhkc h gmg, sao vhjcrsc dc
aostruicotgs `cgiátrakgs.
Rjhogs. Cs uoh rcprcscothkaûo csquciètakh h dgs daicosagocs y h dctcriaohdh cskhjh, dc uo
tcrrcog, uoh pgnjhkaûo, ctk. Cs uoh rcprcscothkaûo iès prckash quc cj krgquas pucs ihocmh yh
cjcicotgs kgig jh cskhjh.
Ihphs. Cs uoh rcprcscothkaûo `cg`rèeakh dc jh tacrrh g phrtc dc cjjh co uoh supcreakac pjhoh.
Htjhs. Cs uoh kgjckkaûo dc ihphs `cg`rèeakgs, fastûrakgs, ctk., co uo vgjuico. Cs uoh fcrrhiacoth
iuy ýtaj phrh cj cstudag y rckgpajhkaûo dc aoegrihkaûo co `cg`rheéh.
@jgng tcrrèqucg. Cs jh csecrh co kuyh supcreakac sc rcprcscoth jh daspgsakaûo quc jhs tacrrhs y ihrcs
tacoco co cj pjhocth tacrrh.

Egtg`rheéhs hárchs. [go egtg`rheéhs quc sc tgiho dcsdc uoh hjturh kgosadcrhnjc y quc kgotacoco
aiè`cocs quc iucstrho kûig cs cxhkthicotc uo ju`hr. [c usho phrh cjhngrhr ihphs iès prckasgs
dc uo ju`hr dctcriaohdg.
Aiè`cocs dc shtájatc. Kgig su oginrc jg dakc, jhs aiè`cocs shtcjathjcs, sgo tgihdhs dcsdc cj
csphkag pgr uo shtájatc g kgomuotg dc shtájatcs, hnhrkho uoh cxtcosaûo ihygr dc tcrrcog yh quc
dcsdc cj csphkag sc pucdc gnscrvhr co su tgthjadhd cj pjhocth tacrrh.
Igdcjgs tradaicosagohjcs. Tradaicosagohj quacrc dckar co trcs daicosagocs, sc dakc quc uoh ea`urh
cs tradaicosagohj kuhodg kucoth kgo jgs trcs cjcicotgs dc jh daicosaûo, quc sgo jgo`atud hokfurh
y prgeuodadhd. Cotgokcs pgdcigs dckar quc uo kuhdrhdg co ihtciètakhs cs nadaicosagohj y uo
kung
kun g cs tradaicosagohj.
Dc csth ihocrh sc cjhngrho ihphs ýtajcs phrh cj cstudag dc jgs csphkags `cg`rèeakgs, sgo iuy ýtajcs
h jh fgrh dc igstrhr tapgs dc rcjacvc, kgrdajjcrhs, icscths y tgdhs hqucjjhs daecrcokahs co cj sucjg.
8.5. [astcihs dc Aoegrihkaûo @cg`rèeakh y [astcih dc Rgsakagohiacotg
Rgsakagohiacotg  
@jgnhj.
So [astcih dc Aoegrihkaûo @cg`rèeakh ([A@), cs uo kgomuotg dc fcrrhiacoths quc aotc`rh y
rcjhkagoh davcrsgs kgipgocotcs quc pcriatco jh gr`hoazhkaûo, hjihkcohiacotg, ihoapujhkaûo,
hoèjasas y igdcjazhkaûo dc `rhodcs khotadhdcs dc dhtgs prgkcdcotcs dcj iuodg rchj, vaokujhdgs h
uoh rcecrcokah csphkahj, ehkajathodg jh aokgrpgrhkaûo dc hspcktgs sgkahjcs-kujturhjcs, ckgoûiakgs y
hinacothjcs, quc kgodukco h jh tgih dc dckasagocs dc uoh ihocrh iès ceakhz. Co gtrhs phjhnrhs cs
kuhjquacr sastcih dc aoegrihkaûo
aoegrihkaûo khphz d dcc aotc`rhr, hjihkcohr, cdathr, hohjazhr, kgiphrtar y igstrhr
jh aoegrihkaûo `cg`rèeakhicotc rcecrcokahdh.

1>

 
 Cj sastcih `jgnhj dc ohvc`hkaûo pgr shtájatc, cs uoh fcrrhiacoth quc pcriatc dctcriaohr co tgdg
cj iuodg jh pgsakaûo dc uo gnmctg, uoh pcrsgoh g uo vcfékujg kgo uoh prckasaûo dc kcotéictrgs,
huoquc jg fhnatuhj sgo uogs ictrgs. Cstc sastcih euc aosthjhdg y cipjchdg pgr cj dcphrthicotg dc
dcecosh dc jgs Csthdgs Soadgs dc Ogrtchiárakh.
Cj sastcih @R[, cstè kgostatuadg pgr >4 shtájatcs y ush jh traho`ujhkaûo phrh dctcriaohr co tgdg cj
`jgng tcrrèqucg jh pgsakaûo dc uo gnmctg.

8.0. Jgs ihphs

pgjétakgs cotciètak
tciètakgs=
Iáxakg.gs= ohturhjcs, ckgoûiakgs, sgkahjc
sgkahjcs,
s, kujturhjcs y 
Jgs ihphs tciètakgs, sgo rcprcscothkagocs `cg`rèeakhs dc uoh phrtc dc jh supcreakac tcrrcstrc, co
jgs quc sc dh aoegrihkaûo rcjhtavh h uoh kacokah dctcriaohdh. Kgotacoco aoegrihkaûo dctcriaohdh
dc hkucrdg hj tcih sgnrc cj quc sc rchjakc cj ihph, pgr cmcipjg=
Jgs ihphs ohturhjcs. [go
ohturhjcs. [go jgs quc kgotacoco aoegrihkaûo dc jgs cjcicotgs ohturhjcs dc uo csphkag
`cg`rèeakg dctcriaohdg, pgr cmcipjg, jgs ihphs quc iucstrho jhs scjvhs, jgs ngsqucs, ctk.
Ihphs ckgoû
ckgoûiakgs.
iakgs. Kgotacoco
 Kgotacoco jh aoegrihkaûo sgnrc jhs èrchs dc cxpjgthkaûo ohturhj, kgicrkahjcs y
dc scrvakags dc uo csphkag `cg`rèeakg dctcriaohdg, pgr cmcipjg, jgs ihphs quc iucstrho jh
hktavadhd iaocrh, dc prgdukkaûo dc khøh dc hzýkhr, ctk.

Ihphs
csphkagsgkahjcs. Cs
sgkahjcs.  Cs uoh
`cg`rèeakg. Corcprcscothkaûo
cstgs ihphs `rèeakh dc jhs
pgdcigs khrhktcréstakhs
cokgotrhr dc uoh sgkacdhd
khrhktcréstakhs dcotrg dc
kgig raquczh dc uo
jh
pgnjhkaûo, ao`rcsgs dc jhs ehiajahs, ctk.
Ihphs kujturhjcs. 
kujturhjcs.  [go ihphs quc kgotacoco aoegrihkaûo rcjhkagohdh kgo jgs dastaotgs hspcktgs
kujturhjcs dc uoh sgkacdhd. Jgs ihphs quc iucstrho jhs zgohs hrqucgjû`akhs dcotrg dc uo csthdg.
Ihphs pgjétakgs. Ihphs
pgjétakgs. Ihphs trhzhdgs kgo jh davasaûo y dcjaiathkaûo tcrratgrahj dc uo csphkag `cg`rèeakg,
dctcriaohdg pgr jh gr`hoazhkaûo pgjétakh dc jgs scrcs fuihogs. Jgs ihphs dc Iáxakg kgo davasaûo
pgjétakh.

>. ^ckursgs ohturhjcs y prcscrvhkaûo dcj

dcj hinacotc
>.8. Igvaiacotgs dc rgthkaûo y trhsjhkaûo dc jh Tacrrh.
Cj pjhocth tacrrh sc cokucotrh co kgosthotc igvaiacotg. [c iucvc dc dgs ihocrhs, `arh sgnrc su
prgpag cmc, y sc iucvc hjrcdcdgr dcj sgj, jg quc dctcriaoh cj igvaiacotg dc rgthkaûo y trhsjhkaûo
rcspcktavhicotc.

Igvaiacotg dc rgthkaûo. Khdh
rgthkaûo. Khdh >4 fgrhs dh uoh
vucjth kgipjcth sgnrc su prgpag cmc dc
rgthkaûo. H cstc igvaiacotg sc jc kgogkc kgig
igvaiacotg dc rgthkaûo, cs cj igvaiacotg
rcspgoshnjc dc jh ogkfc y cj déh, pucstg quc hj
`arhr jh tacrrh ;52², co prgicdag, phsh jh iathd
dcj tacipg dc khrh hj sgj (jg quc prgvgkh cj déh),
y jh iathd dc csphjdhs h ástc (jg quc prgvgkh jh
ogkfc). Igvaiacotg dc 
dc 
^gthkaûo

1;

 
 Igvaiacotg dc trhsjhkaûo. 
trhsjhkaûo.  Cs cj igvaiacotg
dc jh tacrrh quc rgdch co uoh ûrnath ha sgj.
Cstc igvaiacotg durh ;53 déhs kgo 5 fgrhs,
cshs ýjtaihs 5 fgrhs prgvgkho cj høg nasacstg
khdh 4 høgs phrh cvathr dcshmustcs co jhs
eckfhs y csthkagocs. Cstc igvaiacotg dc jh
tacrrh prgvgkh jhs csthkagocs dcj høg, pucs yh
quc jh tacrrh sc trhsjhdh hjrcdcdgr dcj sgj co
uoh cjapsc, co gkhsagocs cstè iès kcrkh dcj
sgj quc co gtrhs. Hj hkcrkhrsc cj vcrhog sc
cstè iès kcrkh dcj ssgj
gj y co aovacr
aovacrog
og iès jcmgs. Igvaiacotg dc 
Trhsjhkaûo

>.>. Tcktûoakh dc pjhkhs, vujkhoasig y sasiakadhd.

Rhrh cj dcshrrgjjg dc cstc tcih, krccigs kgovcoacotc dctcriaohr praicrg cj kgokcptg dc jatgsecrh.
Jh jatgsecrh pucdc dceaoarsc kgig jh covgjturh rgkgsh quc kgostruyc jh kgrtczh cxtcragr sûjadh
tcrrcstrc. Hnhrkh jh kgrtczh tcrrcstrc iès jh phrtc supcragr dcj ihotg hkuéecrg. Cs uoh khph ré`adh
quc sc fh erh`icothdg co `rhodcs njgqucs jjhihdgs pjhkhs tcktûoakhs quc sc dcspjhzho sgnrc jh
htiûsecrh.
Jgs jéiatcs dc jhs pjhkhs pucdco scr dc trcs tapgs=

Jéiatcs davcr`cotcs g dgrshjcs. Kuhodg cj igvaiacotg

dc jhs pjhkhs cs dc scphrhkaûo sc krch uo fuckg co jh
jatgsecrh hprgvckfhdg pgr jhs rgkhs ih`iètakhs phrh
`cocrhr oucvh kgrtczh gkcèoakh.

DAUC^@COTC

Jéiatcs kgovcr`cotcs g egshs. Soh dc jhs

pjhkhs (jh iès dcosh), sc aotrgdukc nhmg jh
gtrh co uo prgkcsg quc sc dcogiaoh
sundukkaûo. H cstgs jéiatcs sc dcogiaoho
egshs, zgohs dc sundukkaûo y jaiatcs
dcstruktavgs. Rrcscotho aotcosh sasiakadhd
y vujkhoasig.

KGOUC^@COTC KGOUC^@COTC

14

 
 Jéiatcs trhosegrihotcs. Cxastco zgohs dgodc cj
igvaiacotg dc jhs pjhkhs cs phrhjcjg y dc scotadg
kgotrhrag. [go kgogkadhs thinaáo pgr zgohs dc ehjjh
trhosegrihotc g jéiatcs trhoskurrcotcs.
Jhs pjhkhs pgscco egrih dc khsquctc cseárakg y jgs jéiatcs
dceaoadgs pgr prgkcsgs aotcosgs dc sasiakadhd y
vujkhoasig.

T^HO[EG^IHOTC

Uujkhoasig. Cs cj sastcih quc htranuyc

jh egrihkaûo dcj `jgng h jh hkkaûo dcj
euc`g
euc` g aotcragr. Hj erhkturh
erhkturhrsc
rsc jh jatgsecrh
pgr jgs igvaiacotgs hskcodcotcs dc jh
htiûsecrh cicr`c ihtcrahj dcj aotcragr
dc jh tacrrh, egrihodg `rhodcs khdcohs
dc vgjkhocs co cj pasg gkcèoakg. Jh
kgrtczh gkcèoakh quc sc fuodc co cj
prgkcsg dc sundukkaûo vh `hohodg
prcsaûo
prcsaûo y tcipcrhturh fhsth euodarsc, y
pgstcragricotc hskacodc pgr jhs
dcnajadhdcs dc jh kgrtczh fhsth jjc`hr h
jh supcreakac co egrih dc vgjkèo.

[asiakadhd. [c rceacrc h jh prgnhnajadhd dc quc co uo ju`hr dctcriaohdg sc prgduzkho igvaiacotgs

sésiakgs.
zgohs dc Jgs sasigs thinaáo
sundukkaûo, cstèo
jh erakkaûo qucrcjhkagohdgs kgo cj
sc `cocrh cotrc uohigvaiacotg
pjhkh y gtrhdcaipadc
jhs pjhkhs
quc tcktûoakhs. Co jhs
cj dcsjazhiacotg
sch suhvc y kgotaoug. Kgoegric h jh tcosaûo sc vh hkuiujhodg jjc`h uo igicotg co quc sc supcrh
jh erakkaûo y sc prgdukc uo igvaiacotg sýnatg co jh jatgsecrh, gra`aoèodgsc uo sasig.
>.;. Kakjg fadrgjû`akg co jh dastranukaûo dc jhs h`uhs gkcèoakh
gkcè oakhss y 
kgotaocothjcs.

Jh fadrgsecrh tcrrcstrc cs cj kgomuotg dc phrtcs jéquadhs dcj `jgng tcrrèqucg. [c satýh cotrc jh
htiûsecrh y jh jatgsecrh.
Jh fadrgsecrh kgotacoc tgdh cj h`uh dcj pjhocth, cj 10% dc csth h`uh cstè kgotcoadh co jgs ihrcs y
jgs gkáhogs, quc sgo jhs iès `rhodcs ihshs dc h`uh quc gkupho hipjahs dcprcsagocs dc jh
supcreakac tcrrcstrc y rgdcho h jgs kgotaocotcs. Cj gtrg ;% cs h`uh dujkc, quc sc cokucotrh co jgs

13

 
 jh`gs, régs, cj sunsucjg, ctk. Cstc ýjtaig ;% cs cj quc jgs scrcs fuihogs y gtrgs scrcs vavgs,
gkuphigs phrh sunsastar.
Cj kakjg fadrgjû`akg cs cj igvaiacotg kékjakg y kgosthotc dcj h`uh co cj pjhocth tacrrh. Co cstc kakjg
pgdcigs
pgdci gs cokgo
cokgotrhr
trhr cj h`uh co egrih jéquadh, sûjadh y `hscgsh, y jgs prgkcsgs pucdc
pucdcoo sc
scrr aoicdahtgs
g durhr vhrags kacotgs dc høgs.
Cj kakjg dcj h`uh kgiacozh iacotrhs cj sgj khjacoth cj h`uh y sc cvhpgrh (co cj khsg dcj facjg y jh oacvc
sc cvhpgrh pgr sunjaihkaûo)< jhs kgrracotcs dc harc hskcodcotcs cjcvho cj vhpgr dc h`uh y h iès
hjturh hj cokgotrhrsc kgo kgrracotcs iès eréhs dc harc, sc kgodcosho egrihodg ouncs< jhs phrtékujhs
co jhs ouncs kfgkho egrihodg phrtékujhs khdh vcz iès `rhodcs fhsth quc yh og pucdco sgstcocrsc
co cj harc y khco, pgr khush dc jh `rhvcdhd, co egrih dc prckapathkaûo g jjuvah. Jh ihygr phrtc dc
csth jjuvah vucjvc h khcr co jgs gkáhogs g ihrcs, pcrg uoh phrtc cotrh co jgs kgotaocotcs khycodg,
sc`ýo cj khsg, co egrih dc jjuvah g oacvc, jgs kuhjcs jjc`ho h jgs jh`gs y régs g sc eajtrho co jh tacrrh.
Jgs khudhjcs dc jgs régs y jgs régs suntcrrèocgs, sgo jgs cokhr`hdgs dc jjcvhr csh h`uh h jgs gkáhogs
g ihrcs y hsé, kgicozhr cj kakjg dc oucvg.

>.4. Khphs dc jjhh htigsecrh. Cjcicotgs y ehktgrcs dcj kjaih.

Htiûsecrh, cs jh khph `hscgsh dc jh tacrrh. ^c`ujh jh tcipcrhturh dc jh supcreakac y dcotrg dc cjjh sc

prgdukco vhrags ecoûicogs htigseárakgs, kgig sgo= jjuvah, vacotg, oacnjh, ctk.
Jh htiûsecrh cstè kgostatuadh pgr vhrahs khphs, h kgotaouhkaûo hohjazhrcigs khdh uoh dc cjjhs dc
ihocrh hskcodcotc.
Jh trgpgsecrh. 
trgpgsecrh.  Cs jh khph aoecragr dc jh htiûsecrh, dgodc sc prcscotho jgs ecoûicogs
ictcgrgjû`akgs.
ictcgrgj û`akgs. Co csth khp
khphh cokgo
cokgotrh
trhigs
igs vhp
vhpgr
gr dc h`uh, hjkhozh uoh hjtatud
hjta tud dc 6 li co pgjgs y
85 li co ckuhdgr, su tcipcrhturh dasiaouyc kgoegric huicoth jh hjturh.

15

 
 Cstrhtgsecrh. [c 
[c  khrhktcrazh pgr jh huscokah dc vhpgr dc h`uh y cskhsg igvaiacotg dc harc. [c
khrhktcrazh pgr kgokcotrhr gzgog y rctcocr jgs rhygs ujtrhvagjcth. ]goh adchj phrh cj vucjg dc jgs
hvagocs, cstè cotrc jgs >3 y 32 li dc hjtatud.
Icsgsecrh.   Uhpgr dc h`uh aocxastcotc y cj gzgog sc rcdukc. Co cj khsg dc jgs gtrgs `hscs dc jh
Icsgsecrh. 
htiûsecrh su kgipgsakaûo sc ihotacoc kgosthotc, jh tcipcrhturh dasiaouyc kgo jh hjtatud. Cs jh
khph iès eréh dc jh htiûsecrh y hjkhozh uogs -12²K.

Tcrigsecrh. ^ckanc
Tcrigsecrh. ^ckanc cstc oginrc pgr cj huicotg dc jh tcipcrhturh kgoegric huicoth jh jhtatud.
Co csth khph cj harc cs iuy tcouc pgrquc thotg jhs igjákujhs kgig jgs ètgigs dc jgs `hscs
kgoegrihdgs pgr Oatrû`cog y Gxé`cog, sg sgoo scphrhdgs co agocs pgsatavgs y oc`htavgs dcnadg h jh
hnsgrkaûo pgr jgs rhygs V y ujtrhvagjc
ujtrh vagjcths
ths prgvco
prgvcoacotcs
acotcs dcj [g
[gj.j. H csth khph sc jc kgogkc thinaáo
kgig agogsecrh.
Cxgsecrh. [c cokucotrh h 322li dc hjtatud, cs uoh khph co dgodc jgs `hscs pgkg h pgkg sc daspcrsho
Cxgsecrh. [c
fhsth quc jh kgipgsakaûo cs saiajhr h jh dcj csphkag sadcrhj.
Jgs cjcicotgs dcj kjaih sgo jhs vhrahotcs ictcgrgjû`akhs quc sc pcrkanco co jh htiûsecrh, y sgo=
Tcipcrhturh. Cs jh ih`oatud eésakh quc cxprcsh cj oavcj dcj khjgr dcj hinacotc. Cmcipjg= co jh kaudhd
dc Iáxakg, fhrè uoh tcipcrhturh ièxaih dc >0 `rhdgs K.

Rrcsaûo htigseárakh. Cs jh prcsaûo quc cmcrkc jh htiûsecrh sgnrc tgdgs jgs gnmctgs aoicrsgs co cjjh.
[u vhjgr h oavcj dcj ihrcs dc 828; inhr.
Uacotg. Kgrracotc dc harc prgdukadh co jh htiûsecrh pgr khushs ohturhjcs.
Rrckapathkaûo. H`uh prgkcdcotc dc jh htiûsecrh, y quc co egrih sûjadh g jéquadh sc dcpgsath sgnrc
jh supcreakac dc jh tacrrh.
Fuicdhd. H`uh vhpgrazhdh quc sc iczkjh kgo cj harc, cotrc iès h`uh cvhpgrhdh ihygr fuicdhd.
Jgs ehktgrcs dcj kjaih. Jh dastranukaûo dc jgs kjaihs co jh tacrrh cstè kgodakagohdh pgr uoh scrac dc
ehktgrcs quc aoejuyco co jhs tcipcrhturhs y jhs prckapathkagocs dc khdh zgoh. Cstgs ehktgrcs sgo=
Jhtatud. Jh
Jhtatud. Jh jhtatud aoejuyc
a oejuyc kgig uo ehkt
ehktgr
gr dcj kjaih yh qu
qucc jh jjuvah y jh tcipcrhtu
tcipcrhturh
rh vhré
vhrého
ho co rcjhkaûo

yh jh
jhsdasthokah
jjuvahs. dcj ckuhdgr, h rhzûo dc quc kuhotg iès kcrkh dcj ckuhdgr, huicotho jhs tcipcrhturhs
Jh hjtatud y cj rcjacvc. 
rcjacvc.  Co cstc khsg h ihygr hjtatud icogr tcipcrhturh, igtavg pgr cj kuhj jhs
kuinrcs dc jhs igothøhs iès hjths sucjco csthr ocvhdhs. Co gtrg grdco dc adchs, jhs khdcohs
igothøgshs ercoho jgs vacotgs c aipadco cj phsg dc jhs ouncs.
Rrgxaiadhd g jcmhoéh dcj ihr.
ihr. Iacotrhs
 Iacotrhs iès hjcmhdg sc cstá dcj ihr, jhs tcipcrhturhs huicothrèo
g dasiaouarèo iès rèpadg, dcnadg h quc cj ihr euokagoh kgig uo rc`ujhdgr.
Jhs kgrracotcs ihraohs. Cstg
ihraohs. Cstg dcpcodc sa jhs kgrracotcs sgo kèjadhs g eréhs. Dctcriaoho jh tcipcrhturh
dcj ju`hr pgr dgodc phsho.
Jh vc`cthkaûo. Jh
vc`cthkaûo. Jh hnuodhokah co jh vc`cthkaûo dasiaouyc jh tcipcrhturh y huicoth jhs jjuvahs.

10

 
 >.3. Dastranukaûo
Dastranukaûo y kjhsaeakhkaûo
kjhsaeakhkaûo dc jgs kjaihs dcj
dcj iuodg.
iuodg.
Sog dc jgs iátgdgs iès utajazhdgs phrh kjhsaeakhr jgs kjaihs cs cj dcshrrgjjhdg pgr cj kjaihtûjg`g
rusg dc gra`co hjcièo Pjhdaiar Rctcr Lûppco. Co cj kuhj sc tgiho co kucoth jh tcipcrhturh, jh
prckapathkaûo y jgs tapgs dc vc`cthkaûo. Lûppco kjhsaeakû jgs kjaihs dcj iuodg co kaokg `rupgs, khdh
uog sc adcotaeakh icdahotc uoh jctrh ihyýskujh sc`ýo su jgkhjazhkaûo dcsdc cj Ckuhdgr tcrrcstrc
fhkah jgs pgjgs= kjaihs trgpakhjcs (H), sckgs (N), tcipjhdgs (K), erégs (D) y pgjhrcs (C).
Co cj khsg dc jgs kjaihs H, @ y D, sc h`rc`ho jctrhs iaoýskujhs quc rcprcscotho jh tcipgrhdh dc
jjuvahs= jh "e" rcprcscoth jjuvahs durhotc tgdg cj høg, jh "i" jjuvahs dc igozûo, jh "w" jjuvahs dc
vcrhog y jh "s" jjuvahs dc aovacrog.
Rhrh jgs kjaihs sckgs (N), jhs jctrhs "s" y "w" rcprcscotho icogr prckapathkaûo houhj, pgr jg quc sc
dceaoc pgr su tapg dc vc`cthkaûo.
>.5. Nagsecrh. ^cjhkagocs dc jh jatgsecrh, htiûsecrh c fadrgsecrh kgo jh
jh 
dastranukaûo dc jh vc`cthkaûo y jh ehuoh.
Jh nagsecrh sc pucdc dceaoar kgig cj kgomuotg dc jgs icdags dgodc sc dcshrrgjjho jgs scrcs vavgs.
Co `cocrhj cxastc uoh rcjhkaûo kgosthotc cotrc jh dastranukaûo dc jh ehuoh y ejgrh, kgo cj cotgrog co
dgodc sc dcshrrgjjho. Jh htiûsecrh, jh fadrgsecrh y jh jatgsecrh sgo dctcriaohotcs co cj tapg dc
vc`cthkaûo y ehuoh quc sc cokucotrc co khdh ju`hr.
Jatgsecrh. Cs jh khph rgkgsh quc rckunrc jh tacrrh, dctcriaoh cj rcjacvc quc gnscrvhigs co khdh phrtc
Jatgsecrh. Cs
dc ásth, co cspckahj co jgs kgotaocotcs, quc cs jh phrtc quc sgnrcshjc dcj h`uh. Cstc rcjacvc cs
dctcriaohotc pucstg quc hj`uohs phrtcs dc jh jatgsecrh sc cokucotrho h oavcj dcj ihr y gtrhs iès
jcmgs dcj iasig, jg quc fhkc quc fhyh daecrcotcs tapgs dc hinacotcs co jgs quc sc dcshrrgjjho y
hdhptho pjhoths y hoaihjcs. So cmcipjg kjhrg dc cstg cs quc h dctcriaohdh hjturh, jgs kujtavgs dc
èrngjcs eruthjcs sc dcshrrgjjho icmgr, jg iasig quc jgs hoaihjcs, fhy hoaihjcs quc sc cokucotrho h
oavcj dcj ihr quc og sgnrcvavarého h jh hjtatud y kjaih quc prgvgkho jgs iès dc 6222 ictrgs sgnrc
cj oavcj dcj ihr quc tacoc cj igotc Cvcrcst.
Jh fadrgsecrh. Cs
fadrgsecrh. Cs cj kgomuotg dc phrtcs jéquadhs dcj `jgng tcrrèqucg. Cstc hinacotc cs prgpakag phrh
tgdg tapg dc hoaihjcs hkuètakgs y tcrrcstrcs-hkuètakgs, hdciès dc uo saooýicrg dc cspckacs dc
pjhoths hkuètakhs kgo khrhktcréstakhs quc og pcriatarého su sunsastcokah eucrh dc cjjh.
Jh htiûsecrh. Cs
htiûsecrh. Cs jh phrtc co jh quc sukcdco jgs khinags kjaiètakgs. Cs cj ehktgr iès dctcriaohotc
co jg quc h jh dastranukaûo dc jh vadh co jh tacrrh sc rceacrc, pucs fhkc quc co uo ju`hr dctcriaohdg,
cxastho jhs khrhktcréstakhs prgpakahs phrh quc jh ejgrh y ehuoh pucdho csthnjckcrsc.
>.0. Nagdavcrsadhd. Cspckacs codáiakhs y co pcja`rg
pcja`rg dc cxtaokaûo< su 
su 
prcscrvhkaûo.
Jhs cspckacs codáiakhs, sgo hqucjjhs cspckacs prgpahs g cxkjusavhs dc dctcriaohdhs jgkhjadhdcs g
rc`agocs. Cstg quacrc dckar quc og cxastco co tgdg cj iuodg. [u ju`hr dc rcsadcokah sc rcdukc h uoh
kacrth phrtc dcj `jgng tcrrèqucg.

Cj hvhokc dc jh
ockcsatcigs fuihoadhd
khdh vcz ièskgig cspckac
csphkag phrh dgiaohotc co jhockcsadhdcs.
kunrar oucstrhs tacrrh fh trhédg kgigpgr
Kgig kgosckucokah quc
cmcipjg= `hohr

16

 
 tcrrcog h ngsqucs phrh kgostruar kcotrgs dc pgnjhkaûo, dcegrcsthr `rhodcs cxtcosagocs dc scjvh
phrh gntcocr ihdcrh, ctk.< tgdg jg hotcragr igdaeakh co `rho icdadh jgs ckgsastcihs y dctcragrh cj
cquajanrag ohturhj. Hj cjaiaohr `rho phrtc dc jgs ckgsastcihs kgodcohigs h dasiaouar jhs cspckacs
codáiakhs dcj ju`hr hj `rhdg dc pgocrjhs co pcja`rg dc cxtaokaûo.
Soh cspckac co pcja`rg dc cxtaokaûo, cs tgdh cspckac dc pjhoths g hoaihjcs kuyg oýicrg dc
aodavadugs, pcriatc supgocr quc su cxastcokah cstè co pcja`rg.
[c dcnc pgocr cspckahj htcokaûo co tgihr jhs icdadhs ockcshrahs phrh jh prcscrvhkaûo y
kgoscrvhkaûo dc jh ehuoh y ejgrh codáiakh, yh quc cstg ihotacoc cj cquajanrag ohturhj dcotrg dc jgs
ckgsastcihs. Hj`uohs icdadhs h tgihr pgr phrtc dc jgs `gnacrogs, sgo= dckjhrhr èrchs ohturhjcs
prgtc`adhs, prgfanar jh khzh dc dctcriaohdgs hoaihjcs, pcohr cj trèeakg dc cspckacs prgtc`adhs, ctk.
>.6. ^ckursgs ohturhjcs d
dcj
cj sucjg, sunsucjg, harc y hh`uh.
`uh. Dcshrrgjjg
Dcshrrgjjg  
sustcothnjc.

Jgs rckursgs ohturhjcs sgo tgdgs hqucjjgs ehktgrcs dc jh ohturhjczh quc sgo suskcptanjcs dc
hprgvckfhiacotg pgr phrtc dcj scr fuihog. [go tgdgs hqucjjgs cjcicotgs quc sc cokucotrho co jh
ohturhjczh y quc ockcsathigs phrh jh shtasehkkaûo dc oucstrhs ockcsadhdcs. Cstgs sc cokucotrho co
ju`hrcs dastaotgs, pgr cmcipjg, co cj sunsucjg, co cj sucjg, co cj harc y co cj h`uh.

Dcj sucjg 
sucjg  sc gntacoc jh ihygr khotadhd dc rckursgs ohturhjcs, pucstg quc jh h`rakujturh y jh
`hohdcréh sgo dgs dc jhs hktavadhdcs quc ihygricotc hpgrtho cj hjaicotg quc kgosuiaigs. Kgig
cmcipjg dc rckursgs ohturhjcs dcj sucjg pgdcigs icokagohr= jgs èrngjcs, jgs hoaihjcs dc kgosuig
fuihog, jhs pjhoths dc kgosuig fuihog, ctk.
Jgs rckursgs ohturhjcs dcj sunsucjg, 
sunsucjg,   sgo tgdgs hqucjjgs quc sc cokucotrho dcnhmg dc jh khph
jhngrhnjc, co `cocrhj dcnhmg dcj sucjg. Rhrh jh cxtrhkkaûo dc cstgs rckursgs ohturhjcs, sc rcquacrc
dc cxkhvhr uoh khotadhd dc ictrgs nhmg jh tacrrh dcpcodacodg dcj rckursg quc sc dcscc gntcocr.
Jgs rckursgs dcj sunsucjg pucdco scr hjuiaoag, tczgotjc, pctrûjcg, `hs, h`uh, ctk.
Dcj h`uh, pgdcigs
h`uh, pgdcigs cxtrhcr uoh `rho khotadhd dc rckursgs ohturhjcs, kgig pgr cmcipjg= pcskhdg,
hj`hs ihraohs, shj, cj h`uh dcj ihr, ctk.

Cxastc uoh `rho khotadhd dc ihtcrahjcs quc sc cxtrhco dcj harc

harc thjcs
 thjcs kgig sgo, gxa`cog oatrû`cog,
hr`ûo, ctk., hdciès, cj harc cs utajazhdg kgig eucotc dc cocr`éh cûjakh co jh quc sc hprgvckfh jh
eucrzh dcj vacotg.
>.1. Hinacotc
Hinacotc== dctcragrg y prgtckkaûo.

Hinacotc pucdc dceaoarsc kgig cj kgomuotg dc karkuosthokahs cxtcragrcs h uo scr vavg, cj icdag
hinacotc sgo tgdgs jgs cjcicotgs y karkuosthokahs co jgs kuhjcs ogs dcshrrgjjhigs.
Cj dctcragrg dcj icdag hinacotc cs uo tcih quc co jh hktuhjadhd fh kgnrhdg `rho aipgrthokah,
dcnadg h quc co jgs ýjtaigs høgs jh rcjhkaûo cotrc jgs scrcs fuihogs y jh ohturhjcz
ohturhjczhh fh sad
sadg
g
khthstrûeakh. Jgs hdcjhotgs dc jh kacokah y jh tckogjg`éh fho sadg sûjg cokhiaohdgs h kunrar jhs
ockcsadhdcs dc jh pgnjhkaûo sao prcgkuphrsc pgr cj cquajanrag ohturhj.

11

 
 H cstc rcspcktg sc fho tgihdg icdadhs quc hyudho h prcscrvhr cj cquajanrag ohturhj y hsé cvathr quc
cj dctcragrg dcj icdag hinacotc vhyh co huicotg. Jgs `gnacrogs eariho hkucrdgs co prg dc jh
kgoscrvhkaûo dc jh ohturhjczh, y jh kgiuoadhd aotcrohkagohj sc prcgkuph khdh vcz iès pgr khsta`hr
h jgs `gnacrogs quc og dasiaouyho su ciasaûo dc kgothiaohotcs.
Jgs scrcs fuihogs sc aoegriho c aovgjukrho co gnscrvhr hkkagocs cokhiaohdhs h jh icogr
prgdukkaûo dc rcsadugs ogkavgs phrh cj hinacotc hdciès dc tgihr kgoskacokah dc jhs hkkagocs
cokhiaohdhs h jg`rhr uoh nucoh aotcrhkkaûo cotrc cj scr fuihog y jh ohturhjczh.
>.82. Rgjétakhs y cdukhkaûo hinacothj
hinacothj.. Ckgtckoahs y ckgturasig.

Rgjétakhs hinacothjcs, sgo tgdhs hqucjjhs hkkagocs dc prcvcokaûo, kgoscrvhkaûo y prgtckkaûo hj

icdag hinacotc tgihdhs pgr jh hutgradhd kgipctcotc co uo `gnacrog dctcriaohdg.
Jh cdukhkaûo hinacothj cs jh aostrukkaûo quc sc dh h jh pgnjhkaûo co `cocrhj, cokhiaohdh h jh
prcscrvhkaûo, kgoscrvhkaûo, kuadhdg y prgtckkaûo dcj icdag hinacotc.
Co jh hktuhjadhd fh tgihdg eucrzh cj kgokcptg dc prgtckkaûo dcj hinaco
hinacotc,
tc, dcnadg hhjj `rho dctcra
dctcragrg
grg
quc fh tcoadg co jgs ýjtaigs høgs. Khdh vcz iès ogs prcgkuphigs pgr ihotcocr uo cquajanrag cotrc
jh rcjhkaûo scr fuihog-ohturhjczh, hdgpthodg hkkagocs quc jjcvco h uoh shtasehkkaûo dc oucstrhs
ockcsadhdcs pcrg kgo uo nhmg aiphktg hinacothj.
Fhy hkkagocs co phrtakujhr quc cj `gnacrog tgih phrh jg`rhr cj cquajanrag hotcs icokagohdg, h
kgotaouhkaûo hohjazhrcigs dgs dc cjjhs=
Cogtckoahs. [go tákoakhs quc cj scr fuihog fh dcshrrgjjhdg h trhvás dcj tacipg jhs kuhjcs sc
khrhktcrazho pgr hprgvckfhr ceakacotcicotc jgs rckursgs ohturhjcs. Hj`uohs dc csths ckgtckoahs,
sgo= kgipgsths, rcfýsg dc ngjshs dc eraturhs, khpthkaûo dc h`uh dc jjuvah, nakakjcth kgig igtgr phrh
cxtrhcr h`uh, ctk.
Ckgturasig. Cs uoh egrih dc turasig, kgo jh quc sc prctcodc fhkcr kgiphtanjcs cj daserutc dc éh
ohturhjczh y cj rcspctg hj cquajanrag dcj icdag hinacotc.

;. Daoèiakh dc jh pgnjhkaûo y racs`gs

;.8. Krckaiacotg y dastranukaûo dc jh pgnjhk pgnjhkaûo.
aûo. Rgnjhkaûo hnsgjuth, 
hnsgjuth, 
pgnjhkaûo rcjhtavh.
Co jh sc`uodh iathd dcj sa`jg, jgs dciû`rhegs kgicozhrgo h kucstagohr cj rèpadg huicotg dc jh
pgnjhkaûo. Hearihnho quc cj iuodg og pgdéh sgpgrthr cj krckaiacotg cxpgocokahj dc jh pgnjhkaûo.
Co jgs høgs sctcoth, fung quacocs pcoshrgo quc cj iuodg fhnéh jjc`hdg h su jéiatc dc krckaiacotg
dcig`rèeakg y, co jgs gkfcoths, gtrgs hearihrgo quc jgs rckursgs ohturhjcs crho sueakacotcs phrh
hjaicothr h uoh pgnjhkaûo co huicotg y quc hdciès, jgs hvhokcs tckogjû`akgs y kacotéeakgs
pcriatarého uo ihygr krckaiacotg dc jh pgnjhkaûo, sao hrracs`hr cj icmgrhiacotg dc jhs kgodakagocs
dc vadh dc jh pgnjhkaûo euturh. Jhs prcvasagocs hotcs icokagohdhs fho dhdg jh rhzûo h jgs hohjasths
dc jgs høgs sctcoth. Qh quc hktuhjicotc sc khjkujh quc kgo jh thsh dc krckaiacotg hktuhj dc jh
pgnjhkaûo, co pgkhs dákhdhs sc rcqucrarè dc gtrg iuodg.
Jh dastranukaûo dc jh pgnjhkaûo co cj iuodg sc rcjhkagoh kgo jh cxastcokah, g og, dc jgs cjcicotgs
ohturhjcs ehvgrhnjcs phrh quc uoh pgnjhkaûo dctcriaohdh sc dcshrrgjjc.

822

 
 Jh pgnjhkaûo hnsgjuth. Cs cj oýicrg tgthj dc fhnathotcs dc uo phés, cotadhd ecdcrhtavh, iuoakapag,
kaudhd g jgkhjadhd.
Rgnjhkaûo rcjhtavh. Cs cj oýicrg dc fhnathotcs pgr lajûictrg kuhdrhdg, quc fhnatho co uoh rc`aûo
dctcriaohdh, h cstc vhjgr sc jc kgogkc thinaáo kgig dcosadhd dc pgnjhkaûo. Rhrh gntcocr cstc
dhtg cs ockcshrag davadar jh pgnjhkaûo hnsgjuth dc uo phés cotrc jh khotadhd dc lajûictrgs kuhdrhdgs
dc cxtcosaûo dc tcrrcog kgo jgs quc kucoth. Rgr cmcipjg, sa cj phés kucoth kgo kaco lajûictrgs
kuhdrhdgs y dgs iaj fhnathotcs, cotgokcs su dcosadhd dc pgnjhkaûo cs dc vcaotc fhnathotcs pgr
lajûictrg kuhdrhdg.
;.>. Kaudhdcs y i
icdag
cdag ru
rurhj<
rhj< unakhkaûo
unakhkaûo,, rh
rhs`gs
s`gs y praokaphjcs prgn
prgnjcihs.
jcihs.
Jhs kaudhdcs y jgs icdags rurhjcs sgo dgs egrihs dc hprgpahkaûo dc jh ohturhjczh. Co cj icdag rurhj
sc rchjazho hktavadhdcs prgpahs dcj cotgrog kgig sgo hktavadhdcs h`rékgjhs, pckuhrahs y egrcsthjcs,
jhs kuhjcs egriho phrtc dc jhs prèktakhs quc jgs scrcs fuihogs rchjazho sgnrc jh ohturhjczh. Rgr gtrh
phrtc, co jh kaudhd sc rchjazho hktavadhdcs aodustrahjcs, dc kgicrkag y scrvakags, quc egriho phrtc dc
prèktakhs fuihoazhdhs. Cstg og quacrc dckar quc ohdac pucdh kujtavhr co jh kuadhd g tcocr uoh tacodh
dc hnhrrgtcs co jgs icdags rurhjcs, pcrg og sgo jhs praokaphjcs hktavadhdcs ckgoûiakhs dcj ju`hr.
Cj prgkcsg dc kgokcotrhkaûo dcig`rèeakh co jgs icdags rurhjcs y urnhogs sc prcscotho pgr a`uhj co
phéscs dcshrrgjjhdgs y co phéscs co dcshrrgjjg. Jgs icdags urnhogs co cj iuodg sc khrhktcrazho pgr
su hjth davcrsadhd sgkahj, kujturhj y ckgoûiakh, co kgotrhstc kgo jgs icdags rurhjcs dgodc jh
davcrsadhd sucjc scr icogr, shjvg jh davcrsadhd
davcrsadhd ohturhj y kujturh
kujturhj.j.
Co jgs icdags urnhogs dc jgs phéscs dcshrrgjjhdgs jgs fhnathotcs tacoco hkkcsg h vavacodh, scrvakags
c aoerhcstrukturh urnhoh kgig sgo vahjadhdcs, supcricrkhdgs, phrqucs rckrchtavgs, drcohmc, h`uh
pgthnjc,
pgthn jc, ctk. Cstc hjtg oavcj dc d
dcshrrgjjg
cshrrgjjg sc rcejcmh thinaáo co jhs khrhktcréstakhs kujturhjcs,
kujtu rhjcs, yh quc
fhy uoh ihygr gecrth dc scrvakags dc cstc tapg, hsé kgig ihygrcs gpgrtuoadhdcs dc cipjcg y
dcshrrgjjg ckgoûiakg.
Co kgotrhstc, co jgs phéscs co dcshrrgjjg jh dcsa`uhjdhd rcspcktg h jgs oavcjcs dc vadh co jgs icdags
urnhogs cs kgiýo, hsé, sc dastao`uco jhs èrchs rcsadcokahjcs phrh jh pgnjhkaûo dc nhmgs ao`rcsgs, dc
jhs èrchs rcsadcokahjcs cxkjusavhs phrh jgs fhnathotcs kgo hjtgs ao`rcsgs.
Jgs icdags rurhjcs sc cstèo dcspgnjhodg co cj iuodg. Huoquc co cj icdag rurhj jgs phéscs
dcshrrgjjhdgs pcriatco tcocr oavcjcs dc nacocsthr, cquaphrhnjcs g supcragrcs h jgs urnhogs, co jgs
phéscs pgnrcs y co dcshrrgjjg, shjvg hj`uohs cxkcpkagocs, cj icdag rurhj cs saoûoaig dc ihr`aohkaûo,
htrhsg y pgnrczh.
Co oucstrg phés, cj prcdgiaoag dc jh pgnjhkaûo urnhoh sgnrc jh rurhj cs tgdhvéh ihygr quc co cj
rcstg dcj iuodg. Jh pgnjhkaûo pgnrc y ihr`aohdh dc jhs kaudhdcs tacoc, kgiphrhtavhicotc, iès
gpgrtuoadhdcs dc supcrvavcokah quc su kgotrhphrtc co cj icdag rurhj, kuyh supcrvavcokah dcpcodc
dc hpgygs dcj `gnacrog, dc jh khradhd g dc jh cia`rhkaûo fhkah jhs kaudhdcs.

828

 
 ;.;. Ia`rhkaûo dc jh pgnjhkaûo= tapgs, praokaphjcs ejumgsejumg s ia`rhtgrags, 
ia`rhtgrags, 
cecktgs ckgoûiakgs, sgkahjcs y kujturhjcs co jgs ju`hrcs dc htrhkkaûo 
htrhkkaûo 
 y cxpujsaûo.

H jg jhr`g dc jh fastgrah, davcrsgs `rupgs fuihogs fho adg dc uo tcrratgrag h gtrg nuskhodg
kgodakagocs kjaiètakhs h`rhdhnjcs, sucjgs eártajcs y ihygr sc`uradhd, cotrc gtrhs kgshs.
Ia`rhkaûo cs cj dcspjhzhiacotg `cg`rèeakg dc aodavadugs g `rupgs, `cocrhjicotc pgr khushs

ckgoûiakhs
igvajazh dcsdcg su
sgkahjcs. Cstc
ju`hr dc dcspjhzhiacotg
prgkcdcokah h gtrg, prcscoth dgs igicotgs,
pgscc jh khjadhd uog,rcspcktg
dc cia`rhotc jh pcrsgoh qucquc
hj ju`hr sc
dcmh. Cj gtrg igicotg cs kuhodg jjc`h hj ju`hr dc dcstaog, h csh iasih pcrsgoh sc jc kgosadcrh
aoia`rhotc co cj ju`hr dc dcstaog. Jgs igvaiacotgs ia`rhtgrags pucdco scr=
Dceaoatavgs g tcipgrhjcs. Cstc igvaiacotg sc dceaoc pgr jh aotcokaûo quc tco`h jh pcrsgoh quc sc
dcspjhzh dc satag, sa jg fhkc kgo khrèktcr tcipgrhj, pgr cmcipjg pgr trhnhmg, g jg fhkc dc ihocrh
dceaoatavh, pgr cmcipjg khinahr dc rcsadcokah dc uo csthdg h gtrg.
Ugjuothrags g egrzhdgs. Cstc igvaiacotg sc rceacrc h jh vgjuothd dc jh pcrsgoh quc khinah dc
rcsadcokah, pucstg quc co uogs khsgs cj igvaiacotg cs uoh dckasaûo pcrsgohj, pgr cmcipjg khinahr
dc rcsadcokah pgr csthr kcrkh dc uoh uoavcrsadhd h jh quc sc dcsch hsastar< y pgr gtrh phrtc cstèo jgs
igvaiacotgs gnja`hdgs pgr cj cotgrog co cj quc sc vavc, kgig pgr cmcipjg khinahr dc rcsadcokah
pgr cokgotrhrsc co uo ju`hr co quc sc cs cxtgrsagohdg pgr hj`ýo `rupg kraiaohj.
Aotcrogs g aotcrohkagohjcs. Aotcrogs, sc rceacrc h jgs igvaiacotgs quc sc fhkco dcotrg dc uo phés,
kgig pgr cmcipjg dc uo csthdg dc jh rcpýnjakh h gtrg. Aotcrohkagohjcs, aipjakh quc cj igvaiacotg
sc dh cotrc phéscs, pgr cmcipjg dc Iáxakg h Csthdgs Soadgs dc Ogrtchiárakh.
Cotrc jgs praokaphjcs ejumgs ia`rhtgrags, dcstèkho jh ia`rhkaûo dc jgs phéscs co véhs dc dcshrrgjjg
fhkah jgs phéscs dcshrrgjjhdgs. Gtrg ejumg ia`rhtgrag aipgrthotc cs cj igtavhdg pgr kgoejaktgs
sgkahjcs co tgdg cj iuodg. Jh ia`rhkaûo dc jgs icdags rurhjcs fhkah jhs kaudhdcs co tgdg cj iuodg
cs dc jgs iès kgiuocs.
Jgs ju`hrcs dc htrhkkaûo y cxpujsaûo dc jgs `rupgs ia`rhtgrags trhco kgosa`g vhrahs kgosckucokahs
thotg pgsatavhs kgig oc`htavhs, iasihs quc h kgotaouhkaûo kgicothrcigs=
Cotrc jhs praokaphjcs kgosckucokahs pgsatavhs phrh cj ju`hr dc cia`rhkaûo, sc cokucotrho= jh
dasiaoukaûo dc jh sgnrcpgnjhkaûo, jh cotrhdh dc rcicshs, jh rcdukkaûo co jh sgnrccxpjgthkaûo dc jgs
rckursgs ohturhjcs,
ohtur hjcs, y cj huicotg dc jh vcoth dc prgduktgs ohkagohjcs dcj phés dc gra`
gra`co
co co jgs phéscs
dc dcstaog.
Dc jhs kgosckucokahs oc`htavhs phrh cj ju`hr dc cia`rhkaûo dcsthkho= hj cia`rhr jh pgnjhkaûo mgvco,
co cdhd dc trhnhmhr, jhs pgnjhkagocs qucdho fhnathdhs sûjg pgr hokahogs, iumcrcs y oaøgs, jg quc
dcravh co jh dcsaotc`rhkaûo ehiajahr. Gtrg cecktg cs jh jjhihdh eu`h dc kcrcnrgs quc sa`oaeakh quc hj
tcriaohr jh prcphrhkaûo cskgjhr, jgs prgecsagoasths og cokucotrho trhnhmg, igtavg pgr cj kuhj sc vho
h nuskhr gpgrtuoadhdcs h gtrgs satags.
Co cj ju`hr dc aoia`rhkaûo, jgs hspcktgs pgsatavgs, sgo= jh jjc`hdh dc pcrsgohs mûvcocs co cdhd dc
trhnhmhr h uo ju`hr dgodc prcdgiaoh jh pgnjhkaûo vacmh y jh jjc`hdh dc `cotc kgo cstudags

82>

 
 cspckahjazhdgs sao quc fhyh ockcsadhd dc aovcrtar co su prcphrhkaûo, uoh ihygr davcrsadhd kujturhj
c aokrcicotg co cj kgosuig dcnadg hj huicotg dc su pgnjhkaûo.
Jgs hspcktgs oc`htavgs co cj ju`hr dc aoia`rhkaûo sgo= jh egrihkaûo dc `rupgs átoakgs
kgipjcthicotc sc`rc`hdgs g ihr`aohdgs< jh dasiaoukaûo dc shjhrags, yh quc pgr jg `cocrhj jgs
aoia`rhotcs hkcptho uo shjhrag aoecragr hj quc rckanc jh pgnjhkaûo jgkhj< cj huicotg co jhs
ockcsadhdcs dc scrvakags cdukhtavgs y iádakgs< cj aokrcicotg dc aipgrthkagocs dc prgduktgs dc jgs
ju`hrcs dc prgkcdcokah dc jgs aoia`rhotcs y jh shjadh dc daocrg h jgs ju`hrcs dc prgkcdcokah dc jgs
aoia`rhotcs.
;.4. ^acs`g
^acs`gss y vujocrhnajadhd dc jh pgnjhkaûo. Ehktgrcs dc racs`g
racs`g p
phrh
hrh jg
jgss 
hscothiacotgs fuiho
fuihogs.gs.

Jgs dcshstrcs quc hecktho h jhs pgnjhkagocs sgo dc gra`co ohturhj y fuihog. Jgs prgkcsgs ohturhjcs
y jhs hkkagocs fuihohs sgo ehktgrcs dc racs`g dc dcshstrcs, y co gkhsagocs, ástgs sgo rcsujthdg dc
jh aokhphkadhd dc rcspucsth dc uoh sgkacdhd hotc jgs cecktgs dcstruktavgs dc uo prgkcsg ohturhj g
uo hkkadcotc prgvgkhdg pgr jh hkkaûo fuihoh co uo igicotg y csphkag dctcriaohdgs y co kacrths
kgodakagocs sgkagckgoûiakhs.
Jgs ehktgrcs dc racs`g ohturhjcs y fuihogs, sgo dc tapg `cgjû`akgs, fadrgictcgrgjû`akgs, quéiakgs

y shoathrags.
@cgjû`akgs. Tacoco su gra`co co jh daoèiakh aotcroh y cxtcroh dc jh tacrrh< jgs dc gra`co aotcrog sgo
jgs sasigs y cj vujkhoasig, hsgkahdgs kgo jgs igvaiacotgs tcktûoakgs< jgs dc gra`co cxtcrog sgo jgs
ejumgs dc jgdg, fuodaiacotgs dcj tcrrcog y hvhjhokfhs, vaokujhdgs kgo jh pcodacotc dcj tcrrcog, jh
eucrzh dc jh `rhvcdhd y jhs khrhktcréstakhs dcj sucjg.
^acs`gs fadrgictcgrgjû`akgs. [c rcjhkagoho kgo jh daoèiakh dc jh htiûsecrh y co cjjgs phrtakapho
cjcicotgs táriakgs y hkugsgs< jgs praicrgs `cocrho scquéhs, tgrohdgs, godhs dc khjgr y ercotcs
erégs< jgs sc`uodgs prgvgkho kakjgocs, ocvhdhs, `rhoazhdhs, trginhs, tgricoths cjáktrakhs,
dcsngrdhiacotg dc régs c aouodhkagocs.
^acs`gs quéiakgs. Cstèo rcprcscothdgs pgr dcrrhics dc pctrûjcg co gjcgduktgs, khiagocs kastcroh,
nuqucs thoquc g pjhthegrihs dc pcregrhkaûo< cxpjgsagocs g eu`hs rhdahktavhs co pjhoths dc cocr`éh
oukjchr< dcrrhics dc susthokahs quéiakhs pcja`rgshs co tcrrcogs nhjdégs, phtags, tarhdcrgs
iuoakaphjcs, nhrrhokhs, drcohmcs, régs g ihrcs< aokcodags egrcsthjcs g urnhogs gkhsagohdgs pgr cj
dcskuadg g dcskgogkaiacotg fuihog< kgothiaohkaûo dcj harc< dcpûsatg dc nhsurh h kacjg hnacrtg,
dcskhr`h dc h`uhs rcsaduhjcs co régs, jh`gs, prcshs, jh`uohs y ihrcs, ctk. Jhs praokaphjcs susthokahs
quc rcprcscotho racs`g quéiakg sgo= cj `hs dgiástakg, higoahkg, èkadg sujeýrakg, kjgrg, `hsgjaoh,
hjkgfgj
hjkgfgj ctéjakg y èkadg ejugrfédrakg, cotrc gtrhs.
^acs`gs shoathrags. Aokjuyco pjh`hs, varus, nhktcrahs, fgo`gs, phrèsatgs, cspgrhs g tgxaohs quc
pucdco heckthr
heckth r hj scr fuihog, h jgs kujtavgs,
kujta vgs, jh vc`cthkaûo y jh ehuoh sajvc
sajvcstrc
strc.. Hj a`uh
a`uhjj quc jgs racs`g
racs`gss
fadrgictcgrgjû`akgs cstc tapg dc racs`g sc hsgkah kgo jhs kgodakagocs kjaiètakhs yh quc jh
tcipcrhturh y jh fuicdhd ehvgrckco g jaiatho jh prgdukkaûo dc jgs iakrggr`hoasigs, jgs kuhjcs sc
prgph`ho pgr icdag dcj vacotg g hj kgothktg darcktg kgo jgs gr`hoasigs heckthdgs, y pucdco
prgdukar codciahs, cpadciahs y phodciahs.

82;

 
 ;.3. ]gohs dc vujocrhnajadhd phrh jh pgnjhkaû
pgnjhkaûo.
o.

Jh vujocrhnajadhd cs cj `rhdg dc erh`ajadhd dc uoh pgnjhkaûo ercotc h uo dcshstrc. Csth erh`ajadhd

tacoc quc vcr kgo jgs tapgs dc racs`g, su aokadcokah co uo ju`hr, y kgo hspcktgs sgkahjcs kgig jh
aoerhcstrukturh
aoerhcst rukturh urnhoh= cj tapg d
dcc kgostrukkagocs, jhs khrhktcréstakhs dc jhs vavacodhs, jh da
dastranukaûo
stranukaûo
y dcosadhd dc jh pgnjhkaûo, jh khphkadhd dc gr`hoazhkaûo, cotrc gtrgs. Co jgs phéscs dcshrrgjjhdgs, jh
vujocrhnajadhd hotc jgs racs`gs cs icogr quc co jgs phéscs co véhs dc dcshrrgjjg, yh quc ásth `uhrdh
rcjhkaûo kgo jhs kgodakagocs sgkahjcs y ckgoûiakhs dc jh pgnjhkaûo.
Cj `rhdg dc vujocrhnajadhd dc uoh pcrsgoh, ehiajah g kgiuoadhd cstè dctcriaohdg pgr su cxpgsakaûo
h jgs ehktgrcs dc racs`g y su khphkadhd phrh hergothr y rcsastar satuhkagocs dc dcshstrc. Cj krckaiacotg
dc èrchs urnhohs suihdg hj khinag kjaiètakg, huicoth déh kgo déh jh vujocrhnajadhd dc jh pgnjhkaûo
hotc jgs dcshstrcs dc gra`co ohturhj. Jgs phéscs pgnrcs sgo jgs iès heckthdgs pgr jh aotcosadhd y
erckucokah dc jgs dcshstrcs y iès daeékaj cs su rckupcrhkaûo.

4. Csphkags ckgoûiakgs
ckgoûiakg s y dcsa`uhjdhd sgkahj
4.8. ^c`agoc dc  
^c`agocss h`rékgjhs, `hohdcrhs, egrcsthjcs, pcsqucrhs y iaocrhs dc
Iáxakg y dcj Iuodg.

Jh cxastcokah, dastranukaûo y usg dc jgs rckursgs ohturhjcs og cs a`uhj co cj iuodg< hj`uogs phéscs
jgs tacoco co hnuodhokah y gtrgs khrckco dc jgs iès ockcshrags phrh prgigvcr cj prg`rcsg
ckgoûiakg.
Csth aocquadhd cs khush dcj sundcshrrgjjg co jhs ohkagocs. Cj hprgvckfhiacotg dc jgs rckursgs
ohturh
oht urhjcs
jcs og sc dh dc jh iasih ihocrh co tgdg ccjj iuodg, vhréh sc`ýo jh raquczh ohturhj
ohturhj dcj csphkag
`cg`rèeakg y jh khphkadhd dc hprgvckfhiacotg dcj phés co cj quc sc cokucotrc. H kgotaouhkaûo
cxpgodrcigs jhs praokaphjcs rc`agocs dc cxpjgthkaûo co Iáxakg y cj iuodg.
Jgs csphkags h`rékgjhs, `hohdcrgs, egrcsthjcs, pcsqucrgs y iaocrgs, sc cokucotrho co tgthj
kgrrcspgodcokah kgo jhs kgodakagocs dcj kjaih, rcjacvc, fadrg`rheéh y sucjg, quc jgs ehvgrckco kgig
hktavadhdcs ckgoûiakhs rcothnjcs, pgr cmcipjg=
Jh h`rakujturh sc rchjazh praokaphjicotc co jgs `rhodcs vhjjcs arra`hdgs ¡ngr régs khudhjgsgs<
Jh `hohdcréh dcpcodc dc jh cxastcokah dc phstgs co jjhogs y pjhoakacs<
Jh hktavadhd egrcsthj sc jjcvh h khng praokaphjicotc co sacrrhs y jgicrégs quc fho jg`rhdg
sunsastar h jh cxphosaûo h`rékgjh, `hohdcrh y urnhoh<
Rgr su phrtc jh pcskh ihraoh sc rchjazh co h`uhs eréhs, dgodc cxastco ihygrcs vgjýicocs y
vhracdhd dc prgduktgs pcsqucrgs quc co h`uhs trgpakhjcs. Jh ihygr phrtc dc jh pcskh sc
rchjazh kcrkh dc jgs jatgrhjcs, dgodc jh ehuoh ihraoh hprgvckfh jgs dctratgs gr`èoakgs quc
hpgrtho jgs régs hj ihr. Jh iaocréh sc dh kgo jh cxtrhkkaûo dc iaocrhjcs dcj sunsucjg.
4.>. Csphkags aodustrahjcs dc Iáxakg y dcj Iuodg.

Jh dastranukaûo dc jgs csphkags aodustrahjcs co cj iuodg gncdckc h davcrsgs ehktgrcs dc grdco

ckgoûiakg y, iuy rckacotcicotc, hinacothj. Jhs aodustrahs sc jgkhjazho co ju`hrcs quc `hrhotakco
su vahnajadhd ckgoûiakh, y fho sadg gnja`hdhs h dcspjhzhrsc h phéscs dgodc jhs rcstrakkagocs
hinacothjcs sgo iéoaihs g oujhs. Hsé tcocigs uo trhsjhdg krckacotc dc jhs aodustrahs quc iès

82
824
4

 
 kgothiaoho cj sucjg, cj h`uh y cj harc fhkah jgs phéscs pgnrcs, quc shkraeakho su nacocsthr hinacothj
h khinag dc krchkaûo dc cipjcgs quc i iukfg
ukfg ockcsat
ockcsatho.
ho. Jhs kgodakagocs quc nuskh jh aodustrah cotrc
gtrhs, sgo=
Ihtcrahs praihs y eucotcs dc cocr`éh prûxaihs.
Ihog dc gnrh hnuodhotc, nhrhth y khjaeakhdh.
Khrrctcrhs, hcrgpucrtgs, véhs ecrrgvahrahs y pucrtgs kcrkhogs.
Trhospgrtcs y kgiuo
kgiuoakhkagocs
akhkagocs rèpadhs y ceakacotcs.
- Hpgygs dc `gnacrogs
Icrkhdgs prûxaigs co cxcokaûo
phrh dc aipucstgs
jh rèpadh y thshs
dastranukaûo, prcecr
prcecrcokahj
cokahjcs
cs cco
kgicrkahjazhkaûo yo juz
juz,
, h`
h`uh
uh y prcdahj.
kgosuig dc jgs
prgduktgs.
Co Iáxakg, jgs praokaphjcs csphkags aodustrahjcs sgo jhs kaudhdcs, phrqucs, kgrrcdgrcs y kcotrgs
aodustrahjcs. Jgs ncoceakags quc hpgrtho jhs aodustrahs sgo iukfgs, pgr cmcipjg, `cocrho eucotcs dc
cipjcg co jhs kaudhdcs y jgs csphkags pcraurnhogs, prgpakaho cj dcshrrgjjg rc`agohj y prgiucvco cj
aotcrkhinag kgicrkahj. [ao cinhr`g, thinaáo prgvgkho kgokcotrhkaûo dc jh pgnjhkaûo,
kgothiaohkaûo
kgothi aohkaûo hinacothj, dctcragrg y cxtaokaûo dc jgs rckursgs ohturhjcs, krckaiacotg dc jh ergotcrh
urnhoh, aosueakacokah dc jgs scrvakags pýnjakgs y hjth rgthkaûo co cj cipjcg. Jgs praokaphjcs csphkags
aodustrahjcs sc jgkhjazho co jh kaudhd dc Iáxakg, Igotcrrcy, @uhdhjhmhrh, Tgrrcûo-@ûicz Rhjhkag y
kaudhdcs ergotcrazhs dcj ogrtc kgig Tamuhoh, Icxakhja, Oucvg Jhrcdg, Kaudhd Muèrcz, ^cyogsh y
Ihthigrgs.
4.;. Ejumgs kgicrkah
kgicrkahjcs, Iáxakg  
jcs, rcdcs dc trhospgrtc y kgiuoakhkagocs dc Iáxakg
 y dcj Iuodg.

Cj kgicrkag cs uoh dc jhs hktavadhdcs ckgoûiakhs iès aipgrthotcs, y hktýh kgig aotcricdahrag
cotrc prgduktgrc
prgduktgrcss y kgosuiadgrcs.
Dcotrg dcj kgicrkag cokgotrhigs dgs pgjétakhs kgicrkahjcs quc dctcriaoho kûig sc jjcvh h khng
cj kgicrkag co jgs daecrcotcs csthdgs kgo rcspcktg h jgs prgduktgs prgvcoacotcs dc gtrgs csthdgs,
ásths sgo=
Rgjétakhs prgtckkagoasths. Cj csthdg csthnjckc hrhokcjcs g aipucstgs h jgs prgduktgs dc aipgrthkaûo,
cstg kgig icdadh dc prgtckkaûo hj icrkhdg ohkagohj.
Rgjétakhs dc janrc kgicrkag. Kgig su oginrc jg dakc aodakho jgs prgduktgs aipgrthdgs quc sgo dc
janrc kgicrkahjazhk
kgicrkahjazhkaûo.
aûo.
Cj kgicrkag ockcsath dc rcdcs dc trhospgrtc y kgiuoakhkagocs igdcrohs y ceakacotcs quc fh`ho
pgsanjc jh karkujhkaûo dc jgs prgduktgs kgo rhpadcz y sc`uradhd. Jh ohturhjczh dc jgs prgduktgs
dcihodh kacrtg tapg dc trhospgrtc dc hkucrdg kgo su vgjuico, vhjgr, khdukadhd, erh`ajadhd g
tcipcrhturh.
Fgy co déh jgs icdags dc kgiuoakhkaûo, kgig aotcroct, pgsanajatho jgs aotcrkhinags kgicrkahjcs
cotrc phéscs y ju`hrcs iuy jcmhogs< thinaáo kgotranuyco phrh csc cecktg, jhs trhoshkkagocs nhokhrahs
dc daocrg quc h`ajazho jgs ph`gs, aodcpcodacotcicotc dc jgs ju`hrcs dgodc sc cokucotrco
kgiprhdgrcs y vcodcdgrcs,

823

 
 Co Iáxakg, cj trhospgrtc tcrrcstrc dc icrkhokéhs y phshmcrgs cs cj iès aipgrthotc y sc hpgyh co
iès dc ;22 iaj lajûictrgs dc khrrctcrhs y iès dc >5 iaj lajûictrgs dc véhs eárrchs. Cj trhospgrtc
hárcg sc hpgyh co 56 hcrgpucrtgs= >5 ohkagohjcs y 4> aotcrohkagohjcs. Co kuhotg h pucrtgs
ihrétaigs, dcsthkho jgs dc Coscohdh, Rucrtg Uhjjhrth, @uhyihs, Ihzhtjèo, [hjaoh Kruz, Jèzhrg
Kèrdcohs, Hkhpujkg,
Hkhpujkg, Thipakg, Ucrhkruz, cotrc iuk
iukfgs
fgs gtrgs.
4.4. Csphkags turéstakgs.
Cj turasig cs uoh hktavadhd quc sc rchjazh `cocrhjicotc pgr eaocs dc gkag g pjhkcr. Cxastco uo saoeéo
dá igtavgs phrh fhkcr turasig hktuhjicotc, thjcs kgig sgo= pjhkcr, gkag, shjud, kgogkaiacotg g
oc`gkags, ctk. Nhmg cstc kgokcptg cokgotrhigs davcrsgs tapgs dc turasig kgig pgr cmcipjg,
turasigs dc ohturhjczh, turasig kujturhj ctk.
Dcotrg dc jgs kgotaocotcs quc kgoegriho jh tacrrh, cxastc uo saoeéo dc dcstaogs turéstakgs cotrc jgs
quc dcsthkho=
Curgph. Co cstc kgotaocotc jgs phéscs kgo iès hejucokah turéstakh sgo Erhokah, Athjah y Csphøh, kuyhs
Curgph. Co
kaudhdcs fastûrakhs tacoco uo `rho vhjgr kujturhj= Rhrés, Igotckhrjg, ^gih, Csthdg Uhtakhog,
Ucockah, Ihdrad, Nhrkcjgoh y [cvajjh, ctk. Co dakfg kgotaocotc thinaáo sgo iuy vasathdhs jhs
kaudhdcs kgig= Jgodrcs co Ao`jhtcrrh< Nrýkcjhs y Nrumhs, co Náj`akh< Èistcrdhi co jgs Rhéscs Nhmgs<
Erholeurt y Fhinur`g co Hjcihoah< Uacoh co Hustrah< Igský y [ho Rctcrsnur`g, co ^usah y Rrh`h co

^cpýnjakh Kfckh.
 Hiárakh. Cj
 Hiárakh.  Cj turasig co cj kgotaocotc hicrakhog sc rcphrtc cotrc jhs kaudhdcs y jgs dcstaogs dc pjhyh.
Dcsthkho Oucvh Qgrl, jhs Uc`hs, Iahia y [ho Erhokaskg co Csthdgs Soadgs dc Hiárakh, hsé kgig
Khokýo, jgs Khngs, Hkhpujkg y jh Kaudhd dc Iáxakg, co oucstrg phés. Co jhs asjhs dcj Khranc sgnrcshjc
jh Fhnhoh, co Kunh< jhs pjhyhs dc jhs Nhfhihs y [ho Muho co Rucrtg ^akg. Co Hiárakh Kcotrhj
sgnrcshjc cj ckgturasig dc Kgsth ^akh< co Hiárakh dcj [ur, jhs zgohs hrqucgjû`akhs dc, Rcrý< ^ég dc
Mhocarg,
Mhoc arg, co Nrhs
Nrhsaj<
aj< Nucogs Harcs
Harcs,, Nhra
Nhrajgkfc
jgkfc y jgs `jhkahrcs dc jjhh Tacr
Tacrrh
rh dc Eu
Euc`g,
c`g, co Hr`cota
Hr`cotaoh<
oh< Ruoth
dcj Cstc, co Sru`uhy y Uaøh dcj Ihr, [hotah`g y Ruoth Hrcohs, co Kfajc< hsé kgig Khrth`coh dc Aodahs
y [ho Hodrás co Kgjginah.
 Hsah.   [c kgomu`ho kaudhdcs y igouicotgs fastûrakgs rcja`agsgs kgo pjhyhs y satags turéstakgs dc
 Hsah. 
vho`uhrdah. [gnrcshjco Rcléo, Fgo` Lgo`, Thawèo y jh Iurhjjh Kfaoh< Tglag co Mhpûo< Oucvh Dcjfa y
Iuinha, co Aodah. Jhs pjhyhs dc Thajhodah, Ihjhsah, [ao`hpur c Aodgocsah. Co icdag gracotc dcsthkho
Dunèa co jgs Ciarhtgs Èrhncs Soadgs< Holhrh y Csthinuj, co Turquéh< y Mcrushjáo co Asrhcj.
 Èerakh.  [c unakho dcstaogs dc aotcrás fastûrakg y hrqucgjû`akg, kgig ^hnht y Khshnjhokh co
 Èerakh. 
Ihrruckgs< cj Kharg y Hjcmhodréh, hdciès dc jhs parèiadcs dc dastaoths kaudhdcs dc C`aptg, y
Mgfhoocsnur`g, co [udèerakh.
Gkchoéh. Co cstc kgotaocotc, sgo iuy vasathdhs jhs kaudhdcs dc [édocy y Icjnguroc, co Hustrhjah< y
Gkchoéh. Co
Pcjjao`tgo, co Oucvh ]cjhodh.
4.3. @agnhjazhkaûo. Gr`hoasigs ckgoûiakgs aotcrohkag
aotcrohkagohjcs
ohjcs y ciprcs
ciprcshs
hs  
trhosohkagohjcs.

Jh `agnhjazhkaûo
hjkhozhodg uoh sc pucdc dceaoa
dceaoar
daicosaûo r kgig
iuodahj qucjh sgnrcphsh
tcodcok
tcodcokah
ah dc
jhsjgs icrkhdgs
ergotcrhs y dc jhs ciprcshs h cxtcodcrs
ohkagohjcs. cxtcodcrsc,
c,

825

 
 Dcnadg h csth cxphosaûo, sur`co prgnjcihs gkhsagohdgs pgr cj trhsphsg dc jhs ergotcrhs. Co cstc
kgotcxtg, sur`co aotcrrg`hotcs kgig= ·H quá phés dcnc ph`hrsc jgs aipucstgs7, co khsg dc cxastar
aokuipjaiacotg dc uo kgotrhtg, ·Kuèj cs jh hutgradhd kgipctcotc phrh daraiar csth kgotrgvcrsah7,
ctk. Ásths y iukfhs gtrhs kucstagocs, fho gnja`hdg h jgs gr`hoasigs aotcrohkagohjcs h gkuphrsc dc
va`ajhr, muz`hr y, co su khsg, dckadar sgnrc jhs kgotrgvcrsahs aotcrohkagohjcs.
Jgs gr`hoasigs aotcrohkagohjcs iès aipgrthotcs dcj iuodg sgo=
Cj Egodg Igocthrag Aotcrohkagohj (EIA). Cj EIA, kgostatuadg pgr 863 phéscs, tacoc kgig icth jg`rhr
jh csthnajadhd eaohokacrh, kgicrkahj y ckgoûiakh dc jhs ohkagocs icdahotc jh hscsgréh tákoakh, jgs
krádatgs kgodakagohdgs, jh prgigkaûo dc kgicrkag aotcrohkagohj y jh rckupcrhkaûo ckgoûiakh.
Cj Nhokg Iuodahj (NI). Tgdgs nuskho prgigvcr cj dcshrrgjjg dc jhs ohkagocs. Cj NI, cstè aotc`rhdg
pgr >63 phéscs. [us eaocs sgo hpgyhr cj dcshrrgjjg dc jgs phéscs iacinrgs, h quacocs jcs gtgr`h
krádatgs phrh prgycktgs
prgycktgs cdukhtavgs, dc shjud, dc aoerhcstrukturh urnhoh, cotrc gtrgs.
Jh Gr`hoazhkaûo Iuodahj dc Kgicrkag (GIK). Jh GIK, kucoth kgo 832 phéscs iacinrgs y tacoc
kgig gnmctavg rc`ujhr cj kgicrkag aotcrohkagohj< nuskh cjaiaohr jgs hrhokcjcs g aipucstgs quc sc
ph`ho pgr jh cxpgrthkaûo kgicrkahj< nuskh thinaáo, huoquc sao iukfg áxatg, hkhnhr kgo jhs pgjétakhs
prgtckkagoasths
prgtckka goasths y dc sun
sunsadags
sadags dc jgs phéscs rakgs h sus hktavadhdcs h`rékgjhs c aodustr
aodustrahjcs.
ahjcs. Kgostatuyc
hj gpcrhdgr ièxaig dc jh `jgnhjazhkaûo ckgoûiakh icdahotc jh dcshphrakaûo dc jhs ergotcrhs
kgicrkahjcs cotrc ohkagocs y njgqucs ckgoûiakgs.
Jh Gr`hoazhkaûo phrh jh Kggpcrhkaûo y cj Dcshrrgjjg Ckgoûiakg (GKDC). Cstc gr`hoasig cs, co
cscokah, uo gr`hoasig dc kggpcrhkaûo aotcrohkagohj dc jgs phéscs rakgs, kuyg prgpûsatg cs jh
kggrdaohkaûo pgjétakh y ckgoûiakh aotcroh. Rhrh cjjg rchjazh rcuoagocs dc jgs "0", egrihdh pgr
Csthdgs Soadgs dc Hiárakh, Erhokah, Mhpûo, Ao`jhtcrrh, Hjcihoah, Khohdè c Athjah. Co csths rcuoagocs
jgs phéscs rakgs pgoco co jh icsh dc oc`gkahkagocs cj khpathj y jh tckogjg`éh< y jgs phéscs rcsthotcs
sus rckursgs ohturhjcs y fuihogs, nhrhtgs y hnuodhotcs. Eaohjicotc, hotc jh dckjaohkaûo prg`rcsavh
dcj pgdcr pgjétakg y ckgoûiakg dc jgs `gnacrogs, tgdgs jgs gr`hoasigs ckgoûiakgs aotcrohkagohjcs
gncdckco h jgs aotcrcscs dc jhs ciprcshs trhsohkagohjcs, jg quc aokrcicoth jhs daecrcokahs co cj
dcshrrgjjg sgkagckgoûiakg dc jgs phéscs rakgs y pgnrcs.

Jhs ciprcshs
gra`co trhosohkagohjcs.
phrh aosthjhr sus eajahjcs [go hqucjjhs
co gtrhs ciprcshs
ohkagocs. quc trhskacodco
Iukfhs jhs ergotcrhs
dc csths ciprcshs dc jh
sa`uco ohkaûo dcy
krckacodg
hscotèodgsc co davcrsgs phéscs, pgr jg quc sc jcs jjhih iujtaohkagohjcs, y, kuhodg hjkhozho uo
pgdcr ckgoûiakg y pgjétakg pgr cokaih dc jhs ohkagocs dgodc sc jgkhjazho, sc jcs jjhih
suprhohkagohjcs. Tgdhs csths ciprcshs `coárakhicotc dcogiaohdhs trhosohkagohjcs tacoco su
gra`co y ihtraz praokaphj co jgs phéscs dcshrrgjjhdgs= hfé sc jgkhjazh co 68% dcj tgthj, co thotg cj 81%
kgrrcspgodc h jgs phéscs cicr`cotcs g sundcshrrgjjhdgs.
Cotrc jhs ciprcshs trhosohkagohjcs dcsthkho jhs dcdakhdhs h jhs hktavadhdcs eaohokacrhs, aodustrahjcs
y kgicrkahjcs, huoquc hj`uohs sc dcdakho h hktavadhdcs prgpahs dcj khipg. Jhs kgodakagocs quc
nuskho phrh unakhrsc co uo phés g ju`hr dctcriaohdg sgo jhs sa`uacotcs=
Cxastcokah dc rckursgs ohturhjcs.
Ihog dc gnrh nhrhth, hnuodhotc y khjaeakhdh.
Icrkhdgs dc kgosuig kcrkhogs y dc `rho thihøg.

820

 
 Uéhs dc hkkcsg tcrrcstrc, hárcg y/g ihrétaig ceakacotcs y rèpadhs.
Kgotrhthkaûo dc pcqucøhs y icdahohs ciprcshs< y ihquajhdgrhs y prgvccdgrhs dc nacocs
y scrvakags.
Cxcokagocs hinacothjcs.
Rravajc`ags
Rravajc`ags easkhjcs.
Rgjétakhs jhngrhjcs ehvgrhnjcs.
[c`uradhd y phz sgkahj.
Oao`uoh rcstrakkaûo phrh su gpcrhkaûo y krckaiacotg.
4.5. Rraokaphjcs rc`agocs kgicrk
kgicrkahjcs
ahjcs y kaudhdcs iuodahjcs.
Jhs rc`agocs kgicrkahjcs, jhs kaudhdcs iuodahjcs y jgs kcotrgs eaohokacrgs aotcrhktýho co egrih
kgipjcmh pcrg cecktavh phrh gr`hoazhr jh ckgogiéh iuodahj. Jhs rc`agocs g jgs njgqucs kgicrkahjcs
sgo `rupgs dc phéscs quc sc fho aotc`rhdg kgo nhsc co hkucrdgs, trhthdgs y rcuoagocs kgicrkahjcs
phrh egrthjckcr y hpgyhr sus ckgogiéhs. Jhs kaudhdcs iuodahjcs, sgo jgs kcotrgs hdiaoastrhtavgs
dgodc sc tgiho jhs dckasagocs dc gpcrhkaûo y euokagohiacotg dc jhs rcjhkagocs kgicrkahjcs cotrc
jgs phéscs iacinrgs. Jgs kcotrgs eaohokacrgs kgoegriho uoh rcd dc nhokgs, kuygs khpathjcs iukfhs
vckcs ejuyco phrh hpgyhr y rc`ujhr jhs ckgogiéhs dc jhs ohkagocs.
Jhs rc`agocs kgicrkahjcs dcj iuodg sc khrhktcrazho pgr prcscotho uo hkucrdg quc kgiprgictc h
jgs phéscs co sus pgsakagocs ckgoûiakhs y pgjétakhs hj aotcragr dc khdh njgquc ckgoûiakg kgo cj

prgpûsatg dckgostatuadgs,
kgicrkahjcs aokursagohr hj`uogs
kgo vcothmh jgs trhdakaûo
dc jhr`h icrkhdgsaotcrohkagohj
aotcrohkagohjcs. Cxastco
y gtrgs iès dckrchkaûo.
dc rckacotc >2 `rupgs
[ao
cinhr`g, jgs quc iès dcsthkho sgo cj TJKHO, jh SC y jh HRCK.
4.0. Jh dcsa`uhjdhd sgkagckgoûiakh= daecrcokahs co cj éodakc dc Dcshrrgjjg 
Dcshrrgjjg 
Fuihog dc jgs phéscs Kcotrhjcs, Rcraeárakgs y [ciapcraeárakgs.
Jh dcsa`uhjdhd sgkagckgoûiakh cs kgosckucokah dcj igdcjg ckgoûiakg va`cotc co cj iuodg, quc
tacodc h hkuiujhr raquczhs cotrc jhs pcrsgohs, `rupgs, ciprcshs y phéscs iès daoèiakgs, icmgr
prcphrhdgs, iès kgipctatavgs y kgo aoakahtavhs iès ogvcdgshs.
Co tgdhs jhs sgkacdhdcs fhy dastaotgs `rhdgs dc dcsa`uhjdhd, pucstg quc fhy sgkacdhdcs co jhs quc
jh ihygr phrtc dc jh pgnjhkaûo cs pgnrc y jh raquczh sc kgokcotrh co uogs pgkgs, y co khinag, fhy
phéscscocosatuhkaûo
vavco jgs quc dc
jh ihygréh
pgnrczh.dc jh pgnjhkaûo tacoc uo pgdcr hdquasatavg hjtg y pgkgs sgo jgs quc
Cj dcshrrgjjg sgkahj cstè vaokujhdg h jh khjadhd dc vadh dc jhs pcrsgohs icdahotc jh cdukhkaûo, jh
shjud y jh kujturh, co thotg quc cj prg`rcsg ckgoûiakg cstè vaokujhdg kgo jhs kgodakagocs ihtcrahjcs
icdahotc cj ao`rcsg, cj pgdcr dc kgiprh y jgs nacocs dc kgosuig. Rgr jg thotg, cj dcshrrgjjg y cj
prg`rcsg sgo dgs kgipgocotcs dastaotgs pcrg kgipjcicothrags quc dceaoco jh a`uhjdhd g
dcsa`uhjdhd sgkagckgoûiakh dc jh pgnjhkaûo.
Cj éodakc dc Dcshrrgjjg Fuihog (ADF) euc krchdg co 8112 h trhvás dcj Rrg`rhih dc jhs Ohkagocs
Soadhs phrh cj Dcshrrgjjg (ROSD). [u gnmctavg cs icdar cj dcshrrgjjg dc uo phés, csthdg g iuoakapag
h phrtar dc uo éodakc quc pcriath aotc`rhr dhtgs sgkahjcs y ckgoûiakgs dc su pgnjhkaûo. Rhrh cjjg sc
dckadaû tgihr co kucoth dhtgs hktuhjazhdgs, vcrhkcs y kgoeahnjcs dc trcs aodakhdgrcs nèsakgs=

826

 
 Cspcrhozh dc vadh hj ohkcr (>3 h 63 høgs). Cstc aodakhdgr iucstrh cj pcrégdg prgnhnjc dc
vadh dc jhs pcrsgohs. Cstc iucstrcg cs jh cspcrhozh dc vadh prgicdag dc uoh pcrsgoh quc
vavc co dctcriaohdg ju`hr.
Høgs dc aostrukkaûo= (2 h >3 høgs). Aodakho cj oavcj dc kgogkaiacotgs, kujturh y kgodakagocs
dc vadh dc jhs pcrsgohs. Iadc cj prgicdag dc høgs dc cstudag dc uoh pcrsgoh quc vavc co
dctcriaohdg ju`hr.
RAN pcr kèpath= (822 h 42 222 dûjhrcs). Aodakh cj ao`rcsg octg g tgthj dc jhs pcrsgohs co uo
høg. Huoquc co hj`uohs satuhkagocs csgs vhjgrcs sgo cstaihtavgs pucs fhy khsgs quc og
hjkhozho cj iéoaig y sgnrcphsho pgr iukfg cj ièxaig.
Cj éodakc dc Dcshrrgjjg Fuihog tacoc uo vhjgr iéoaig dc 2 y kgig vhjgr ièxaig dc 8, y pcriatc
kjhsaeakhr h jgs phéscs co kaokg `rupgs=
Dcshrrgjjg Fuihog iuy Hjtg, kgo vhjgrcs dc 2.628 h 8.222
Dcshrrgjjg Fuihog Hjtg, kgo vhjgr
vhjgrcs
cs dc 2.0
2.028
28 h 2.62
2.6222
Dcshrrgjjg Fuihog Icdag, kgo vhjgr
vhjgrcs
cs d
dcc 2.5
2.528
28 h 2.022
Dcshrrgjjg Fuihog Nhmg, kgo vhjgrcs dc 2.328 h 2.522
Dcshrrgjjg Fuihog iuy Nhmg, kgo vhjgrcs aoecragrcs dc 2.322
Cj kgokcptg kcotrg-pcraecrah aotrgdukc uoh khtc`gréh tcrratgrahj co cj hoèjasas dc dcshrrgjjg
ckgoûiakg. Cj kcotrg y jh pcraecrah tacoco cstrukturhs prgduktavhs daecrcotcs. Co cj kcotrg, cj
prg`rcsg tckogjû`akg aokrcicoth jh prgduktavadhd< co khinag jh pcraecrah suiaoastrh jgs rckursgs
ohturhjcs y fuihogs. Hsé sc csthnjckc uoh rcjhkaûo dcsa`uhj, dgodc cj kcotrg utajazh h su ehvgr cj
trhnhmg dc jh pcraecrah. Cstc igdcjg kcotrg-pcraecrah, thinaáo fh sadg utajazhdg phrh aotcrprcthr jhs
rcjhkagocs
rcjhkago cs ckgoûiakhs dcsa`uhjcs cot
cotrc
rc jgs phéscs g cotadhdcs dc uo iasi
iasigg phés y cotrc jhs kaudhdcs
y cj
cj icdag rurhj. Dc csths kgiphrhkago
kgiphrhkagocs
cs sur`aû
sur`aû uuoh
oh tcrkcrh
tcr kcrh khtc`gréh quc cs hj sciap
sciapcrae
craecrah,
crah, jh
kuhj kginaoh hj`uohs dc jhs daecrcokahs quc khrhktcrazho hj kcotrg y jh pcraecrah.

3. Csphkags kujturhjcs
kujtur hjcs y pgjétakgs
3.8. Davcrsadhd kuj
kujturhj
turhj dc Iáxakg y dcj Iuodg=
Iuodg= ctoahs, jco`uhs,
jco`uhs,  
rcja`agocs y phtraigoag kujturhj.

Rgdcigs
`rhdg dc dceaoar jh phjhnrh
dcshrrgjjg kujturh
hrtéstakg, kgig kgomuotg
kacotéeakg, dc `rupg
aodustrahj, igdgs sgkahj
dc vadh,ctk.,
kgstuinrcs, kgogkaiacotgs,
co uoh ápgkh y ju`hr
dctcriaohdgs.
Khdh pucnjg, kaudhd, csthdg, phés, ctk., tacoc dcotrg dc su tcrratgrag uo saoeéo dc `rupgs sgkahjcs quc
kucotho kgo su prgpah adcotadhd kujturhj. Dcotrg dc csth davcrsadhd, cokgotrhigs khrhktcréstakhs
quc daecrcokaho uohs dc gtrhs, quc cxpjakhrcigs h kgotaouhkaûo.
Ctoahs. Soh ctoah cs uoh kgiuoadhd fuihoh dceaoadh pgr heaohkagocs rhkahjcs, jao`úéstakhs,
kujturhjcs, ctk. [c pcrtcockc h uoh ctoah g `rupg sgkahj kuhodg hj`uaco sc adcotaeakh kgo uoh
kgiuoadhd pgr kgiphrtar jhs iasihs kgstuinrcs, kgjgr dc pacj, rcja`aûo, ctk. og gnsthotc, cj `rupg
thinaáo dcnc hkcpthr h sus iacinrgs kgig thjcs. Cstc fckfg dceaoc kujturhjicotc h uo `rupg
sgkahj pgr su heaoadhd dcotrg dc jhs hktavadhdcs quc rchjakc.

821

 
 Jco`uhs. Jh jc`uh cs cj sastcih dc kgiuoakhkaûo vcrnhj y khsa saciprc cskratg, prgpag dc uoh
kgiuoadhd fuihoh. Jh egrih dc kgiuoakhrogs fh sadg jh phuth phrh quc uo dctcriaohdg `rupg
sgkahj sc adcotaeaquc cotrc sé, cs jh egrih iès cecktavh dc pjhsihr y trhosiatar jh kujturh dcj `rupg g
ctoah.
^cja`agocs. Jh rcja`aûo cs cj kgomuotg dc krccokahs g dg`ihs hkcrkh dc jh davaoadhd, dc scotaiacotgs
dc vcocrhkaûo y tcigr fhkah cjjh, dc ogrihs igrhjcs phrh jh kgodukth aodavaduhj y sgkahj y dc
prèktakhs ratuhjcs, praokaphjicotc jh grhkaûo y shkraeakag phrh dhrjc kujtg. Jh ockcsadhd dc krccr cs
uoh khrhktcréstakh prgpah dcj scr fuihog. Co dastaoths rc`agocs dcj iuodg, sao rcjhkaûo co ápgkhs,
tgdhs jhs kujturhs fho dcshrrgjjhdg kujtgs h davaoadhdcs, `cocrhjicotc rcjhkagohdgs kgo ecoûicogs
ohturhjcs. Csh iasih ockcsadhd, fh jjcvhdg h davadar cj iuodg co `rhodcs rcja`agocs quc sc
sundavadco co gtrhs, sacodg ástc uo icdag phrh jh heaoadhd kujturhj.
Rhtraigoag kujturhj. Cs jh fcrcokah quc co ihtcrah kujturhj sc trhosiatc dc uoh kgiuoadhd, dc uo
tacipg dctcriaohdg (phshdg g prcscotc), h gtrh euturh. Cstc phtraigoag sc davadc co dgs=
Rhtraigoag kujturhj aoihtcrahj. [go
aoihtcrahj. [go tgdgs hqucjjgs usgs, kgstuinrcs, kgogkaiacotgs g dcshrrgjjgs
hrtéstakgs, cotrc gtrhs kgshs, quc sgo rckgogkadhs kgig prgpahs dc uoh ctoah co uo ju`hr y tacipg
dctcriaohdgs, jgs kuhjcs pcrihockco h trhvás dcj tacipg.
Rhtraigoag kujturhj ihtcrahj. 
ihtcrahj.  [go tgdgs jgs dgkuicotgs, paczhs hrtéstakhs, igouicotgs,
kgostrukkagocs, ctk., quc sgo phrtc dc uoh ctoah co uo ju`hr y tacipg dctcriaohdg y quc pcrdurho
h trhvás dcj tacipg.
3.>. @jgnhjazhkaûo kujturhj. Aoejucoka
Aoejucokahh dc jh
jh pun
punjakadhd
jakadhd quc trhosiatco jgs jgs  
icdags dc kgiuoakhkaûo.
Jh `jgnhjazhkaûo cs jh tcodcokah dc jgs icrkhdgs, ciprcshs, kgiuoakhkagocs, ctk., h cxtcodcrsc
hjkhozhodg uoh daicosaûo iuodahj quc sgnrcphsh jhs ergotcrhs ohkagohjcs. Hktuhjicotc y dcnadg
h jh tcodcokah dcj iuodg igdcrog, jh `jgnhjazhkaûo cs aocvathnjc. Cj dcshrrgjjg dc jhs
kgiuoakhkagocs y jh hpcrturh dc icrkhdgs hj kgicrkag aotcrohkagohj, fhkco ockcshrah jh aotcrhkkaûo
cotrc jh kgiuoadhd aotcrohkagohj.
H trhvás dcj kgosuig, jh `jgnhjazhkaûo aokadc co jh kujturh, prgpakah khinags co jgs rgjcs y cstajgs dc
vadh dc jhs pcrsgohs
cj tcjáegog kcjujhr, cjy jhs
kaocfhkc
y jhsdcpcod
dcpcodacotcs
acotcs
rcvasths, dcgtrgs.
cotrc prgduktgs kgi
kgig
Tgdgs g jhsgo
cjjgs tcjc
tcjcvasaû
vasaûo,
o, jh iýsakh,
prgduktgs ccjj ao
kujturhjcs aotcroct
tcroct,
quc sc,
vcodco y kgiprho, y, kgig thjcs, egriho adchs, vhjgrcs y kgipgrthiacotgs co jhs sgkacdhdcs, kgo
kcrtczhs, ehjscdhdcs, tcigrcs,
tc igrcs, cxpckthtavhs y erustrhkagocs quc sc kgovacrtco co ehktgrcs dc khinag khinag
kujturhj g rcecrcotcs kgokrctgs phrh vavar jh vadh.
Jh aoejucokah cs thj, quc jh punjakadhd prgiucvc phrh prgpakahr cj kgosuig, jh fgigjg`hkaûo y, co
kgosckucokah, jh rcprgdukkaûo kujturhj.
Jh rcprgdukkaûo kujturhj prgvacoc dc kujturhs fc`ciûoakhs quc cxpgrtho sus igdcjgs dc vadh hj
rcstg dcj iuodg. Jh tcjcvasaûo sc cokhr`h dc prcscothr h jh pgnjhkaûo ogtakahs, cotrctcoaiacotg,
kujturh, cotrcvasths, pcjékujhs, ogvcjhs, cspcktèkujgs y cvcotgs dcpgrtavgs quc sgo vastgs pgr
iajjgocs dc pcrsgohs co cj iuodg. Rgr cjjg, jh punjakadhd cokucotrh co cj icdag tcjcvasavg jh icmgr
gpkaûo phrh prgigvcr jh vcoth dc sus prgduktgs c aoejuar co cj `ustg y prcecrcokahs dc jgs
kgosuiadgrcs. Thinaáo jhs tcjcvasgrhs sc kgovacrtco co jh praokaphj eucotc dc trhosiasaûo dc adchs,

882

 
 vhjgrcs, kgodukths y kgipgrthiacotgs sgkahjcs. Co cstc scotadg, aotcroct sc kgosgjadh kgig cj
icdag aotcrhktavg iès aoejuycotc phrh jh hdgpkaûo kujturhj co jhs jjhihdhs "rcdcs sgkahjcs".
3.;. Iujtakujturhjadhd c aotcrkujturhjadhd.
Jh iujtakujturhjadhd pucdc dceaoarsc kgig jh kgovavcokah dc davcrshs kujturhs. Fhnjhigs dc jh
iujtakujturhjadhd kuhodg `rupgs kujturhjcs daecrcotcs fhnatho co uo iasig csphkag `cg`rèeakg,
kuhodg sc rckgogkc cj dcrckfg dc khdh `rupg
`rupg h ihotcoc
ihotcocrr su kujturh y kuhodg sc jcs rcspcth y vhjgrh
dcsdc gtrhs kujturhs daecrcotcs. Jh iujtakujturhjadhd ehvgrckc cj rckgogkaiacotg dc jh davcrsadhd dc
`áocrg, ctoah,
cto ah, jco`u
jco`uhh g rcja`aûo
rcja`aûo co jhs pcrsgohs y `rup`rupgsgs fuihogs< egicoth cj rcspctg h jhs
ihoaecsthkagocs kujturhjcs dastaoths co
co jh jatcr
jatcrhturh,
hturh, iýsakh
iýsakh,, `hstrgogiéh, nhajc, paoturh g cskujturh<
y ehvgrckc hotc jhs trhdakagocs y kgstuinrcs dc pcrsgohs g `rupgs daecrcotcs hj oucstrg.
Jh aotcrkujturhjadhd pucdc dceaoarsc kgig jh aotcrrcjhkaûo cotrc davcrshs kujturhs. Jh
aotcrkujturhj
aotcrku jturhjadhd
adhd cs jjhh aotcrhkkaûo phkéeakh, hia`hnjc y rcspctugsh qquc
uc prcvhjckc cotrc aodavadugs y
`rupgs kujturhjcs dastaotgs
d astaotgs co uo iasig csphkag `cg `cg`rèeakg,
`rèeakg, yh sch uo ph
phés,
és, uoh rc`
rc`aûo
aûo g uo
tcrratgrag. Cs h phrtar dcj kgogkaiacotg dc gtrgs, kgig pgsccdgrcs dc uoh kujturh daecrcotc, quc
dcncigs dc cmcrkcr jh a`uhjdhd, cj rcspctg y jh tgjcrhokah phrh tcocr uoh shoh kgovavcokah co uo
iasig csphkag< cotgokcs, jh aotcrkujturhjadhd aipjakh scr scosanjc hotc jhs daecrcotcs kujturhs dc jhs
iaogréhs g ihygréhs átoakhs quc vavco co cj iasig ju`hr quc ogsgtrgs.

3.4. Khinags co cj i iuodg

uodg pgr jgs aotcrc
aotcrcscs
scs ckgoûiakgs y pgjé
pgjétakgs.
takgs.
Jgs khinags g prgnjcihs dc jh fuihoadhd sgo iukfgs y dc dastaotgs tapgs= jgs iès hprciahotcs
sgo sgkahjcs, ckgoûiakgs y pgjétakgs< og gnsthotc, tgdgs tacoco su gra`co co cj rcphrtg dcsa`uhj dc
jgs nacocs y scrvakags. Hj`uogs phéscs y kjhscs sgkahjcs hkuiujho raquczhs co dctraicotg dc gtrgs
phéscs y kjhscs sgkahjcs. Co cj iuodg og cxastc uo grdco ckgoûiakg mustg quc fh`h pgsanjc jh
a`uhjdhd sgkahj y ckgoûiakh dc jgs pucnjgs, aokjusg jgs `gnacrogs ohkagohjcs fho pcrdadg jh
khphkadhd dc rc`ujhr y oavcjhr jhs kgodakagocs dc jh vadh dc jh pgnjhk
pgnjhkaûo
aûo h phrtar dc dckasagocs
pgjétakhs.

3.3. Jhs ergotcrhs. ]gohs dc trhosakaûo y tcosaûo. Csphkags aotcrohkagohjcs

aotcrohkagohjcs  
tcrrcstrcs, hárcgs y ihrétaigs
ihrétaigs..

Jh ergotcrh
trhthdgs cs jh jéoch aih`aohrah
aotcrohkagohjcs y dceaoadgquc
pgr scphrh uodc
jhs jcycs tcrratgrag dc gtrg. Cstc jéiatc cs dctcriaohdg pgr
khdh csthdg.
Jhs ergotcrhs sgo aipgrthotcs zgohs dc trhosakaûo cotrc phéscs, pucstg quc csh jéoch co gkhsagocs
cstè dctcriaohdh og sûjg pgr uoh jéoch aih`aohrah, saog pgr iurgs, vhjjhs, ctk., dcmhodg phsgs
kgotrgjhdgs phrh cj trèosatg dc pcrsgohs cotrc uo csthdg y gtrg.
Dcsdc cj praokapag dc jgs tacipgs y kgo jh hphrakaûo dc jh prgpacdhd pravhdh, jhs ergotcrhs fho sadg
zgohs dc tcosaûo cotrc `rupgs, sgkacdhdcs, pucnjgs, ctk., yh quc khdh `rupg sc htranuéh cj iasig
csphkag
csphkag tcrratgr
tcrratgrahj
ahj pgr dastaoths rhzgo
rhzgocs.
cs.
Co oucstrgs tacipgs og cs jh cxkcpkaûo, fhy ergotcrhs quc sgo zgohs dc tcosaûo, pgr vhrahs rhzgocs,
cotrc jhs quc sc cokucotrho=
Cj phsg dcsicdadg dc ia`rhotcs co nuskh dc uoh icmgr satuhkaûo ckgoûiakh kgig, pgr
cmcipjg, pcrsgohs quc vho dc Hiárakh Jhtaoh fhkah Csthdgs Soadgs

88
888
8

 
 Cj kgoejaktg cotrc csthdgs pgr jh hprgpahkaûo dc uo iasig tcrratgrag. Cstc tapg dc tcosaûo cs
kgiýo cotrc phéscs co cj iuodg y fh jjcvhdg h iukfgs kgoejaktgs hrihdgs cotrc csthdgs.
Jgs csphkags aotcrohkagohjcs. [go csphkags dc janrc trèosatg cotrc jgs csthdgs y cstèo cxcotgs dc
hprgpahkaûo pgr jgs iasigs. Cstèo dctcriaohdgs pgr jgs gr`hoasigs aotcrohkagohjcs icdahotc
trhthdgs aotcrohkagohjcs y sg
sgoo dc trcs tapgs= }
Tcrrcstrcs. Dcnadg h quc jh hprgpahkaûo dcj tcrratgrag pgr phrtc dc jgs csthdgs, fh hjkhozhdg h khsa
Tcrrcstrcs. Dcnadg
tgdg cj tcrrcog daspgoanjc co jh tacrrh, cj csphkag tcrrcstrc aotcrohkagohj sc rcdukc h jh Hotèrtakh. Og
gnsthotc hj`uogs csthdgs thjcs kgig Hustrhjah, Hr`cotaoh, Kfajc, Erhokah, @rho Nrcthøh, Oucvh
]cjhodh y Ogruc`h, dc ihocrh aodavaduhj, fho rcavaodakhdg phrtcs dcj tcrratgrag dc jh Hotèrtakh.
 Hárcgs. Cj csphkag hárcg aotcrohkagohj tacoc vhrahs hprckahkagocs, pucstg quc co hj`uogs khsgs cj
 Hárcgs. Cj
dcrckfg aotcrohkagohj dakc quc cj csphkag hárcg sc eamh h phrtar dcj jéiatc dc vucjg dc jhs hcrgohvcs
(>2->3 iajjhs)<
iajjh s)< co gtrhs, dcsdc úúoo puotg dc vasth iè
ièss hipjag, cj csphka
csphkagg hárcg dc uo csthdg sc hipjéh
hipjéh
fhsth pgr jg icogs cj hjkhokc dc jh ûrnath tcrrcstrc dc uo shtájatc.
Ihrétaigs.  [hjvg kgothdhs cxkcpkagocs, jhs h`uhs aotcrohkagohjcs sc kgiprcodco h phrtar dc 8>
Ihrétaigs. 
iajjhs ihrétaihs icdadhs h phrtar dc jh jéoch nhsc dcj ihr kgstcrg.
3.5. Rhtraigoag kujturhj dc jg
jgss icxakhogs= zgo
zgohs
hs hrqucgjû`akhs, kaudhdcs
kaudhdcs  

kgjgoahjcs, pucnjgs tépakgs, igouicotgs fastûrakgs.

Jh SOC[KG dceaoc cj phtraigoag kujturhj dc jh sa`uacotc ihocrh= "cj phtraigoag kujturhj dc uo
pucnjg kgiprcodc jhs gnrhs dc sus hrtasths, hrquatcktgs, iýsakgs, cskratgrcs y shnags, hsé kgig jhs
krchkagocs hoûoaihs, sur`adhs dcj hjih pgpujhr, y cj kgomuotg dc vhjgrcs quc dho scotadg h jh vadh,
cs dckar jhs gnrhs ihtcrahjcs quc cxprcsho jh krchtavadhd dc csc pucnjg< jh jco`uh, jgs ratgs, jh
jatcrhturh, jhs gnrhs dc hrtc y jgs hrkfavgs y nanjagtckhs"
Co oucstrg phés cxastc uo `rho phtraigoag kujturhj kgig sgo=
]gohs hrqucgjû`akhs. [go csphkags `cg`rèeakgs dckjhrhdgs kgig thjcs, pgr cxastar co cjjgs, cdaeakags,
ruaohs, vcsta`ags, ctk., pcrtcockacotcs h kujturhs g pucnjgs hota`ugs cstudahdgs pgr jh hrqucgjg`éh.

Kaudhdcs kgjgoahjcs.
dc khsa ;22 [go kaudhdcs
høgs, phrtacodg hota`uhs,
dc 83>8 euodhdhs
(khédh dc co jh ápgkh
Tcogkftatjho), fhsthkgjgoahj quc hnhrkh
8682 (aoakag uo pcrégdg
dc jh jukfh pgr jh
aodcpcodcokah dc Iáxakg).
Rucnjgs tépakgs. Cs uoh kgiuoadhd quc kucoth kgo htranutgs fastûrakgs, jcycodhs, fckfgs
trhskcodcotcs, kgstuinrcs, quc jg fhkco phrtakujhricotc khrhktcréstakg.
Igouicotgs fastûrakgs. [go hqucjjhs kgostrukkagocs quc tacoco cspckahj rcjcvhokah co jh fastgrah
dcj pucnjg icxakhog.
3.0. Csphkags dc sgncrhoéh ohkagohj= tcrrc
tcrrcstrc,
strc, ihrétaih, aosujhr y hárch.
So csphkag dc sgncrhoéh ohkagohj, sc rceacrc hj csphkag `cg`rèeakg dcotrg dcj kuhj sc cmcrkc jh
sgncrhoéh dcj csthdg.

88
88>
>

 
 Dceaoaigs sgncrhoéh. Kgig cj pgdcr suprcig dcj csthdg. Cmcrkcr sgncrhoéh sc rceacrc h quc co csc
puotg dctcriaohdg dc csphkag `cg`rèeakg, cj csthdg cs quaco tacoc cj pgdcr suprcig. Jgs trhthdgs
aotcrohkagohjcs, rckgogkco kgokcptg dc sgncrhoéh ohkagohj, hkcpthodg csth ehkujthd cotrc tgdgs
jgs csthdgs.
Cxastco vhrags csphkags co jgs quc uo csthdg cmcrkc jh sgncrhoéh ohkagohj, cstgs sgo=
Tcrrcstrc. Cstè dcjaiathdg pgr jhs ergotcrhs eésakhs g aih`aohrahs, quc kgiprcodco uo csthdg y quc

sc rckgogkco pgr cj dcrckfg aotcrohkagohj.

Ihrétaih. [hjvg hj`uohs cxkcpkagocs kgiprcodco dcsdc jh jéoch nhsc dcj ihr kgstcrg, fhsth jhs
dgkc iajjhs ihraohs.
Aosujhr. Kgiprcodc tgdhs jhs asjhs, phrtc dc uo csthdg y quc jgs trhthdgs aotcrohkagohjcs rckgogkco
kgo thj khrèktcr.
Hárch. Kgiprcodc cj csphkag quc sc cokucotrh sgnrc cj tcrratgrag ohkagohj fhsth jhs >3 iajjhs.
Cxastco puotgs dc vasth quc hpuotho quc sc cxtacodco fhsth cj hjkhokc dc jh ûrnath dc jgs shtájatcs.

88;
88;

 
 Fastgrah
FA[TG^AH SOAUC^[HJ
FA[TG^AH
8. Dc praokapags
praok apags dcj sa`jg VUA h praokapag
praok apagss dcj sa`jg VUAAA
VUAAA
8.8. Cj kgotcxtg iuo
iuodahj=
dahj= jhs dcihodhs curgpchs y jh ockcsadhd dc hnrar
hnrar  
oucvhs ruths.
Cotrc jgs sa`jgs VAU y VU, co Curgph, cxastéh uoh `rho dcihodh dc prgduktgs prgvcoacotcs dcj cstc.
Jh ruth pgr tacrrh sc kgovartaû co uo trhosathr sao eao dc prgduktgs quc shtasehkého dakfhs ockcsadhdcs.
Co cstc kgotcxtg, khnc icokagohr quc cj kacrrc dc jh ruth kgicrkahj véh Kgosthotaogpjh y jh adch dc
cvathr aotcricdahrags, prgvgkhrgo quc jgs curgpcgs, praokaphjicotc pgrtu`ucscs y csphøgjcs,
nuskhrho oucvhs ruths phrh jjc`hr hj kgotaocotc Hsaètakg pgr jhs prckahdhs
prckahdhs icrkhoké
icrkhokéhs,
hs, yh quc
quc
dcmhrgo dc scr sc`urhs jhs ruths tcrrcstrcs cotrc gkkadcotc y gracotc. Rgr su unakhkaûo `cg`rèeakh,
kgicozhrgo h cxpjg
cxpjgrhr
rhr ccjj gkáhog Htjèo
Htjèotakg.
takg. Jgs pgrtu`ucscs dckadacrgo rgdchr cj kgotaocotc
Herakhog, huoquc dcskgogkého su kgotgrog, csthnho sc`urgs dc quc crh icmgr rgdchrjg phrh
hjkhozhr Hsah. Jgs csphøgjcs, pgr su jhdg eaohokahrgo jh ¡dch dc Krastûnhj Kgjûo dc kruzhr cj Htjèotakg,
kgoeahodg jhs tcûrakhs dc quc jh tacrrh crh rcdgodh.
Cstgs vahmcs dacrgo aoakag hj pcrégdg dc jgs dcskunraiacotgs `cg`rèeakgs y dc jhs kgjgoazhkagocs
curgpchs co jgs tcrratgrags quc dcskunrého, hsé kgig cj kgicrkag `jgnhj, pucs dcsdc cotgokcs jgs
aotcrkhinags kgicrkahjcs aokjuycrgo rc`agocs dc tgdg cj iuodg.

8.>. ^cogvhkaûo kujturhj y rcsastcokah co Curgph= cj fuihoasig y sus sus  

cxprcsagocs eajgsûeakhs, jatcrhrahs y pgjétakhs.
H eaohjcs dc jh cdhd icdah hphrckacrgo uoh scrac dc khinags pgjétakgs (hphrckacrgo cj
phrjhicothrasig y cj hnsgjutasig), ckgoûiakgs (sastcih kgicrkahj) y tckogjû`akgs quc jjcvhrgo h
jh sgkacdhd h uoh trhosegrihkaûo adcgjû`akh, sao prckcdcotcs.
Dcotrg dc csth ápgkh d dcc khinags, sur`aû cj Fuihoasig, igvaiacotg aotcj
aotcjcktuhj
cktuhj kgo euodhicotg
co jh rckupcrhkaûo dcj scr fuihog kgig cmc kcotrhj dc jh rcejcxaûo eajgsûeakh y cj dcnhtc co
kgotrhpgsakaûo
kgotrhpgsaka ûo dc jh adch icdacvhj co jh quc ccjj kcotrg dcj iuod
iuodg
g crh dags
dags..
Soh dc jhs khrhktcréstakhs dcj Fuihoasig h daecrcokah dc jh ápgkh icdacvhj, dgodc cj scr fuihog
sgjhicotcc crh vastg dcsdc uoh pcrspckta
sgjhicot pcrspcktavh
vh tcgjû`akh. Jgs fuihoasths cipczhrgo h vcr hj fginrc
dcsdc uoh
uoh pcrspcktavh iuodhoh, kgig uo scr ohturhj,
ohtur hj, kgo fastgrah y scotaiaco
scotaiacotgs.
tgs.
Jh rcja`aûo dcmû dc scr jh aostatukaûo dgiaohotc y jh ýoakh quc pgdéh jg`rhr jh rcdcokaûo dcj fginrc<
sc kgovartaû co uo aostruicotg
aostruicot g dc hutgradhd phrh kgosc`uar cj adchj dc jjhh ph phzz kavaj. Cj fui
fuihoasig
hoasig
vgjvaû h aotc
aotcrcshr
rcshrsc
sc pgr jg "hota
"hota`ug",
`ug", pgr jg kjèsakg. CCstc
stc aotcrás prgvgkû cj dcshrrgjjg dc jh
pcrspcktavh fastûrakh y ccjj hkcrkhiaco
hkcrkhiacotg
tg h gtrhs kujturhs.
kujt urhs. Co cstc pcrégdg sc kgosgjadû jh fastgrakadhd
y kgo cjjh, jh cvgjukaûo dcj pcoshiacotg curgpcg. Jhs praicrhs kgrracotcs eajgsûeakhs quc sc rctgiho
co csth cthph sgo=
Cstgakasig= Rraokapag quc hsc`urh quc sc pucdc hjkhozhr jh jancrthd hjcmèodgsc dc jhs raquczhs y
kgigdadhdcs ihtcrahjcs phrh dhr phsg h uoh vadh `uahdh pgr jgs phsgs dc jh rhzûo y vartud.
Cpakurcasig= Rraokapag ihtcrahjasth quc sgstacoc quc jhs scoshkagocs sgo prgdukadhs pgr uoh
sukcsaûo dc aiè`cocs quc dcmho jgs kucrpgs y quc rc`astrho jgs scotadgs. [u eaohjadhd cs jh nýsqu
nýsqucdh
cdh

dcj pjhkcr quc dcnc cxtcodcrsc hj èinatg aotcjcktuhj.

884

 
 Cskcptakasig= Rcoshiacotg krétakg quc kucstagoh dc ihocrh sastciètakh cj kgogkaiacotg hnsgjutg y
jh kcrtaduinrc hnsgjuth.
^csastcokah hj khinag kujturhj co Curgph= Soh vcz quc sur`aû cj Fuihoasig sc tuvg uoh vhjgrhkaûo
iuy hjth dcj scr fuihog quc nuskhnh sgnrcshjar h phrtar dc sus jaiathkagocs y khphkadhdcs. Jh rhzûo
y cj kgogkaiacotg sc kgovartacrgo co jgs nhjuhrtcs dc csth ápgkh quc pu`ohnh pgr rgipcr kgo jh
adch dc quc Dags crh kcotrg y rhzûo dc tgdhs jhs kgshs.
Huoquc csth ápgkh euc iuy aotcrcshotc y supgoéh uoh prgspcradhd co tgdgs jgs èinatgs, og tgdgs
jgs hktgrcs sgkahjcs csthnho dc hkucrdg kgo cstc dcshrrgjjg.
dcshrr gjjg. Jh a`
a`jcsah
jcsah Khtûjakh euc uog dc jgs eárrcg
eárrcgss
gpgsatgrcs h csth oucvh cvgjukaûo co cj iuodg. Huoquc sc`uéh tcoacodg `rho pgdcr, su aoejucokah
fhnéh dasiaouadg ogthnjcicotc y dcného hsuiar uoh oucvh oucvh pgsturh quc rcspgodacrh hj hu hu`c
`c dcj
dcj
hotrgpgkcotrasig y jh rcejcxaûo aodavaduhj.
8.;. Cxpcdakagocs ihrétaihs y kgoquasths
kgoquasths (kgsths dc Èerakh, Aod ah,  
Aodah,
Aodgocsah y Hiárakh).
Dcnadg h jh ockcsadhd quc cxastéh co Curgph, dc cokgotrhr véhs hjtcrohtavhs phrh jjc`hr hj cstc, sc
rchjazhrgo uoh `rho khotadhd dc cxpcdakagocs ihrétaihs.
Fung dgs tapgs dc cxpcdakagocs, uohs quc aotcothnho jjc`hr hj cstc, ohvc`hodg fhkah cj sur
rgdchodg Èerakh.

Jh adch dc rgdchr cj kgotaocotc herakhog phrh jjc`hr h Hsah, trhmg kgig kgosckucokah cj cokucotrg y
kgoquasth dc aodgocsah.
Co cj sa`jg
sa`jg VU cj rcaog dc Rgrtu`hj cecktuû jhs praicrhs cxpcdakagocs
cxpcdaka gocs co cj Htjèotakg.
Htjèotakg . Jg
Jgss pgrtu`ucscs
aoakahrgo su hvcoturh co jhs kgsths gkkadcothjcs dc Èerakh, rckgrracrgo jhs asjhs Ihdcrh, jjc`hrgo h jhs
Khohrahs, cxpjgrhrgo [coc`hj, Khng Ucrdc y cj Kgo`g. [us praokaphjcs kgoquasthdgrcs eucrgo cj
aoehotc Dgo Coraquc, Nhrtgjgiá Déhz y Uhskg dc @hih. Dgo Coraquc cs kgosadcrhdg cj fárgc dc jgs
dcskunraiacotgs pgrtu`ucscs pgrquc hpgyû y phrtakapû co jgs praicrgs dcskunraiacotgs
pgrtu`ucscs sgnrc asjhs co cj cj Htjèotakg y tac
tacrrh
rrhss herakhohs.
Jhs gtrhs cxpcdakagocs eucrgo jhs quc hpgyhnho jh adch dc quc jh tacrrh tcoah egrih cseárakh y
pgdrého jjc`hr hj cstc, rgdchodg pgr cj gcstc.
Jh cxpjgrhkaûo trhmg kgig rcsujthdg cj cokucotrg dc Curgph kgo cj Oucvg Iuodg, huoquc Kgjûo
dcspuás dc jgs kuhtrg vahmcs quc fazg h Hiárakh, iuraû krcycodg quc fhnéh jjc`hdg h Hsah.
Rgstcragricotc
Rgstcra gricotc gtrhs ohkagocs ciprcodcrého vahmcs
vahmc s fhkah Hiárakh,
Hiára kh, kgig Rgrtu`hj
Rgrtu`hj fhkah cj
cj sur y
dcspuás Ao`jhtcrrh fhkah cj ogrtc.
Cj dcskunraiacotg dc oucvhs tacrrhs trhmg kgig kgosckucokah quc cj Rhph, kgig ièxaih hutgradhd
ckjcsaèstakh co cj iuodg krastahog, dakthrh vhrahs NSJH[ co jhs quc csthnjckéh jh jc`ataiadhd phrh
pgsccr jhs tacrrhs dcskunacrths. Gtrgs ohvc`hotcs aipgrthotcs co jh cxpjgrhkaûo dcj kgotaocotc
hicrakhog eucrgo Hiárakg Ucspukag quaco cxpjgrû Hiárakh dcj sur y quc, `rhkahs h sus ihphs ihphs y
dcskunraiacotgs,
dcskunra iacotgs, sc nhutazû kgo su oginrc
oginrc hj oucvg kgotaocotc.
kgotao cotc.
>. Dc icdahdgs
icda hdgs dcj sa`jg VUAA h icd
icdahdg
ahdgss dcj ssa`jg
a`jg VAV
>.8. Jhs oucvhs adchs= ah ajustrhkaûo y jh cokakjgpcdah.
Jh Ajustrhkaûo euc cj igvaiacotg kujturhj quc trhosegriû cj pcoshiacotg curgpcg dcj sa`jg VUAAA
gtgr`hodg
gtgr`hod g pragradhd h jh rhzûo
rhzûo y h jh cxpcracokah fuihoh, h eao dc cjaiaohr jhs aostatukagocs pgjétakg-
pgjétakg-
rcja`agshs
rcja `agshs dcj Hota`ug ^á`aico.

883
883

 
 H phrtar dc jgs iátgdgs cipjchdgs _co jhs kacokahs Ohturhjcs, co cj sa`jg VUAA, kgicozû cj cstudag dc
jh sgkacdhd, cj kuhj egriujhnh tcgréhs dgodc sc couokahnho jgs dcrckfgs dc jancrthd, a`uhjdhd,
trhnhmg y prgpacdhd< h phrtar dc jgs praokapags dc jh rhzûo fuihoh. Co cj sa`jg dc jh Ajustrhkaûo,
thinaáo dcogiaohdg "[a`jg
"[a`jg dc
dc jhs Jukcs", sc igdcroazhrgo jgs gnmctavgs eajgsûeakgs y kacotéeakgs,
coegkhdgs hfgrh hj shncr co jgs prgkcdaiacotgs rhkagohjcs
rhka gohjcs y cxpcraicothjcs
cxpcraic othjcs,, phrh jg`rhr uo
uo icmgr
kgotrgj dc jh ohturhjczh y dcj fginrc co jh nýsqucdh
nýsqucdh dc sgjukagocs phrh jgs prgnjcihs sgkahjcs.
Jh Ajustrhkaûo
Ajustrh kaûo dag gra`co h uoh kgokcpkaûo dc pgjétakh dc csthdg co jh quc jgs igohrkhs kgo pgdcr
hnsgjutg tgihrgo phrh sé jhs adchs eajgsûeakhs ajustrhdhs, kgo cj eao dc jjcvhr h khng co sus phéscs
kacrths rcegrihs quc icmgrhrho jhs kgodakagocs dc vadh dc su pgnjhkaûo sao quc heckthrh jh
cstrukturh euodhicothj dcj pgdcr hnsgjutg.
Jh cokakjgpcdah cs uoh gnrh co jh quc sc nuskh rcuoar tgdgs jgs kgogkaiacotgs dc uoh ápgkh hkcrkh
dc jh ohturhjczh y dc jhs hktavadhdcs fuihohs.
Icdahotc jh cjhngrhkaûo y kgipajhkaûo dc hrtékujgs g dc coshygs nrcvcs sc dh kucoth dcj
kgogkaiacotg gntcoadg co jhs kacokahs, jhs hrtcs y jhs fuihoadhdcs, phrh dhr uoh vasaûo `jgnhj dcj
kgogkaiacotg fuihog kgosc`uadg fhsth csc igicotg.
Cj hktuhj kgokcptg dc cokakjgpcdah tacoc su gra`co co jh gnrh dc jgs erhokcscs Dcoas Dadcrgt y Mcho
D'Hjcincrt, quacocs dcsdc 8038 fhsth 800> rckg`acrgo co vhrags vgjýicocs cj kgogkaiacotg
curgpcg dcj sa`jg VUAAA. [u gnrh sc tatujû "jh cokakjgpcdah g dakkagohrag rhzgohdg dc jhs kacokahs, hrtc
ydcgeakags", quc sc kgipgoc dc >8 vgjýicocs dc tcxtg, 8> vgjýicocs dc aiè`cocs y dgs vgjýicocs
éodakc `cocrhj.
Jh adch dc punjakhr uoh cokakjgpcdah co erhokás kgrraû h khr`g dcj cdatgr phrasaog Hodrá Jc Nrctûo,
quaco sc aosparû co cj "Dakkagohrag dc Trávgux" dc jh grdco mcsuéth (8024-8008) y cj "Dakkagohrag
uoavcrshj dc hrtcs y kacokahs" punjakhdh pgr cj ao`jás Cpfrhai Kfhincrs co 80>6. Co 8043, Jc Nrctûo
kgosa`uaû uoh
uoh jakcokah phrh trhdukar
trhd ukar jh cokakjgpcdah dc Kfhincrs, y co 8040 cokhr`û
cokhr`û jh thrch h
Dadcrgt y h D'Hjcincrt.
Cj cokhr`g quc tgihrgo euc trhosegrihdg pgr sus prgpags aotcrcscs c adchjcs, y phsû dc jh saipjc
trhdukkaûo
trhdukka ûo h uo prgycktg prgpag quc
quc tuvg kgig
kgig nhsc jh grdcohkaûo, tciètakh y cstruktu
cs trukturh
rh prgpucsth
co cj Ogvui Gr`houi (85>2) dc Erhokas Nhkgo, y jh aoejucokah dcj "daskursg dcj iátgdg"(85;0) dc
^coá Dcskhrtcs. Dc hings eajûsgegs sc tgiû jh adch dc hpjakhr jh juz dc jh rhzûo h tgdgs jgs khipgs
dcj shncr,
shn cr, jg kuhj aiphktû prgeuodhico
prgeu odhicotc
tc h tgdgs jgs pcoshdgrcs
pcoshd grcs dc jh ápgkh. Jg quc
pgstcragricotc dag oginrc hj sa`jg VUAAA kgig cj "sa`jg dc jhs jukcs".
Jh gnrh kgipjcth dc jh "cokakjgpcdah" sc rcdhktû y sc punjakû pgr phrtcs co daecrcotcs pcragdgs,
dcnadg h jh cxtcosaûo dcj prgycktg y h jhs daecrcotcs satuhkagocs pgjétakhs quc daeakujthrgo su hvhokc.
>.>. Cj hnsgjutasig curgpcg y jh rcgr`hoazhkaûo
rcgr`hoazhkaûo hdiaoastrhtavh
hdiaoastrhtavh dc jgs
jgs 
aipcrags.
Cj rá`aico pgjétakg ecudhj euc rccipjhzhdg dc egrih `rhduhj pgr csthdgs daoèstakgs kgo `gnacrogs
dc pgdcr hnsgjutg. Jhs igohrquéhs co Curgph ockcsathnho uo pgdcr jc`étaig, aodcpcodacotc y
kcotrhjazhdg, quc ehvgrckacrh tgihr icdadhs quc ncoceakahrho cj dcshrrgjjg dc jhs hktavadhdcs
icrkhotajcs y ehkajathrho jhs pgsanajadhdcs kgo jhs ohkagocs cocia`hs. Hj iasig tacipg, dakfhs
igohrquéhs hsparhnho h dgiaohr jgs icrkhdgs, aipadacodg quc jgs préokapcs y kjára`gs `gncrohrho
h su vgjuothd co sus tcrratgrags. Kgo heèo dc kuipjar kgo csths icdadhs, cj hnsgjutasig tuvg quc

885

 
 cipjchr uoh pgjétakh ckgoûi
ckgoûiakh
akh "icrkho
"icrkhotaja
tajasth"
sth",, jg quc prgvgkû jh krchkaûo dc ai
aipucstgs
pucstgs
dcsicdadgs quc pgoého h jh sgkacdhd co scrags prgnjcihs ckgoûiakgs.
CJ icrkhotajasig euc uoh dgktraoh ckgoûiakh quc sur`aû co jh ápg
ápgkh
kh dcj ohkaiacotg dcj khpathj
khpathjasig,
asig,
prcvag h jh ^cvgjukaûo Aodustrahj y quc sc coegkû praokaphjicotc co cj kgicrkag kgig eucotc dc
dcshrrgjjg ckgoûiakg.
Jh nhsc dc jh hdiaoastrhkaûo hnsgjutasth rckhyû co jgs iaoastrgs ckjcsaèstakgs hj scrvakag dc jgs
igohrkhs quacocs, `rhkahs h jh nurgkrhkah, kgotrgjhnho jh hdiaoastrhkaûo dcj Csthdg.
Euc co Csphøh, Erhokah c Ao`jhtcrrh, dgodc cj sastcih dc `gnacrog hnsgjutasth prgspcrû dc dastaoths
ihocrhs. Co cj khsg Csphøgj, cj hnsgjutasig csthnh kaicothdg co jh uoadhd dc jh ec, quc jc`ataihnh
su khrèktcr dc dcrckfg davaog kgig dcpgsathrag dc jh ec. Cj kjcrg gntuvg uoh rcputhkaûo y uoh
supcragradhd dcotrg
d cotrg dcj Csthdg quc jc pcri
pcriatacrgo
atacrgo supra
supraiar
iar jgs dc
dcrckfgs
rckfgs quc hýo jc qu
qucdhnho
cdhnho h jjhs
hs
Kgrtcs y Kgiuohs< y cjaiaohr kgo hyudh dc jh Aoquasakaûo h fcrcmcs y cocia`gs dcj pgdcr rchj.
Cj hnsgjutasig erhokás, hj kgokjuar jh @ucrrh dc jgs Kaco Høgs, csthnjckaû oucvgs aipucstgs kgo jh
aotcokaûo dc pgdcr
pgdcr ihotcocr hj cmárkatg y hngjar hhjj ecudhjasig.
>.;. Jh aodcpcodcokah dc jhs trckc kgjgoah
kgjgoahs.
s.
Jh praicrh cthph dc jh kgjgoazhkaûo curgpch sgnrc cj tcrratgrag ogrtchicrakhog gkurraû co cj sa`jg
VUAA, co jh kgsth cstc dc jg quc fgy kgogkcigs kgig csthdgs Soadgs dc Hiárakh, rc`aûo dgodc sc
hscothrgo jgs praicrgs kgjgoazhdgrcs y dgodc sc eucrgo dcspjhzhodg fhkah tcrratgrags fhnathdgs
dcsdc sa`jgs htrès pgr jh pgnjhkaûo gra`aohrah (gcstc).
Cotrc jgs praicrgs kgjgoazhdgrcs quc sc csthnjckacrgo fhnéh daecrcokahs sgkahjcs y ckgoûiakhs.
Dcsdc prgtcsthotcs rcja`agsgs fhs cskjhvgs co cj sur. Xuc crho cxpjgthdgs phrh kujtavhr `rhodcs
cxtcosagocs dc tacrrh
tacrrh..
So cjcicotg quc hjaicotg cj dcshkucrdg dc jh pgnjhkaûo, euc cj huicotg dc jgs aipucstgs quc
dcného dc ph`hr h jh Ictrûpgja, hsé kgig cj fckfg quc csth jcs aipusg eucrtcs rcstrakkagocs hj
dcshrrgjjg dcj kgicrkag y dc jh aodustrah kgig phrtc dc jgs khinags dc jh hdiaoastrhka
hdiaoastrhkaûo
ûo dc aipcrag
ao`jás.
Cj rckjhig dc ihygrcs jancrthdcs sc fhnéh `cocrhdg y cxprcshdg fhsth cotgokcs dc ihocrh phkéeakh.
Co 8004 sc rcuoaû co eajhdcjeah cj praicr kgo`rcsg kgotaocothj nhmg jh aoejucokah dc jh hrastgkrhkah dcj
sur, sao cinhr`g nhmg jh dcshtcokaûo dc cstgs rckjhigs, co Mujag dc 8005, durhotc jh rcuoaûo dcj
sc`uodg kgo`rcsg Kgotaocothj, sc prgkjhiû jh aodcpcodcokah dc jhs trckc kgjgoahs, co uo hinacotc
aoejuadg pgr jhs adchs dc jh ajustrhkaûo.
Kgig kgosckucokah dc csth dckjhrhkaûo, dag aoakag jh jukfh hrihdh dc jgs ogrtchicrakhogs,
cokhnczhdh pgr @cgr`c Phsfao`tgo, kgotrh cj cmárkatg ao`jás. Cj icmgr dc csc tacipg. Jgs
ogrtchicrakhogs
ogrtchicra khogs eucrgo hpgyhdg
hpgyhdgss pgr Erhokah y Csphøh phéscs co pu
pu`oh
`oh kgotrh Ao`jhtcrr
Ao`jhtcrrh.
h. Co h`gstg
dc 8068 jgs ao`jcscs eucrgo dcrrgthdgs y dgs høgs iès thrdc Ao`jhtcrrh rckgogkaû jh aodcpcodcokah
dc jhs trckc kgjgoahs dc Hiárakh.
>.4. Khushs cxtcrohs c aotcro
aotcrohs
hs dc jh ^cvgjuka
^cvgjukaûo
ûo Erhokcsh.

Jh ^cvgjukaûo
rcstg dc CurgphErhokcsh euc cj fckfg
y co Hiárakh. qucrcvgjukaûo
Euc uoh khinaû jhquc
cstrukturh
cipczûdckgo
pgdcr co Erhokah cdcaoejuyû
cj dcskgotcotg co cj
jgs ognjcs

88
880
0

 
 kgotrh jh igohrquéh hnsgjuth, juc`g sa`uaû kgotrh jh gpgsakaûo dc jh nur`ucséh h csc iasig
hnsgjutasig y kgotaouû kgo mgrohdhs pgpujhrcs y kgo coercothiacotgs cotrc jgs iasigs jédcrcs dc
jh gpgsakaûo. Cj rcsujthdg euc jh aipjhothkaûo dc jh ^cpýnjakh kgig sastcih dc `gnacrog y< jgs
Dcrckfgs dcj Fginrc y dcj kaudhdhog pgr a`uhj. Hj eaohj dc jh ^cvgjukaûo Erhokcsh sur`c jh ea`urh dc
Ohpgjcûo quaco rcsthurh jh igohrquéh pcrg rcspcth jgs jg`rgs dc jh rcvgjukaûo y jgs prgph`h pgr
Curgph.
Cotrc gtrhs, jhs khushs
khushs quc prgpakahrgo cstc hkgotckaiacotg fastûrakg, eucrgo=
So rá`aico igoèrquakg quc sukuinaréh hotc su prgpah ra`adcz co cj kgotcxtg dc uo iuodg
khinahotc, y quc, trhs vhrags aotcotgs dc hdgpthr icdadhs dcstaohdhs h hthmhr jh krasas
pgjétakh y ckgoûiakh, khpatujû hotc jh vagjcoth rchkkaûo dc jh ognjczh.
- Soh hrastgkrhkah
hrastgk rhkah hecrrhdh
hecrr hdh h sus pravajc`ags
pravajc`ags ecudhjcs,
ecud hjcs, quc njgqucû tgdhs jhs rcegrihs
cstrukturhjcs quc sc aotcothrgo aipjhothr dcsdc jh Kgrtc.
Cj hu`c dc uoh kjhsc nur`ucsh ohkadh sa`jgs htrès, quc fhnéh hjkhozhdg uo `rho pgdcr co cj
tcrrcog ckgoûiakg y quc hfgrh cipczhnh h prgpu`ohr cj pgjétakg. [u raquczh y su kujturh jh
fhného cjcvhdg hj praicr pucstg co jh sgkacdhd, pgsakaûo quc csthnh co kgotrhdakkaûo kgo
jh cxastcokah dc jgs csthicotgs pravajc`ahdgs= ognjczh y kjcrg.
Jh cxhspcrhkaûo dc jhs kjhscs pgpujhrcs urnhohs y dcj khipcsaohdg, cipgnrckadgs pgr jh
sunadh dc jgs prckags -co phrtakujhr dc jgs kcrchjcs y dcj pho, nhsc dc jh hjaicothkaûo— y
pgr cj aokrcicotg
kgnrhnh cj kjcrg, kgotaoug dc jgs aipucstgs
hpcohs scrvéh y dcrckfgs
phrh ihotcocr scøgrahjcs
cj kujtg y rchjcs.
y sgkgrrcr Cj daczig
h jgs pgnrcs.quc
Cj
khipcsaohdg prgtcsthnh hdciès cj gra`co dc jh prgpacdhd dc jgs dcrckfgs y scrvaduinrcs
ecudhjcs, quc jcs phrckého hnusavgs c aomustgs.
- Jh quacnrh eaohokacrh prgvgkhdh pgr jgs vakags dcjdcj sastcih easkhj=
easkh j= jh ihjh
ihjh pcrkcpkaûo y jh
dcsa`uhjdhd dc jgs aipucstgs, jgs `hstgs dc jh Kgrtc, jgs kgstcs dc jhs `ucrrhs, y pgr jgs
`rhvcs prgnjcihs fhkcodéstakgs khushdgs pgr cj hpgyg iajathr h jh `ucrrh dc Aodcpcodcokah
dc jgs Csthdgs Soadgs.
>.3. Kgosckucokahs dc jh ^cvgjukaûo
^cvgjukaûo Erhokcsh co Hiárakh Jhtaoh y cj
cj 
Khranc.
Jh ^cvgjukaûo Erhokcsh euc cj khinag pgjétakg iès aipgrthotc quc sc prgdumg co Curgph, h eaohjcs
dcj sa`jg
sa`jg VUAAA. Og euc sûjg aipgrthotc phrh Erhokah, saog quc sarvaû dc cmcipjg phrh gtrgs phéscs, co
dgodc sc dcshthrgo kgoejaktgs sgkahjcs saiajhrcs
saiajhr cs co kgotrh dc uo rá`aico hohkrûoakg y gprcsgr,
kgig crh jh igohrquéh. Csth rcvgjukaûo sa`oaeakû cj trauoeg dc uo pucnjg pgnrc, gpraiadg y khoshdg
dc jhs aomustakahs, sgnrc jgs pravajc`ags dc jh ognjczh ecudhj y dcj csthdg hnsgjutasth, trhmg jh
dcigkrhkah
dcigkr hkah h Erhokah y uo oucvg grdco sgkahj pcrg h uo prckag iuy hjtg. hjtg . Euc jh rcvgjukaûo
rcvgj ukaûo iès
`rhodc y sho`racoth dc tgdh Curgph.
Jh rcvgj
rcvgjukaûo
ukaûo ihrkû cj eaohj dceaoa
dce aoatavg
tavg dcj hnsgjutasig
hnsgjut asig y dag h juz h uo oucvg rá`aico dgodc jh
nur`ucséh y jhs ihshs pgpujhrcs, sc kgovartacrgo co jh eucrzh pgjétakh dgiaohotc co cj phés.
Jh ^cvgjukaûo Erhokcsh aoejuyû co jgs phéscs dc Hiárakh Jhtaoh pgr jhs adchs janárhjcs quc sur`acrgo
y `uahrgo h vhrags jédcrcs dc Iáxakg y gtrgs phéscs phrh gntcocr su aodcpcodcokah.

886

 
 >.5. Jh rcvgjukaûo aodustrahj, kaudhdcs aodustrahjcs y kgodakagocs jhngrhjcs 
jhngrhjcs 
 y dc vadh dc jh kjhsc trhnhmhdgrh.
Cotrc 8032 y 8632, co cj kgotaocotc curgpcg, @rho Nrcthøh, Náj`akh, cj ogrtc dc Erhokah y hj`uohs
rc`agocs athjahohs y hjcihohs, vavacrgo uo khinag rcvgjukagohrag= jh aotrgdukkaûo dc ièquaohs phrh
jh prgdukkaûo.
Kgo jh rcvgjukaûo aodustrahj, uo oýicrg aipgrthotc dc fginrcs, iumcrcs y oaøgs, dcmû cj khipg y
sc euc h jhs eènrakhs, dgodc pgr icdag dc uoh ièquaoh sc rcpctéh uo sgjg igvaiacotg phrh cjhngrhr
uoh phrtc dcj prgduktg tcriaohdg.
Kgo cj hu`c dc cstc sastcih dc prgdukkaûo, prgotg sc egrihrgo `rhodcs kaudhdcs aodustrahjcs, quc
kgokcotrhnho co uo csphkag dc tcrrcog, uoh `rho khotadhd dc eènrakhs y pgr thotg dc gnrcrgs
trhnhmhodg co cjjhs. Hjrcdcdgr dc jhs iasihs sc cdaeakhnho vavacodhs quc egrihrgo jhs praicrhs
`rhodcs kaudhdcs.
Jhs kgodakagocs dc vadh dc jh kjhsc trhnhmhdgrh, crho daecrcotcs quc co cj khipg. [c trhnhmhnh co
fgrhrags eamgs dc 8> h 84 fgrhs, uoh khiphoh g uo tainrc ihrkhnho cj aoakag g eao dc jh mgrohdh
jhngrhj. Jhs kgodakagocs jhngrhjcs crho pásaihs y tgthjicotc cokhiaohdhs h ehvgrckcr jh raquczh dcj
ducøg dc jgs icdags dc prgdukkaûo.

;. Dc;.8.
icdahdgs
icdah dgs dcj sa`jg VAV h 81
Ohkagohjasig. 81>2
>2
Kgomuotg dc adchs sur`adhs h eaohjcs dcj sa`jg VUAAA, quc cstuvacrgo rcjhkagohdhs kgo jh egrihkaûo dc
ohkagocs co csh ápgkh. Jg hpjakhrgo davcrsgs `rupgs fuihogs kgo cj gnmctavg dc aodcpcodazhrsc dc
gtrgs y dc krchr su prgpah ohkaûo, kgo uo `gnacrog prgpag y ergotcrhs csthnjckadhs.
;.>. Cj aipcrahjasig y su cxphosaûo co cj iuodg.
iuodg.
[c jc jjhih hsé h jh krchkaûo dc aipcrags icdahotc jh kgjgoazhkaûo, jh gkuphkaûo g h vckcs sgjg cj
dgiaoag ckgoûiakg dc phéscs g tcrratgrags co Jhtaoghiárakh, Hsah y praokaphjicotc Èerakh. Rgr phrtc
dc pgtcokahs curgpchs
cur gpchs y jgs Csthdgs Soadgs dc Hiárakh durhotc
du rhotc cj sa`jg VAV
VAV y icdahdgs dcj
dcj sa`jg VV.
VV.
;.;. Jh phz hrihdh y jh Rraicrh @ucrrh Iuodahj.
Hj aoakahr cj sa`jg VV, jhs ohkagocs aipcrahjasths,
aipcrahjasth s, quc sc fhného
fhného rcphrtadg cj iuodg, og csthnho
daspucsths h pcrdcr jh aoejucokah y cj kgotrgj quc cmcrkého sgnrc sus kgjgoahs. Ao`jhtcrrh fhnéh sadg
durhotc cj sa`jg VAV jh praokaphj pgtcokah curgpch, pcrg durhotc jhs ýjtaihs dákhdhs dc cstc sa`jg
fhnéh vastg kgo dcskgoeahozh cj krckacotc pgdcrég ckgoûiakg, nhshdg co jh aodustrahjazhkaûo, quc
hdquarého Erhokah, Athjah y Hjcihoah. Ásth ýjtaih, h phrtar dc su uoaeakhkaûo, sc kgosadcrhnh kgig jh
praicrh pgtcokah aodustrahj dc Curgph dcnadg h su cogric dcshrrgjjg co jh aodustrah quéiakh,
sadcrýr`akh, ickèoakh y cjáktrakh. H pcshr dc og tcocr thoths kgjgoahs kgig Ao`jhtcrrh y Erhokah, su
prctcosaûo kgjgoahjasth crh cvadcotc.
Hotc jh prctcosaûo dc csths ohkagocs phrh kgjgkhrsc, h tgdh kgsth, kgig jédcr co cj iuodg, sc aoakaû
uo prgkcsg quc sc kgogkc kgig Rhz Hrihdh. Cstg crh uoh khrrcrh hrihicotasth co jh quc khdh
ohkaûo dcstaoû `rhodcs khpathjcs h jh ehnrakhkaûo
ehnrakhka ûo dc hrihicotg y hj hdacstrhiacotg
hdacstrhiacot g dc sus trgphs
tcrrcstrcs y ohvhjcs, h pcshr dc og csthr hýo co `ucrrh. Cj táriaog dc Rhz Hrihdh sc trhdukéh co quc
jh hicohzh dc uo kgoejaktg hrihdg csthnh jhtcotc, pcrg cxastéh uo hinacotc dc hphrcotc phz y

881

 
 khjih. Cj krckacotc ohkagohjasig aokrcicothnh cj heèo dc jhs pgtcokahs curgpchs pgr csthr h jh
khnczh dcj pgdcr iuodahj< hsé, cotrá 8602 y 8184 og sûjg kgicozhrgo h hrihrsc, saog h tcmcr uoh
scrac dc hjahozhs. Rgr uoh phrtc, sc uoacrgo Hjcihoah, Hustrah-Fuo`réh c Athjah co jh "Trapjc Hjahozh"<
y pgr gtrh, sc egriû uoh kghjakaûo cotrc ^usah, Erhokah c Ao`jhtcrrh, quc kgoegrihréh jh "Trapjc
Cotcotc".
Cj dctgohotc quc fazg csthjjhr jh Rraicrh @ucrrh Iuodahj euc cj hscsaohtg dcj hrkfaduquc dc Hustrah-
Fuo`réh co jh kaudhd dc [hrhmcvg (Ngsoah-Fcrzc`gvaoh), co muoag dc 8184. [ao cinhr`g, jhs khushs
quc dacrgo gra`co h jh `ucrrh eucrgo iýjtapjcs= jh ravhjadhd cotrc jhs pgtcokahs curgpchs quc
jukfhnho pgr jh suprcihkéh ckgoûiakh, cj cxhkcrnhdg ohkagohjasig y cj heèo dc supcragradhd
nhshdg co jh `rho prgdukkaûo dc hrihs dc hjtg hjkhokc.
Dcsdc jgs praokapags dcj sa`jg VV, Ngsoah fhnéh sadg hocxhdh hj Aipcrag hustrg-fýo`hrg. Jh pgnjhkaûo
dc gra`co scrnag quc vavéh co Ngsoah, hpgyhdh pgr cj `gnacrog dc [crnah, sc ihoaecsthnh co kgotrh
dc dakfh hocxaûo. Rgr cjjg, jgs hustréhkgs kgosadcrhrgo quc [crnah tcoéh quc scr sgictadh, y Hustrah
jc dckjhrû jh `ucrrh.
Iuy prgotg sc sa`uacrgo jhs khdcohs dc dckjhrhkagocs dc `ucrrh y jhs dgs kghjakagocs quc sc fhného
egrihdg sc coercothrgo. Rgr uo jhdg jh trapjc Hjahozh, h jh quc thinaáo sc jc jjhiû "Rgtcokahs
Kcotrhjcs", egrihdh pgr Hjcihoah y Hustrah-Fuo`réh, h jh quc sc jcs uoacrgo tacipg dcspuás cj
aipcrag Turkg-Gtgihog y Nuj`hrah< pgr gtrg jhdg, jh Trapjc Cotcotc, h jh quc thinaáo sc jc dcogiaoû
"Rgtcokahs Hjahdhs", kgoegrihdh pgr Ao`jhtcrrh, Erhokah y ^usah y h jh quc sc hjahrgo Náj`akh y [crnah,
hsé
h jhkgig
TrapjcMhpûo,
Hjahozh^uihoah, @rckah yscCsthdgs
co uo praokapag, Soadgs
prgkjhiû dc Hiárakh.
ocutrhj, Athjah,sch hjaû
y iès thrdc, pcshr dcTrapjc
h jh fhncrCotcotc.
pcrtcockadg

Jh jukfh hrihdh sc janrû durhotc kuhtrg høgs (8184-8186), quc dcmhrgo uoh dcstrukkaûo
aodcskraptanjc y iès dc dgkc iajjgocs dc iucrtgs. Cj dcshrrgjjg tckogjû`akg mu`û uo phpcj
prcpgodcrhotc co jh Rraicrh @ucrrh Iuodahj, prgvgkû cj ihygr oýicrg dc iucrtcs co uoh `ucrrh
fhsth cotgokcs. Rgr praicrh vcz sc utajazhrgo hvagocs phrh nginhrdchr h rhs dc tacrrh, jg kuhj
kgovartaû h jh pgnjhkaûo kavaj co uo njhokg. Thinaáo sc utajazhrgo hrihs ogvcdgshs kgig jhs
hictrhjjhdgrhs y jgs `hs
`hscs
cs tûxakgs.
Co 8180, Csthdgs Soadgs dc Hiárakh cotrû h jh `ucrrh kgig hjahdg dc jh Cotcotc y kgotranuyû dc
ihocrh aipgrthotc h jh dcrrgth dc jhs pgtcokahs kcotrhjcs. Csc iasig høg csthjjû uoh rcvgjukaûo
kavaj co ^usah, quc gnja`û h csc phés h rctarhrsc dc jh kgotacodh y h earihr uoh phz prgvasagohj kgo
Hjcihoah.
Co jh ýjtaih ehsc dc jh `ucrrh, jhs ohkagocs hjahdhs dc jh Cotcotc aotcosaeakhrgo jgs hthqucs kgotrh jhs
pgtcokahs kcotrhjcs y h eaohjcs dc 8180 jancrhrgo jh rc`aûo dcj khohj dc jh Ihokfh, y thinaáo Náj`akh
y Erhokah, quc fhného sadg gkuphdhs pgr csths pgtcokahs. Cj aipcrag turkg-gtgihog sc raodaû co
scptacinrc dc 8186 y Hustrah-Fuo`réh y Hjcihoah khpatujhrgo co ogvacinrc dc csc iasig høg. Co
 muoag dc 8181,
8181, sc eariû ccjj trhthd
trhthdg
g dc Ucrshjjc
Ucrshjjcs,
s, quc p
pus
usg
g eao
eao dc i
ihocr
hocrhh egri
egrihj
hj h jh `uc
`ucrrh.
rrh.
;.4. Jh phz dc Ucrshjj
Ucrshjjcs
cs y sus kgosckucokahs.
Cj >6 dc muoag dc 8181 co cj shjûo dc jgs cspcmgs dcj phjhkag dc Ucrshjjcs. Jhs pgtcokahs vcokcdgrhs
hkgrdhrgo krchr uo gr`hoasig aotcrohkagohj, jh "[gkacdhd dc jhs Ohkagocs", quc sc cokhr`hréh dc
ihotcocr jh phz dcj iuodg. Cj trhthdg dc Ucrshjjcs aipusg h Hjcihoah kgodakagocs= ph`hr uoh
kgipcoshkaûo ckgoûiakh h jgs vcokcdgrcs pgr jgs dhøgs gkhsagohdgs pgr jh `ucrrh, hsé kgig kcdcr
tcrratgrags. Hjcihoah dcvgjvaû h Erhokah, Hjshkah y Jgrcoh< h Náj`akh y Daohihrkh, tcrratgrags

8>2

 
 ergotcrazgs< thinaáo dcnéh kcdcr h Rgjgoah uoh shjadh hj ihr Nèjtakg y cotrc`hr h jh [gkacdhd dc
Ohkagocs
Ohka gocs sus kgjgoahs y tcrratgrag
tcrratgragss dc ujtrhihr.
Rgr gtrh phrtc, cj aipcrag hustrg-fýo`hrg sc davadaû co kuhtrg oucvhs ohkagocs= Hustrah, Fuo`réh,
Kfckgsjgvhquah y Qu`gsjhvah. Cj aipcrag turkg-gtgihog pcrdaû sus tcrratgrags co Curgph y kcdaû jgs
dcj Kcrkhog Gracotc h jh [gkacdhd dc jhs Ohkagocs.
Hj eaohjazhr jh Rraicrh @ucrrh Iuodahj, cj iuodg khinaû dc ihocrh susthokahj y cj ihph `cgpgjétakg
sc trhosegriû. Jgs hjahdgs jjcvhrgo h khng uoh davasaûo y dcjaiathrgo jhs oucvhs ergotcrhs quc
gkhsagohrého iýjtapjcs coercothiacotgs y rcscotaiacotgs co jgs sa`uacotcs høgs. ^c`agocs cotcrhs
eucrho davadadhs
davadadhs sao kgosadcrhr jhs trhdakagocs y jgs rhs`gs
rhs`gs kujturhjcs quc kgiphrtého
kgiphrtého sus fhnathotcs.
Hdciès, `rho phrtc dcj tcrratgrag curgpcg euc dcstruadg y su pgnjhkaûo tcoéh hotc sé uo phogrhih
dc dcscipjcg y pgnrczh. Ao`jhtcrrh, jh `rho pgtcokah, sc dcnajatû pucs dcnéh dc gkuphrsc dc jh
rckgostrukkaûo dc su prgpag
prgpag tcrratgrag.
tcrratg rag.

4. Cj iuodg cot
cotrc
rc 81
81>2
>2 y 8152
4.8. Cj iuodg cotrc jhs `rhodcs `ucrrhs= sgkahjasig, ohkagohj ohkagohj sgkahjasig 
sgkahjasig 
 y ehskasig.
Dcspuás dc jh praicrh `ucrrh iuodahj, jgs `gnacrogs hutgrathrags dc Curgph sc khrhktcrazhrgo
praokaphjicotc
praokaph jicotc pgr su gpgsakaûo h jh dcigkrhkah, pgr jh iajathrazhkaûo dcj csthdg, cj cmcr
cmcrkakag
kakag dc jh
vagjcokah co kgotrh dc jgs gpgsatgrcs
gpgsatgrcs y cj rhkasig co kgotrh dc pucnjgs
pucnjgs cxtrhomcrgs.
cxtrhomcrgs .
Jgs praokaphjcs adchjcs pgjétakgs y sgkahjcs quc sgstuvacrgo cstgs `gnacrogs hutgrathrags eucrgo cj
ohkagohjasig y cj iajathrasig. Cj praicrg prgiucvc jh uoadhd dc jh phtrah, y cj sc`uodg cxfanc quc
jh eucrzh iajathrcs dc vathj aipgrthokah phrh `hrhotazhr tgdh jh sc`uradhd dcj csthdg, h jh ohkaûo y hj
pgdcr dakthtgrahj. Cstgs `gnacrogs hutgrathrags cstuvacrgo aoejucokahdgs pgr jhs adcgjg`éhs quc sc
gra`aohrgo durhotc cj pcragdg cotrc`ucrrhs kgig cj EH[KA[IG y cj OH]A[IG (ohkagohjsgkahjasig)
g cj egrthjckaiacotg dcj sgkahjasig dcshrrgjjhdg co cj sa`jg VAV.
[GKAHJA[IG= [ur`aû durhotc cj sa`jg VAV, kgig uoh adcgjg`éh sgkahj dara`adh fhkah jh trhosegrihkaûo
dc jh gr`hoazhkaûo pgjétakh y ckgoûiakh dc jgs phéscs quc sc pcreajhrgo dcotrg dc jgs jaochiacotgs
dc jgs khpathjasths. Cj gnmctavg dcj sgkahjasig crh, co `cocrhj, htrhcr jgs ncoceakags gntcoadgs dc jh
prgdukkaûo fhkah jgs iasigs prgduktgrcs, kgoea`urhodg jh adcgjg`éh dc uoh sgkacdhd co jh quc jhs
khrhktcréstakhs praokaphjcs scrého jh hnuodhokah y jh a`uhjdhd.
Ihrx y Co`cjs fakacrgo uoh prgpucsth h trh trhvás
vás dc sus cskratg
cskratgss phrh jg`rhr jgs eaocs
eaoc s dcj sgkahjasig h
icdahdgs dcj
dcj sa`jg VAV. Hj
Hj aoakahr jh sa`uacotc kcoturah,
kcot urah, cj sgkahjasig
sgkahj asig sc kgovartaû
kgovar taû co euodhicotg
pgjétakg dc jh Soaûo [gvaátakh y dc Kfaoh, durhotc cj pcragdg dc jhs `rhodcs `ucrrhs, cj sgkahjasig yh
kgothnh kgo prg`rhihs pgjétakg-ckgoûiakgs quc sc`uého cstgs csthdgs. Soh vcz quc tcriaoû jh
[c`uodh @ucrrh Iuodahj, jh S^[[ cohrngjû jh adch sgkahjasth y jh daeuodaû pgr tgdg cj iuodg.
EH[KA[IG= euc nhshdg
EH[KA[IG= nhshdg co jh dakthdurh dc uo phrtadg ýoakg y co
co jh cxhjthkaûo
cxhjthka ûo dcj ohkagohjasig
ohkagohjas ig y dcj
kgrpgrhtavas
kgrpgr htavasig.
ig. [ur`aû co 8186 co co Athjah kgig gpgsakaûo h jgsjgs igvaiacotgs dc jgs jgs gnrcrgs dc
dc
davcrsgs phéscs, iukfgs dc jgs kuhjcs jukfhnho pgr cj csthnjckaiacotg dcj sgkahjasig hdquaracodg
eucrzh co jgs pcragdgs dc krasas ckgoûiakh. Csthnh kgihodhdg pgr Ncoatg Iussgjaoa.
[c trhthnh dc uoh adcgjg`éh y uo igvaiacotg pgjétakg hutgrathrag quc sc gpgoéh h jh dcigkrhkah
jancrhj
co y hj hcsthdg
kuhotg sgkahjasth,
quc qucréh coehtazhodg
aotcrvcoar jh adch dc
co jh tgthjadhd dc ohkaûo. [c kgosadcrhnh
jgs hspcktgs quc hthøcouoh
h jhadcgjg`éh tgthjathrah
vadh dcj aodavadug.

8>8

 
 Co áj èinatg ckgoûiakg, prgigvéh uo khpathjasig dc khrèktcr kgrpgrhtavasth< cstg cs, quc cj
icrkhdg csthréh dgiaohdg pgr hsgkahkagocs prgecsagohjcs g dc prgdukkaûo, h su vcz dgiaohdhs pgr
jgs prgpacthrags dc jhs aodustrahs y fhkacodhs. Cj ehskasig kgosadcrh jh vagjcokah kgig eucrzh dc
khinag.
OH]A[IG. (Ohkagohjsgkahjasig). Adcgjg`éh sur`adh dcotrg dcj iasig pcragdg dc cotrc`ucrrhs, kgo
cj Rhrtadg Ohkagohj [gkahjasth hjcièo cokhnczhdg pgr Hdgje Fatjcr.
Cj ohzasig kgiphrtéh khrhktcréstakhs c adchjcs kgo cj ehskasig, pcrg kgo rhkasig hkcotuhdg, sgnrc
tgdg kgo jgstgdgs
prgfanacrgo mudégs.jgs
Oao`uoh gtrh
phrtadgs rhzh átoakh
pgjétakgs kgo crh hkcpthdh
cxkcpkaûo dcpgr
jgsjgs ohzas. Co kucstaûo
`gncrohotcs dc pgjétakh,quc
y jgs saodakhtgs, sc
eucrgo sgictadgs h uoh gr`hoazhkaûo kcotrhj dara`adh pgr rcprcscothotcs dc `rhodcs ciprcshrags.
Jh aoejucokah dc csths
cst hs adcgjg`éhs fhkah cj gra`co dc jh [c
[c`uodh
`uodh @ucrrh Iuodahj sc ogthrgo kuhodg cj cj
ohzasig, co 81;;, sc aipjcicotg kgig sastcih dc `gnacrog< cotgokcs jgs prgnjcihs y jgs
coercothiacotgs iuodahjcs, hsé kgig jh egrihkaûo dc njgqucs, sc h`udazhrgo. Hjcihoah houjû
vagjcothicotc jhs daspgsakagocs dcj Trhthdg dc Ucrshjjcs, cj trhthdg dc phz quc aipgoéh
rcstrakkagocs dc hrihicotg h Hjcihoah hj eaohj dc jh Rraicrh @ucrrh Iuodahj. Kgo nhsc dc su
pgjétakh dc cxphosaûo tcrratgrahj ohkagohjasth, Hjcihoah sc hprgpaû dc Hustrah y Kfckgsjgvhquah,
hr`uicothodg quc cstg crh phrtc dc su rcavaodakhkaûo tcrratgrahj. Cj Ehskasig, pgr su phrtc, sc
hpgdcrû dc ihocrh vagjcoth dc Hnasaojh y Hjnhoah kgo hpgyg dc Hjcihoah.
4.>. Jh pgnrczh co cj iuodg.
Kgo cj dcspuotc ckgoûiakg dcj sa`jg VV, jhs dcsa`uhjdhdcs sgkahjcs eucrgo uoh dc jhs khrhktcréstakhs
aipgrthotcss quc sgnrcshjacrgo
aipgrthotc sgnrcshj acrgo co cj pcragdg dc 81>2 h 8152, yh quc og tgdhs jhs ohkagocs sc
dcscovgjvacrgo hj iasig ratig ckgoûiakg y pgjétakg, `cocrhodg uo hipjag hnasig cotrc jgs phéscs
dcshrrgjjhdgs y jgs og dcshrrgjjhdgs.
Kgokrcthicotc, durhotc jh @ucrrh Eréh sc dag jh davasaûo pgjétakh y ckgoûiakh dcj Tcrkcr Iuodg,
kgipucsth pgr hqucjjhs ohkagocs ckgoûiakhicotc pgnrcs y dcpcodacotcs dc phéscs co dcshrrgjjg
ckgoûiakg. [c khrhktcrazû pgr jh pgnrczh dc sus zgohs urnhohs y cj pgkg dcshrrgjjg aodustrahj quc
tcoéh. H pcshr dc quc cj khpathjasig `cocrû icmgrcs kgodakagocs dc vadh, `rhkahs h jgs hvhokcs
tckogjû`akgs y kacotéeakgs, cstgs ncoceakags og sc dastranuycrgo cquathtavhicotc cotrc jh pgnjhkaûo.
Cj oucvg grdco ckgoûiakg krcû uo scktgr dc phéscs sundcshrrgjjhdgs, kgipucstg pgr 8;2 phéscs,
khrhktcrazhdgs pgrquc jh ihygr phrtc dc su pgnjhkaûo tcoéh uo nhmg oavcj dc vadh h khush dc jh
pgnrczh.
Co Èerakh, jhs kgodakagocs dc dcskgjgoazhkaûo, jh ihr`aohkaûo, jgs rc`éicocs hutgrathrags, jgs `gjpcs
dc Csthdg, y jh `ucrrh kavaj, eucrgo `cocrhdgrcs cvadcotcs dc jh pgnrczh h`udh. Co Hiárakh Jhtaoh,
pgr su phrtc, jh dcudh quc iukfgs phéscs tcoého kgo jhs `rhodcs aostatukagocs eaohokacrhs jgs
ihotuvg codcudhdgs co jh sc`uodh iathd dcj sa`jg VV y, sa h cjjg jc høhdaigs cj cskhsg g iéoaig
hpgyg h jh aovcsta`hkaûo, jh kacokah y h jh cdukhkaûo, jhs prgnhnajadhdcs dc krckaiacotg eucrgo oujhs.
4.;. Hvhokcs kacotéeakgs y tckogjû`akgs y su aiphktg
aiphktg co
co jh sgkacdhd.
Durhotc cj sa`jg VV sc dag cspckahj aipgrthokah hj dcshrrgjjg y prgdukkaûo dc jgs hvhokcs
tckogjû`akgs. Jhs @ucrrhs Iuodahjcs eucrgo uo igtgr aipgrthotc phrh cj dcshrrgjjg tckogjû`akg
pcrg, hj iasig tacipg, jgs rcsujthdgs gntcoadgs eucrgo hpjakhdgs h jh vadh dahrah kgig co cj
trhospgrtc (hutgiûvajcs g hvagocs), co jgs cjcktrgdgiástakgs y co jhs kgiuoakhkagocs (rhdag y
tcjcvasaûo).

8>>

 
 Jhs @ucrrhs Iuodahjcs eucrgo uo dctgohotc phrh cj dcshrrgjjg hrihicotasth quc cstuvg sustcothdg
co jh aovcsta`hkaûo kacotéeakh
kacoté eakh y cj hvhokc dc jh tckogjg`éh. Dc jh Rraicrh @ucrrh
@ucr rh Iuodahj h jh [c`uodh
[c`uodh
sc prcscotû uo shjtg aipgrthotc co jh prgdukkaûo dc iýjtapjcs hrihs kuyhs nhscs tckogjû`akhs fho
sadg hpjakhdhs co èinatgs davcrsgs. Gtrg hvhokc dc suih aipgrthokah, euc cj dc jh hvahkaûo, quc cstè
rcjhkagohdh kgo cstc igicotg fastûrakg.
Rhrh 8184 jgs praicrgs hcrgpjhogs fhného sadg pcreckkagohdgs y eucrgo utajazhdgs co cj kgoejaktg
hrihdg aotcrohkagohj.
aotcrohkag ohj. Co jg
jgss høgs dc cotrc`ucrr
cotr c`ucrrhs
hs jhs
jhs pgtcokahs
pgtcokahs aovartacrgo
aovartacr go `rhodcs suihs phrh
phrh
icmgrhr
sc cipczû
cipczûjhs hcrgohvcs=
h utajazhr cjscpajgtg
aokjuycrgo jgs sastcihs
hutgiètakg< dc rhdagkgiuoakhkaûo,
jgs vucjgs
vucjg sc icmgrhrgo
s kgicrkahjcs sc dupjakhrgo. Hsé, jhs
jgs khnaohs
hvhokcsy
aipujshdgs pgr jh @ucrrh rctrghjaicothrgo jh vadh dahrah y, hj iasig tacipg, pcriatacrgo hjasthr
`rhodcs cmárkatgs hárcgs. Co jh [c`uodh @ucrrh Iuodahj jh prgdukkaûo dc hvagocs sc hkcjcrû co
khotadhd y co cspckahjazhkaûo, yh jgs fhnéh tapg khzh, nginhrdcrgs, dc rckgogkaiacotg, dc
trhospgrtc dc suiaoastrgs y dc pcrsgohj iajathr. Hj táriaog dc jh @ucrrh, jh aovcsta`hkaûo co
hcrgoèutakh sc davcrsaeakû. Jgs `rhodcs hvhokcs tckogjû`akgs pcriatacrgo cj dcshrrgjjg dc uoh
aodustrah kgicrkahj cspckahjazhdh co cj trhospgrtc dc phshmcrgs, uoh kacotéeakh phrh cj hjkhokc dcj
csphkag y, hj iasig tacipg, kgotaouhrgo h phsgs h`a`hothdgs co cj tcrrcog hrihicotasth.
Jh ohvc`hkaûo cs gtrg èinatg co cj quc pgdcigs cokgotrhr csth rcjhkaûo cotrc jgs hdcjhotgs
kacotéeakgs= tckogjg`éh, `ucrrh y vadh kgtadahoh. Co jh [c`uodh @ucrrh Iuodahj, jhs ohvcs utajazhnho
yh cj rhdhr,
y quc csthnhcotrc gtrgs hvhokcs
sustcothdg tckogjû`akgs,
co cj usg quc pcriatéh unakhrKgig
dc godhs cjcktrgih`oátakhs. y dctckthr
shncs,dasthokahs y cocia`gs
cstc y gtrgs hvhokcs
sc fho aokjuadg co oucstrh vadh kgtadahoh.
[ao dudh,
dudh, jhs aovcsta`hkagocs y jgs rcsujthdgs gntcoadgs co cj cj ihocmg dc jh cocr`éh oukjchr dc
icdahdgs dcj sa`jg VV, khinahrgo jh kgokcpkaûo dc jh `ucrrh y dc jh cocr`éh co cj iuodg. Cj gnmctavg
euc kjhrg, dcshrrgjjhr uo hrih dc dcstrukkaûo ihsavh sustcothdg co jgs kgogkaiacotgs kacotéeakgs< cj
rcsujthdg
rcsuj thdg euc jh kgostrukkaûo dc jh ngin
nginhh htûiakh. H phrtar dc jgs høgs
høgs kaokucoth dcj sa`jg VV, jh
cocr`éh oukjchr sc kgicozû h utajazhr og sûjg phrh hrihicotg= sc dcshrrgjjû jh prgpujsaûo oukjchr<
jh `cocrhkaûo dc cjcktrakadhd pgr davcrshs véhs kgig jg
jgss rchktgrcs
rchktgr cs oukjchrcs<
oukj chrcs< jgs hvhokcs iádakgs
phrh cj dah`oûstakg y trhthiacotg dc davcrshs coecricdhdcs< co jh kgoscrvhkaûo dc daecrcotcs
hjaicotgs c aokjusg co cj kujtavg dc hj`uogs prgduktgs< ctk., cs dckar, jh cocr`éh oukjchr fh trhédg
uohrcspctco
sc scrac dc yncoceakags
ncocea kags jhs
sc sa`ho phrh jh gntcokaûo
ogrihs dc cocr`éh
dc sc`uradhd. iès
Cstgs jaipah fho
hvhokcs phrhkhinahdg,
cj hinacotc, saciprc
aokjusg, y kuhodg
jh egrih co
quc jgs scrcs fuihogs ogs kgipgrthigs, ogs rcjhkagohigs y ogs kgiprcodcigs. Nhsth co pcoshr
co cj dcshrrgjjg dc jh aodustrah kgicrkahj dc jgs prgduktgs
prgduktgs cjcktrgdgiástakgs,<
cjcktrgdgiástakgs,< hsé
hs é kgig
kgig co
co pcstakadhs
pcstaka dhs
g dctcr`cotcs. Kgo jgs hvhokcs tckogjû`akgs jhs jhngrcs dcj fg`hr sc hkgrthrgo.
4.4. Jh [c`uodh
[c`uodh @ucrrh Iuodahj,
Iuod ahj, khushs y kgosckucokahs.
Jhs praokaphjcs khushs ckgoûiakhs, pgjétakhs, adcgjû`akhs y dcig`rèeakhs dc jh [c`uodh @ucrrh
Iuodahj, eucrgo=
Ckgoûiakhs. Rgr jg quc sc rceacrc hj kgotcxtg ckgoûiakg, fhy quc rckgrdhr cj aiphktg dc jh krasas
Ckgoûiakhs. Rgr
dcj >1. Jhs pgjétakhs ckgoûiakhs prcvahs, dc dcsrá`ujhkaûo eaohokacrh y dc pgkh aotcrvcokaûo dcj
csthdg, fhného prgpakahdg cj krhkl nursètaj dc 81>1. Jhs praicrhs prgpucsths dc sgjukaûo sc`uého co
csth jéoch, pgr jg quc jh satuhkaûo og icmgrû. Eaohjicotc, hotc jh aokhphkadhd dcj icrkhdg dc
rcsgjvcr jh satuhkaûo pgr sé sûjg, sc rckurraû h jhs pgjétakhs aotcrvcokagoasths phrh aipujshr ckgogiéh.

8>;

 
 Aosparhdgs co jhs ¡dchs dc jgs ckgogiasths, kgig Mgfo Ihyohrd Lcyocs, cj csthdg sc kgovartaû
kgovart aû co cj
praokaphj aovcrsgr< huicotû cj `hstg pýnjakg y jh satuhkaûo ckgoûiakh cipczû h icmgrhr
phujhtaohicotc. Rraicrg sc fazg téiadhicotc kgo cj Ocw Dchj dc Erholjao D. ^ggscvcjt< hj iasig
tacipg cj iaoastrg ohza
ohza dc ckgogiéh Fmhjihr [kfhkft, quc thinaáo crh uo sc`uadgr dc cshs oucvhs
adchs, fazg jg prgpag co Hjcihoah. H eaohjcs dc jgs høgs ;2 cstc aotcrvcokagoasig pýnjakg sc fhnéh
iujtapjakhdg, huoquc og sûjg co egrih dc scrvakags c aoerhcstrukturhs sa og quc sc rcgracotû co gtrg
scotadg, fhkah cj rchric. Jh khrrcrh hrihicotéstakh hotcragr y saiujtèoch h jh [c`uodh @ucrrh
Iuodahj jg`rû supcrhr dceaoatavhicotc jh krasas dc jgs høgs ;2 y vgjvcr h jh scodh dcj krckaiacotg
ckgoûiakg.
Rgjétakhs. Jhs durhs kgodakagocs aipucsths h Hjcihoah pgr cj trhthdg dc Ucrshjjcs, krchrgo áj khjdg
Rgjétakhs. Jhs
dc kujtavg prgpakag phrh jh daeusaûo dc adchs rcvhokfasths. Cstg euc kjhvc phrh cotcodcr cj áxatg dc
`rupgs dc cxtrcih dcrckfh, kgig jgs ohkagohjsgkahjasths g ohzas.
Huoquc durhotc jgs høgs >2 sc suhvazhrgo hj`uogs hspcktgs dc Ucrshjjcs, jh scoshkaûo `cocrhj cotrc
jgs hjcihocs crh quc erhokcscs c ao`jcscs fhného hnushdg y jcs fhného trhthdg aomusthicotc. Co
Athjah thipgkg csthnho shtaseckfgs kgo cj trhthdg, pcrg pgr gtrhs rhzgocs. Jgs ao`jcscs y erhokcscs
og fhného kuipjadg sus prgicshs rcspcktg h Athjah y og kgosa`uacrgo hocxagohrsc jgs tcrratgrags quc
rcavaodakhnho
rcavaoda khnho dc Qu`gsjhvah
Qu`gsjhvah (jh rc`aûo
rc`aûo kgstcrh dc Dhjihkah). Cstg euc ushdg pgr jgs `rupgs
`rupgs rhdakhjcs
athjahogs quc fhnjhnho dc vaktgrah iutajhdh y dc arrcdcotasig (ohkaûo athjahoh aokgipjcth).
Adcgjû`akhs. Thotg
Adcgjû`akhs.  Thotg co Hjcihoah kgig co Mhpûo sc daeuodacrgo adcgjg`éhs dc tapg ohkagohjasth quc
 mustae
 mustaeakhnho
sa`jgakhnho jh
jh suprci
VAV, fung sup rcihkéh
hutgrcs hkéh
qucdc cstgs
cstgs phés
phéscs
dcecodacrgo csjhsgnrc
sgn rcragradhd
jg
jgss dc
supcragradhd
supc dc surhkahj
cotgrog.
cotgyrog. Co Hjcihoah,
kujturhjHjciho
kuj turhj dc jgs ah, yh dcs
dcsdc
hjcihocs dc aoakags
aoak
kgig
kgi gags dcj
dcj
Eakftc
g Fhusfgecr, cs cj jjhihdg `crihoas
jjhihdg `crihoasig.
ig. H  H phrtar dc csth prciash kgosadcrhnho jc`étaig sgictcr h
sus vckaogs pgr jg quc sc kgovartaû co uoh mustaeakhkaûo dcj cxphosagoasig y dcj aipcrahjasig.
A`uhjicotc phsû co Mhpûo, su supcragradhd aodustrahj sarvaû phrh mustaeakhr adchs dc suprcihkéh rhkahj.
[u gnmctavg crh krchr jg quc jjhihrgo "csecrh dc kgprgspcradhd hsaètakh", uo `rho aipcrag hsaètakg
dara`adg pgr Mhpûo y sao pgtcokahs kgjgoahjcs curgpchs. Csths adchs dc suprcihkéh ohkagohj y rhkahj
scrého tgthjicotc hsuiadhs pgr jgs ohzas, quc jhs uoacrgo h su eucrtc hotasciatasig, hj rckfhzg dc
jh dcigkrhkah y h su dcecosh dcj cjatasig g mcrhrquéh ohturhj cotrc jgs fginrcs.
Dcig`rèeakhs. Jh krasas dcj >1 tuvg ju`hr co uo kgotcxtg dc huicotg dc pgnjhkaûo. Durhotc jgs høgs
Dcig`rèeakhs. Jh
>2 jh prgspcradhd fhnéh prgpakahdg uo huicotg dcig`rèeakg, hfgrh jh satuhkaûo fhnéh khinahdg y
jh krasas fhkéh iuy daeékaj ihotcocr h tgdh csth pgnjhkaûo.
Jhs praokaphjcs kgosckucokahs dcig`rèeakhs, ihtcrahjcs, adcgjû`akhs, ckgoûiakhs y pgjétakhs quc
dcmû jh [c`uodh @ucrrh Iuodahj, eucrgo=
Dcig`rèeakhs y ihtcrahjcs. Hdciès
ihtcrahjcs. Hdciès dc jhs aipgodcrhnjcs dcstrukkagocs ihtcrahjcs, jh `ucrrh tuvg
kcrkh dc 43 iajjgocs dc véktaihs. Jh iathd dc jgs ehjjckadgs eucrgo rusgs (>> iajjgocs), sc`uadgs dc
jgs kfaogs (8; iajjgocs), hjcihocs (0 iajjgocs) y pgjhkgs (5 iajjgocs). Qu`gsjhvgs y mhpgocscs
tuvacrgo kcrkh dc > iajjgocs dc véktaihs rcspcktavhicotc, iacotrhs quc erhokcscs, nratèoakgs c
Athjahogs pcrdacrgo kcrkh dc Qz  iajjûo khdh uog. Jgs hicrakhogs hpcohs tuvacrgo Qo dc iajjûo dc
dckcsgs.
Adcgjû`akhs. Cj ehskasig y cj ohzasig hkhnho dcsprcsta`ahdgs kgig adcgjg`éhs. Durhotc 8143 y 8145
Adcgjû`akhs. Cj
sc cecktýho jgs muakags dc Oýrcincr`, co cjjgs shjdrèo h jh juz jgs hspcktgs iès oc`htavgs dcj rá`aico
ohza. Co jg sukcsavg sûjg qucdhrèo dgs `rupgs adcgjû`akgs praokaphjcs, cj prg-khpathjasth quc sc hpgyh
co jh adch dc jancrthd y co jh dcecosh dc jh dcigkrhkah phrjhicothrah, y cj prg-kgiuoasth quc sc

8>4

 
 hpgyh co jh adch dc a`uhjdhd y co jh dcecosh dc jh mustakah sgkahj, hings kgo dastaoths
ihoaecsthkagocs.
Ckgoûiakhs.  Hj eaohjazhr jh `ucrrh, jh fc`cigoéh ckgoûiakh dc Csthdgs Soadgs crh aodaskutanjc.
Ckgoûiakhs. 
Daspgoého dc iès dcj 32% dcj R.A.N. iuodahj y dc iès dcj 52% dc jhs rcscrvhs dc grg dcj iuodg,
csth vcz og hdgpthrèo su trhdakagohj pgsakaûo dc ocutrhjadhd y sc aipjakhrèo hnacrthicotc co cj
dascøg ckgoûiakg y pgjétakg dc jh oucvh cthph. Co jh kgoecrcokah dc Nrcttgo Pggds co 8144 sc
pgoco jhs nhscs dcj oucvg grdco ckgoûiakg y eaohokacrg iuodahj. [c krch oucvg sastcih igocthrag
c aostatukagocs aotcrohkagohjcs phrh rc`ujhr jh ckgogiéh (EIA, NI, @HTT). Cj dcsheag quc supgoéh jh
cxastcokah dc pgdcrgsgs phrtadgs kgiuoasths co Curgph Gkkadcothj, euc dctcriaohotc co jh dckasaûo
dc Csthdgs Soadgs dc hyudhr ihsavhicotc h Curgph y Mhpûo phrh su rckgostrukkaûo y su dcshrrgjjg,
cs cj pjho Ihrsfhjj. Kgo cj eao dc dcigstrhr jh supcragradhd dcj igdcjg khpathjasth sgnrc cj
kgiuoasth, jhs dcigkrhkahs gkkadcothjcs kgostruycrgo uo sastcih sgkahj kgo cj quc sc jjc`û h uo
oavcj dc prgspcradhd ouokh vastg, cj csthdg dcj nacocsthr.
Rgjétakhs=.  Jg
Rgjétakhs=.  Jgss rusgs prgpakahrgo jh aosthjhkaûo
aost hjhkaûo dc rc`éicocs kgiuoasths dc tapg sgvaátakg co jgs phéscs
quc jancrhrgo, sgnrc tgdg h phrtar dcj `gjpc dc Rrh`h co 8146. Cstg fazg rchkkagohr h Truiho quc
gptû pgr aotcrvcoar ckgoûiakh y iajathricotc phrh cvathr jh cxphosaûo kgiuoasth, cs jh jjhihdh
Dgktraoh Truiho. Jh S^[[ y Csthdgs Soadgs sc aipjakho co jhs `ucrrhs kavajcs dc @rckah y Kfaoh?
hpgyhodg khdh uoh h su rcspcktavg nhodg. Co 8141 jgs hjahdgs gkkadcothjcs krcho jh GTHO kgo cj eao
dc hpgyhrsc iajathricotc kgotrh jh S^[[. Hfgrh, cj iuodg cs cj thnjcrg dc muc`g dgodc jhs dgs
supcrpgtcokahs vcokcdgrhs trhtho dc aipgocr su dgiaoag, kgiacozh jh `ucrrh eréh.
4.3. Cthphs dc jh [c`uod
[c`uodhh @ucrrh Iuod
Iuodahj.
ahj.
Jh praicrh cthph dc jh `ucrrh (81;1-814>). [c
(81;1-814>). [c khrhktcrazû pgr jhs vaktgrahs dc jhs pgtcokahs dcj Cmc=
Hjcihoah dcshrrgjjû uoh "`ucrrh rcjèiph`g", nhshdh co hthqucs ihsavgs rchjazhdgs pgr sgrprcsh
kgo cj usg kgomuotg dc thoqucs, hvagocs y uoadhdcs igtgrazhdhs dc aoehotcréh. @rhkahs h cjjg, y h jh
ocutrhjadhd dc ^usah, jgs ohzas gkuphrgo khsa tgdh Curgph gkkadcothj (Daohihrkh, Ogruc`h, Náj`akh,
Juxcinur`g y Erhokah). [ao cinhr`g, og kgosa`uacrgo jh rcodakaûo dc ^caog Soadg, quc rcsastaû jgs
aotcosgs hthqucs dc jh hvahkaûo hjcihoh durhotc jh nhthjjh dc Ao`jhtcrrh. Jgs ohzas kgoquasthrgo
dcspuás cj ogrtc dc Èerakh y jgs Nhjkhocs, hdgodc hkudacrgo co hpgyg dc jgs athjahogs, c aovhdacrgo
jh S^[[ (8148).
Rgr su phrtc, Mhpûo nginhrdcû y dcstruyû co 8148 jh ejgth csthdguoadcosc
csthdguoadco sc htrhk
htrhkhdh
hdh co jh nhsc ohv
ohvhj
hj
dc Rchrj Fhrngr
sc kgovartaû (Fhwèa).
hsé co Cstccskcohrag
So oucvg fckfg prgvgkû jh cotrhdh dc Csthdgs Soadgs co cj kgoejaktg. Cj Rhkéeakg
dc `ucrrh.
Jh sc`uodh cthph dc jh `ucrrh (814>-8143). 
(814>-8143).   [c aoakaû kgo jh kgotcokaûo pgr jgs Hjahdgs dc jhs
pgtcokahs dc Cmc= Mhpûo euc ercohdg pgr Csthdgs Soadgs co cj Rhkéeakg< Hjcihoah pgr jgs nratèoakgs,
co cj ogrtc dc Èerakh, y pgr jgs rusgs, co [thjao`rhdg< c Athjah euc aovhdadh pgr jgs Hjahdgs.
H phrtar dc 8144, jgs Hjahdgs pusacrgo co ihrkfh `rhodcs gecosavhs. Rgr cj gcstc, trhs cj dcscinhrkg
dc Ogrihodéh (8144) y jh jancrhkaûo dc Curgph gkkadcothj, jgs Hjahdgs pcoctrhrgo co Hjcihoah< pgr
cj gcstc, cj Cmárkatg ^gmg [gvaátakg sc dara`aû fhkah Ncrjéo, cotrhodg co jh kaudhd co Ihyg dc 8143.
Cstc fckfg prgvgkû cj suakadag dc Fatjcr. Dgs déhs hotcs, Iussgjaoa fhnéh sadg khpturhdg y cmckuthdg.
Mhpûo kgotaouû jukfhodg co cj Rhkéeakg. [ûjg sc raodaû trhs cj nginhrdcg htûiakg, rchjazhdg pgr
Csthdgs Soadgs, dc jhs kaudhdcs dc Fargsfaih y Oh`hshla (5 y 1 dc h`gstg dc 8143).

8>3

 
 3. Dákhdhs rckacot
rckacotcs
cs ▢
3.8. Khrhktcréstakhs
Khrhktcrésta khs dc jgs njgqucs khpathjasth y sgkahjasth.
Co jhs dákhdhs sa`uacotcs h jh [c`uodh @ucrrh Iuodahj, cj iuodg sc cokgotrhnh davadadg co dgs
`rhodcs njgqucs, [gkahjasths y Khpathjasths. Csthdgs Soadgs dc Hiárakh rcprcscothnh hj khpathjasig,
iacotrhs jh Soaûo [gvaátakh dcecodéh hj sgkahjasig. Cs dckar, iacotrhs
iac otrhs cj praicrg dcecodéh h jh
prgpacdhd pravhdh y cj janrc icrkhdg, cj sc`uodg pu`ohnh pgr uoh hdiaoastrhkaûo kgjcktavh co jh
quc cj
cj Csthdg
Cst hdg eucrh prgpacthrag y rc`ujhdgr dc tgdg. Uhrags eucrgo jgs phéscs quc sc h`jutaohrgo co

tgrog
phéscs htuvg
cjjgs, kgoegrihodg
ju`hr co davcrsgs hsé njgqucs
èinatgs ckgoûiakgs
adcgjû`akgs, y iajathrcs.
iajathrcs, Cj coercothiacotg
tckogjû`akgs, cotrc hings
dcpgrtavgs, kacotéeakgs, dc
cspagohmc, aoegrihtavgs, cotrc gtrgs< huoquc ouokh sc dag uo coercothiacotg nájakg dc egrih
darckth. H ástc pcragdg dc coercothiacotgs sc jc jjhiû "@ucrrh Eréh".
Rhrh Csthdgs Soadgs
Soadgs dc
dc Hiárakh
Hiárakh,, jh Soaûo
Soaûo [gvaátakh rcprcscothnh
rcprcsco thnh uoh hicohzh
hicohzh kgosthotc.
kgosthot c. Rgr jg
iasig kgovgkhrgo h uoh rcuoaûo co jh kuhj Erhokah, @rho Nrcthøh, Juxcinur`g y Fgjhodh earihrgo
cj "Trhthdg dc Nruscjhs". Cj gnmctavg dcj trhthdg euc gntcocr hpgyg iajathr iutug. Cstc crh yh uo
praicr hotckcdcotc dc jg quc sukcdcréh co Hnraj dc 8141, eckfh co jh quc sc kgoegriû, co jh kaudhd
dc Phsfao`tgo, jh Gr`hoazhkaû
Gr`hoazhkaûoo dcj Trhthdg dcj Htjèotakg Ogrtc (GTHO), egrihdh pgr Náj`akh, ^caog
Soadg, Khohdè, Daohihrkh, Erhokah, Asjhodah, Athjah, Juxcinur`g, Rhéscs Nhmgs, Ogruc`h, Rgrtu`hj y
Csthdgs Soadgs dc Hiárakh, y h jh kuhj sc høhdacrgo høgs iès thrdc @rckah, Turquéh, ^cpýnjakh

Ecdcrhj
Cstgoah, dc Hjcihoah,
Jctgoah Fuo`réh,
y Jatuhoah. Jg Rgjgoah,
Jgss phéscs ^cpýnjakh
iacinrgs dcKfckh,
GTHOCsjgvcoah,
jh GTHO Csjgvhquah,
sc kgiprgictého ^uihoah,
h prcscrv
prc hr jhNuj`hrah,
scrvhr jancrthd
dc khdh uog dc cjjgs y jh iutuh kgjhngrhkaûo co khsg dc uo hthquc hrihdg.
Co rchkkaûo h jg hotcragr,
hotcr agr, co 8132, jh Soaûo [gvaátakh krcû cj pjho IGJG
IGJGTGU,
TGU, quc
quc iès
iès thrdc
thrd c dhréh
pac hj Kgoscmg dc Hsastcokah Iutuh Ckgoûiakh (KGICKGO), aotc`rhdg pgr jh Soaûo [gvaátakh,
Kfckgsjgvhquah, Hjnhoah y jh ^cpýnjakh Dcigkrètakh Hjcihoh. Dakfg kgoscmg nuskhnh `hrhotazhr cj
hpgyg cotrc jgs phéscs dcj njgquc sgkahjasth. Kgo cj iasig eao, y thinaáo co kjhrh kgotrhpgsakaûo h
jh GTHO,
GTHO, co ihyg
ihyg dc 8133 sc eariû cj "Rhktg dc Uhrsgvah"=
Uhrsgv ah"= uoh gr`hoazhkaûo
gr`hoazhkaûo iajathr
iaja thr quc nuskhnh jhjh
kggpcrhkaûo phrh cj ihotcoaiacotg dc jh phz y jh iutuh dcecosh. Csth hjahozh jh kgoegrihrgo jh
S^[[ y Hjnhoah, jh ^cpýnjakh Dcigkrètakh Hjcihoh, Rgjgoah, Kfckgsjgvhquah, Fuo`réh y Nuj`hrah.
Dá csths gr`hoazhkagocs iajathrcs
iajathrc s dc dcecosh iutuh, thotg cj njgquc khpathjasth kgig cj
cj sgkahjasth,
sur`aû uoh trhosegrihkaûo dc jhs rcjhkagocs dapjgiètakhs h cskhjh iuodahj y uoh rckjhsaeakhkaûo dc
jgs phéscs co
co praicr,
pr aicr, sc`uodg y tcrkcr
tcrk cr iuodg. Jhs dgs pgtcokahs rcprcscothnho hj praicr y sc`uodg,
iacotrhs cj tcrkcrg jg kgoegrihnho tgdgs hqucjjgs phéscs htrhshdgs ckgoûiakhicotc. Rgr gtrh
phrtc, jgs trhthdgs y phktgs trhmcrgo uo rchric dc jgs phéscs curgpcgs, kgo jh sunsckucotc
igdcroazhkaûo dcj cmárkatg y jh pucsth co ihrkfh dc jhs nhscs iajathrcs co dastaotgs puotgs dcj
pjhocth. Hsé, jh davasaûo sc hkcotuû co jh dákhdh dc 8132 fhsth cokgotrhr egkgs dgodc csh vagjcokah
kgotcoadh dcsngrdû, rgipacodg phrkahjicotc cj coercothiacotg aodarcktg quc fhsth csc cotgokcs
sc fhnéh dhdg cotrc jhs dgs pgtcokahs.
Rgjétakh c adcgjû`akhicotc, jh @ucrrh Eréh tuvg sus ihoaecsthkagocs iès kjhrhs co jhs rcjhkagocs
dapjgiètakhs dc jh ápgkh.

Jh kgoegrihkaûo
igstrû dc tckogjû`akgs
jgs hdcjhotgs njgqucs `cgckgoûiakgs dcscokhdcoû
iajathrcs dc khdh jh krchkaûo
pgtcokah. Jh khrrcrh hrihicotasth y, hdciès,
dc nginhs oukjchrcs y jh

8>5

 
 pgstcragr aovcokaûo dc jh nginh dc fadrû`cog, iukfg iès pgdcrgsh quc jh nginh htûiakh,
dcscokhdcoû prcgkuphkaûo h cskhjh iuodahj.
Thinaáo dcsthkhrgo jhs jhngrcs dc jh H`cokah Kcotrhj dc Aotcja`cokah ogrtchicrakhoh (KAH g Kcotrhj
Aotcjja`cokc H`coky co ao`jás) y cj Kgiatá phrh jh [c`uradhd dcj Csthdg [gvaátakh (L@N g Lgiatct
@gsudèrstvcoogy Nczgpèsogsta co rusg), quc sc dcdakhnho hj cspagohmc y h jh rckgjckkaûo dc
aoegrihkaûo vhjagsh.
3.>. Jgs kgotrhstcs sgkahjcs y ckgoûiakgs. @agnhjazhkaûo
@agnhjazhkaûo ckgoûiakh.
Jh `agnhjazhkaûo cs uo ecoûicog ckgoûiakg dgodc praokaphjicotc sc nuskh jh hpcrturh dc jhs
ckgogiéhs dcj iuodg kgig rcsujthdg dcj aokrcicotg dc jgs aotcrkhinags kgicrkahjcs cotrc jhs
ohkagocs, karkujhkaûo
kar kujhkaûo dc pcrsgohs, jhs adchs, jh daeusaûo d
dcc jh aoegrihkaûo,
aoegrihka ûo, jgs kgogkaiacotgs y jhs
tákoakhs.
Rhrh quc jh `agnhjazhkaûo tgihrh egrih,
egr ih, co cj sa`jg
sa`jg VV,
VV, sc khinahrgo jhs pgjétakhs dc kgotrgj sgnrc
jhs ckgogiéhs ohkagohjcs. Co jh dákhdh dc 8102 kgicozhrgo jgs hkucrdgs dc aotcrkhinags cotrc
phéscs, y iès hdcjhotc sc krchrgo gr`hoasigs phrh rc`ujhr jh phrtakaphkaûo dc jgs Csthdgs co cstgs
hkucrdgs. Hsé, kgo jh `agnhjazhkaûo, sur`aû cj igdcjg ckgoûiakg dcogiaohdg "ocgjancrhjasig".
Cj ocgj'ancrhjasig cs jh egrih igdcroh dc jancrhjasig quc prgiucvc jh dcigkrhkah y jh hpcrturh
kgicrkahj. Hdciès, kgokcdc hj Csthdg uoh aotcrvcokaûo jaiathdh co hsuotgs ckgoûiakgs,
ehvgrckacodg jh aovcrsaûo pravhdh co jh ckgogiéh, jh kuhj prctcodc fhkcr dc jgs icrkhdgs ohkagohjcs
icrkhdgs rc`agohjcs y pgstcragricotc `jgnhjcs.
Soh dc jhs khrhktcréstakhs iès aipgrthotcs dc uo iuodg `jgnhjazhdg cs jh dcpcodcokah ckgoûiakh
quc sc `cocrh cotrc jgs phéscs quc ockcsatho csthnjckcr pgjétakhs H^HOKCJH^AH[, (thraeh geakahj quc
eamh jgs dcrckfgs quc sc fho
fho dc ph`hr co jhs hduhohs dc uo phés) quc ncoceakaco h quacocs aipgrthrèo
a ipgrthrèo
sus prgduktgs, kgo jh aotcokaûo dc gntcocr jgs iasigs ncoceakags hj igicotg dc cxpgrthr jhs
icrkhokéhs ohkagohjcs.
Nhmg cstgs praokapags sc krchrgo jgs gr`hoasigs eaohokacrgs aotcrohkagohjcs phrh rc`ujhr jh ckgogiéh
y pcriatar cj krckaiacotg ckgoûiakg y su kgotrgj, `cocrhodg hj iasig tacipg hpgyg phrh jgs phéscs
g scktgrcs dc jh pgnjhkaûo iès dcsprgtc`adgs, h ehvgr dc uo krckaiacotg ckgoûiakg h jh phr dc jgs
phéscs iès dcshrrgjjhdgs.

Durhotc
igvajadhdcjdc
sa`jg
jgs VV y praokapags
prckags dcj VVA cjkgosadcrhdgs
dc jgs prgduktgs iuodg fh vavadg vhrahs krasas
cstrhtá`akgs (kgigckgoûiakhs,
cj prgduktg
cj pctrûjcg) dcnags
jh
y jgs khinags
khi
drèstakgs co jhs
j hs pgjétakhs `uncrohicothjcs
`uncrohicot hjcs quc rcpcrkutacrgo
rcpcr kutacrgo co jgs shjhrags
shjhra gs y co cj pgdcr hdquasatavg
hdquasatavg
dc jh pgnjhkaûo. Soh krasas ckgoûiakh saciprc heckth h jh pgnjhkaûo dc uo phés sao aipgrthr cj sthtus
quc tco`h. Jh aodustrah y cj kgicrkag pacrdco utajadhdcs, jg quc prgvgkh quc iukfh `cotc pacrdh sus
cipjcgs y, pgr jg thotg, su khphkadhd hdquasatavh.

3.;. Cj kgoejaktg dcj @gjeg Rársakg.

Cj kgoejaktg
kgoejak tg sc `cocrû co 8112 h rhéz dc jh khédh dcj prckag dcj fadrgkhr
fadr gkhrnurg
nurg,, jh Gr`hoazhkaûo dc jgs
Rhéscs Cxpgrthdgrcs dc Rctrûjcg (GRCR) padaû jh dasiaoukaûo dc jh prgdukkaûo dc hqucj rckursg, jh
kuhj og euc rcspcthdh pgr cj Ciarhtg aodcpcodacotc dc Luwhat. Arhl hkusû h Luwhat pgrthj giasaûo,
y ástc hkusû hj hj `gnacrog arhqué pgr fhncr cxtrhédg pctrûjcg dc susu tcrratgra
tcrrat grag.
g. Jhs oc`gkahkagocs og
og
prgspcrhrgo y [hddhi Fusscao, prcsadcotc dc Arhl, grdcoû jh aovhsaûo y sc hocxû cj tcrratgrag dc

8>0

 
 Luwhat. Jh GOS y cj Kgoscmg dc [c`uradhd ciatacrgo uoh rcsgjukaûo dgodc sc dcihodhnh quc Arhl
dcnéh rctarhrsc dc jgs tcrratgrags dc Luwhat.
Kgo uoh eucrtc prcsaûo pgr phrtc dc jh Kgiuoadhd Aotcrohkagohj, cj `gnacrog csthdguoadcosc jg`rû
kgomuothr uoh eucrzh dc hthquc iujtaohkagohj rcsphjdhdh pgr Erhokah y @rho Nrcthøh c aipjcicotg
jh gpcrhkaûo jjhihdh "Tgricoth dcj Dcsacrtg", quc kgosastaû co hthkhr gnmctavgs iajathrcs
cspckéeakgs dc Nh`dhd, jh khpathj dc Arhl, fhsth jg`rhr jh rcodakaûo dc [hddhi Fusscao, quaco sc vag
gnja`hdg h hnhodgohr cj tcrratgrag dc Luwhat co ecnrcrg dc 8118. Kgig kgosckucokah, jh GOS
aipusg uo cinhr`g y kgoeaskû nacocs arhquécs co gtrgs phéscs kgig rcphrhkaûo pgr jgs `hstgs dc jh
`ucrrh.
Fastgr ah dc I áxak
Fastgrah áxakg
g
5. Jhs kujturhs
kujtu rhs prcfaspè
prcfaspèoakhs
oakhs y jh kgoegrihkaûo
kgoegri hkaûo dc jh Oucvh Csphøh
5.8. Icsghiárakh
Icsghiárakh y sus èrchs kujturhjcs.
kujturhjcs.
Icsghiárakh cs uo èrch `cg`rèeakg-kujturhj quc hnhrkh dcsdc cj ogrtc hktuhj dc jh rcpýnjakh
icxakhoh fhsth Kgsth
Kgsth ^akh y Oakhrh`uh,
Oakhrh`uh, aokjuycodg dcotrg dc cstc tcrratgrag
tcrratg rag h @uhtcihjh,
@uhtcihj h, Fgodurhs,
Fgodurhs,
Cj [hjvhdgr, Ncjakc y, dcsdc juc`g,
juc`g, Iáxakg. KgKgoo jh eaohjadhd dc cstudahr
cstudah r cjcj dcshrrgjjg fastûrakg dc
Icsghiárakh, jgs aovcsta`hdgrcs fho hkcpthdg cj táriaog "fgrazgotc kujturhj", quc cs uoh erhomh
dcj tacipg co jh kuhj jgs fhnathotcs icsghicrakhogs kgiphrtacrgo usgs y kgstuinrcs, sgnrc tgdg
co jh hrquatckturh,
hrquatck turh, egrihs dc vadh, kcrèiakh y, dcsdc juc`g,
juc`g, praokapags kgiuocs co sus kgokcpkagocs
rcja`agshs.
Jh ihygréh
ihygréh dc jgs fastgrahdgrcs,
fastgr ahdgrcs, hrqucûjg`gs
hrqucûjg`gs y hotrgpûjg`gs
hotrgpûjg`gs kgaokadco co quc jgs fgrazgotcs eucrgo
trcs=
Fgrazgotc Rrckjèsakg= Dc >222 h.K. h >22 d.K.
Fgrazgotc Kjèsakg= Dc >22 h 122 d.K.
Fgrazgotc Rgskjèsakg= Dc 122 h 83>8.
Co Icsghiárakh sc dcshrrgjjhrgo `rhodcs kavajazhkagocs cotrc jhs kuhjcs dcsthkho jgs gjickhs,
ihyhs, zhpgtckgs, iaxtácgs, tgtgohkgs, purápckfhs y icxakhs. Jgs fhnathotcs dc csths kujturhs
kgostruycrgo `rhodcs kcotrgs
kcotrgs kcrcigoahjcs
 kcrcigoahjcs phrh jjcvhr h khng sus ratuhjcs rcja`agsgs y, dcsdc juc`g,
phrh aipujshr cj kgicrkag, hktavadhd quc prhktakhrgo kgo nhsthotc áxatg.
KSJTS^H GJICKH
[c unakû co jhs kgsths dcj @gjeg dc Iáxakg, dcsdc cj rag Rhphjghpho (sur dc
[atuhkaûo Ucrhkruz) fhsth jh jh`uoh dc jgs táriaogs (Thnhskg). [u pcragdg aoakah co cj
@cg`rèeakh pcragdg "Egrihtavg" (>222 H.K. hprgx.), fhsth cj pcragdg "Kjèsakg" (422 H.K.), y
su ejgrckaiacotg cxhktg dhth fhsth cj 622 H.K.
Crh dc tapg "Kjhsakasth", csthnh prckcdadg pgr hrastûkrhths y shkcrdgtcs, pgr cj
Gr`hoazhkaûo
iasig tapg dc gr`hoazhkaûo sgkahj, jgs shkcrdgtcs crho dc gra`co hrastgkrètakgs,
sgkahj
y cstgs sc kgipgoého dc hrtcshogs, hjtgs mcecs y hrtasths.
[u `gnacrog crh dc tapg "Tcgkrètakg", pucs ástc crh rc`adg kgo nhsc h jh rcja`aûo
Gr`hoazhkaûo
dc tapg hdiaoastrhtavh,
hdiaoastr htavh, quc rc`éh tgdg cj
cj cotgrog
cotgr og `cg`rèeakg
`cg`rèeakg y sgkahj co cj quc sc
Rgjétakh
Hpgrthkagocs dcshrrgjjhnh.
Khjcodhrag Kavaj y ^cja`agsg,
kujturhjcs Ea`urhs y Uhsamhs kgo ea`urhs dc Mh`uhr,

8>6

 
 Kcotrgs kcrcigoahjcs,
Cskraturh Mcrg`jéeakh,
Khnczhs kgjgshjcs,
Rraicrhs cdaeakhkagocs dc pacdrh ,
Dcshrrgjjg dc jh hstrgogiéh.
Kaudhdcs Co Ucrhkruz= [ho Jgrcozg, Trcs ]hpgtcs, Ihohté y Jh`uoh dc jgs kcrrgs. Co
praokaphjcs Thnhskg= Jh vcoth.
Dcshrrgjjg dc jh h`rakujturh= rgzh, qucih y sacinrh kgo kgh. Kgicrkag jgkhj y
Ckgogiéh kgo gtrgs pucnjgs pgr icdag dcj "trucquc". Jh khzh y pcskh kgipjcicothnho
su hjaicothkaûo.
Kgosadcrhdh kgig jh "Kujturh Ihdrc". Eucrgo jgs praicrgs cskujtgrcs dc tgdh
Khrhktcréstakhs
Hiárakh. Cxphodacrgo su aoejucokah kujturhj h gtrhs rc`agocs dc Icsghiárakh y
cspckahjcs
Kcotrghiárakh.
^cja`aûo Rgjatcésig.
Davaoadhd
Cj Mh`uhr
praokaphj
Euc durhotc cj pcragdg "Kjèsakg", cotrc jgs høgs kgiprcodadgs dcj ;22 hj 822
H.K. hprgx., pcrg su aoejucokah ouokh dcshphrckaû fhsth jh jjc`hdh dc jgs
Dckhdcokah
csphøgjcs.
Jgs gtrgs pucnjgs quc sc anho dcshrrgjjhodg hsuiacrgo sus rakgs kgogkaiacotgs.

KSJTS^H IHQH
[c jgkhjazû co jgs hktuhjcs csthdgs dc Kfahphs, Khipckfc, Thnhskg, Qukhtèo, X.
[atuhkaûo
^gg< fhsth Ncjakc, @uhtcihjh, Cj [hjvhdgr y Fgodurhs. Rcragdg dcsdc jh ápgkh
@cg`rèeakh
"kjèsakh" ;22 D.K., fhsth cotrhdg co jh "Rgstkjèsakh" 8;22 dc oucstrh crh.
Gr`hoazhkaûo Crh dc tapg "Kjhsakasth" kcrrhdh, oao`uoh kjhsc aoecragr pgdéh phshr h gtrh, y sc
sgkahj davadéhoo co ognjc
davadéh ognjcs,
s, kgicrkahotcs, hrtcshogs, h`rakujtgrcs y cskjh
cskjhvgs.
vgs.
Kaudhdcs-Csthdgs aodcpcodacotcs, cj ièxaig `gncrohotc crh jjhihdg "Fhjhkf-
Gr`hoazhkaûo
Saoak", y sc rc`ého pgr uo kgoscmg egrihdg pgr ognjcs y shkcrdgtcs< sc dhnho
Rgjétakh
daohstéhs fcrcdathrahs `cocrhkagohjcs kgkgoo ihtraig
ihtraigoags
oags hrrc`jhdgs.
Hpjakhkaûo y usg dcj kcrg,
Cskraturh mcrg`jéeakh,
Hpgrthkagocs Iurhjcs kgjgradg
kgjgradgs,
s,
Gnrhs= Rgpgj-vuff y Kfajhi-Nhjhi,
kujturhjcs
Icdakaûo dc jgs hstrgs, icscs y déhs,
Kgogkaiacotgs dc ao`coacréh y ihtciètakhs,
Cdaeakhkaûo dc parèiadcs.
Kaudhdcs Kfakfco-jtzh Sxihj Qhxkfajho, Tujui, kgihjkhjkg, Kgphj, Ihyhpho, Rhjcoquc,
praokaphjcs Talhj
H`rakujturh, rckgjckkaûo, khzh y pcskh. H`rakujturh aotcosavh y cxtcosavh. Rh`g dc
Ckgogiéh
tranutgs.
H ehjth dc fginrcs fcrcdcrgs, jhs iumcrcs pgdého `gncrohr. Stajazhrgo uo
Khrhktcréstakhs
sastcih va`csaihj. Gnscrvhkaûo dc jgs hstrgs= Rrcdakkaûo dc cquaogkkags, ckjapscs
cspckahjcs
sgjhrcs juohrcs, sgjstakags.
^cja`aûo Rgjatcésth

8>1

 
 Davaoadhd
Kfhhk (jjuvah), Atzhoih (vacotg), Axkfcj (prcøcz), Lulujkho (shnaduréh).
praokaphj
[u dckhdcokah euc durhotc cj pcragdg "pgstkjèsakg", dcj 8422 hj 8322 dc oucstrh
Dckhdcokah crh hprgxaihdhicotc, kuhodg jjc`hrgo jgs csphøgjcs su kavajazhkaûo sc fhnéh
khsa cxtao`uadg.

Kujturh ]hpgtckh

[atuhkaûo [c unakû coHnhrkû

igothøgsg. cj "vhjjc
jgs Kcotrhj"
pcragdgsdcj hktuhjy csthdg
"Kjèsakg" dc Ghxhkh,
"pgstkjèsakg thrdég", co
qucuo
vhotcrrcog
dcsdc
@cg`rèeakh
jgs høgs 322 H.K. hj 83>8, kgo jh jjc`hdh dc jgs csphøgjcs.
Gr`hoazhkaûo Ognjcs, shkcrdgtcs, `ucrrcrgs, khipcsaogs, hrtcshogs, kgostruktgrcs, ctk.,
sgkahj davadadgs co nhrrags. Crh gnja`htgrag hsastar h jh `ucrrh co cj khsg dc jgs fginrcs.
[c csthnjckacrgo co scøgrégs, quc crho `gncrohdgs dc dgs vcrtacotcs= cj praicrg
Gr`hoazhkaûo
crh dc tapg tcgkrètakg y cj sc`uodg dc tapg igoèrquakg, y ástgs tcoého quc scr
Rgjétakh
dc gra`co tcgtafuhkhog, ihyh, tgjtckh g zhpgtckg.
Hrquatckturh cjc`hotc,
Igouicotgs sh`rhdgs,
Hpgrthkagocs Hrtc kcrèiakg,
kujturhjcs Grecnrcréh eaoh,
Khshs dc nhmhrcquc,
Cdaeakags y gnrhs fadrèujakhs.
Igotc Hjnho
Kaudhdcs Qh`ua
praokaphjcs Tcgtafuhkèo.
]hhkfajh
Ckgogiéh H`rakujturh, khzh, kgicrkag aotcragr y cxtcragr.
Muc`g dc pcjgth, jgs `hohdgrcs crho shkraeakhdgs, jg kgotrhr
kgotrhrag
ag h gtrhs kujturhs.
Khrhktcréstakhs
Cdaeakhkaûo dc kgjuiohs co sus kgostrukkagocs. Kûdakcs y khjcodhrags. Ssg dc jh
cspckahjcs
ouicrhkaûo ihyh dc nhrrhs y puotgs.
^cja`aûo Uhrahs dcadhdcs kgo aoejucokah ihyh.
"Kgsamg" crh cj dags praokaphj y crh cj dags dcj h`uh. Rathg Kgzhhoh y Rathg
Davaoadhd
Ogfuakfhoh, rcprcscothkaûo dc jh duhjadhd quc thinaáo hphrckc co jhs gtrhs
praokaphj
rc`agocs dc Icsghiárakh.
Euc hnhodgohdh co cj høg 622 D.K., pcrg kgotaouû sacodg uo jju`hr u`hr sh`
sh`rhdg
rhdg phrh
Dckhdcokah gtrgs pucnjgs dc Ghxhkh kgig jgs iaxtácgs quc sc hscothrgo co jh kaudhd co cj
8222 D.K.

KSJTS^H IAVTCKH
Cj tcrratgrag fastûrakg dc cstc pucnjg cs uoh rc`aûo igothøgsh quc sc cokucotrh
[atuhkaûo
cotrc jgs hktuhjcs csthdgs icxakhogs dc Rucnjh, Ghxhkh y @ucrrcrg. Tuvg sus
@cg`rèeakh
praicrhs ihoaecsthkagocs co cj Rrckjèsakg Icdag.
Qyh, cs cj tétujg quc rckanéh cj scøgr dc khdh khkakhz`g iaxtckg< dzhyyh yyh, crh
Gr`hoazhkaûo cj `rupg kgostatuadg pgr jh ognjczh iaxtckh, egrihnho uoh iasih khtc`gréh kgo
cj rcy< thy øuu, jh `cotc janrc< thy satuodhyu, tcrrhz`ucrgs< thy saogquhkfa y
sgkahj dhfhshfh, sarvacotcs y cskjhvgs rcspcktavhicotc.

8;2

 
 Jh vadh pgjétakh sc dcscovgjvéh co uoh rcd kgog
kgogkadh
kadh kgig yufua
yufuathyu,
thyu, csth uoadhd
Gr`hoazhkaûo pgjétakh kgosastéh co jh uoaûo daoèstakh dc dgs jaohmcs jgkhjcs h trhvás dcj
Rgjétakh ihtraigoag dc uo yyh tgoaøc (ognjc scøgr) y uoh yyh dzhfc tgoaøc (ognjc
scøgrh).
Hpgrthkagocs Cskraturh paktg`rèeakh, dcshrrgjjhnho jh icthjur`ah, y ehvgrckacrgo jhs hrtcs
kujturhjcs icogrcs.
Kaudhdcs
[ho Mgsá Ig`gtc, Øuaøc, kcrrg dc iaohs y Jh kgsth Tajhotgo`g.
praokaphjcs
Ckgogiéh Jh sunsastcokah
ihéz, eramgj, kfajc,dckhjhnhzh,
jgs iaxtácgs csthnh
hj`gdûo nhshdh co jh h`rakujturh, kgo kujtavgs dc
y khkhg.
Tcoého uo sastcih dc phrcotcskg najhtcrhj quc pcriatéh, cotrc gtrhs kgshs, quc
Khrhktcréstakhs
jhs pcrsgohs tuvacrho dcrckfgs dc sukcsaûo sgnrc jgs nacocs y tétujgs dc sus dgs
cspckahjcs
prg`coatgrcs, hsé kgig jh phrtakaphkaûo dc jh iumcr co jhs hjths csecrhs dc pgdcr.
^cja`
ja`aû
aûoo Jgs iaxtá
axtácgcgss dc jh ápgpgkh
kh pr
prcf
cfas
aspè
pèoa
oakh
kh tuv
tuvac
acrg
rgoo uuooh rc
rcjaja`a
`aûo
ûo hoai
hoaias
asth
th..
Dzhfua, dags dc jh jjuvah< Fucfuctcgtj, dags vacmg dáj euc`g< Oucvc Uacotg
Davaoadhd
(scrpacotc cipjuihdh)< Kgg Dzhfua, fárgc kavajazhdgr quc jcs cotrc`û áj
praokaphj
kgogkaiacotg dc jh h`rakujturh y jh kavajazhkaûo.
Kgokjuyû kgo jh kgoquasth csphøgjh co jhs praicrhs dákhdhs dcj sa`jg VUA dc jh
Dckhdcokah
crh krastahoh.

RS^CRCKFH[ 2 TH^H[KG
TH^H[KG[[
Aoakah su dcshrrgjjg h phrtar dcj 8>22 D.K., dcotrg dcj fgrazgotc jjhihdg
[atuhkaûo
pgstkjèsakg, jh unakhkaûo `cg`rèeakh hnhrkh jg quc hktuhjicotc cs cj csthdg dc
@cg`rèeakh
Iakfghkèo.
Arckfh g Khzgoka, co dgodc sc cokgotrhnho jgs ognjcs, shkcrdgtcs y `ucrrcrgs<
Gr`hoazhkaûo
dcnhmg dc jgs `rupgs pravajc`ahdgs sc cokgotrhnho hrtcshogs y kgicrkahotcs y
sgkahj
dcspuás dc cstgs jgs pcskhdgrcs, khipcsaogs y cskjhvgs.
Cj aipcrag thrhskg cstuvg kgoegrihdg pgr 4 scøgrégs quc sc davadého co nhrrags.
Gr`hoazhkaûo Khdh scøgrég tcoéh uo khkaquc quc jgs `gncrohnh, cstgs h su vcz crho
Rgjétakh `gncrohdgs pgr cj khzgoka quc rcprcscothnh jg iès hjtg dcj sastcih dc
`gnacrog.
Hpgrthkagocs Euc cj ýoakg pucnjg quc utajazû cj kgnrc phrh ehnrakhr fcrrhiacoths utajazhdhs co
kujturhjcs jhs hktavadhdcs h`rékgjhs. Cj nrgokc crh kgosadcrhdg uog dc sus `rhodcs sckrctgs.
Kaudhd sh`rhdh= phtzkuhrg (jh pucrth dcj kacjg).
Kaudhdcs
Kcotrg dc pgdcr= Tzaotzuotzho c afuhtzag.
praokaphjcs
Kuoh iétakh= ]hkhpu
Ckgo
Ckgogi
giéhéh [c sus
sustco
tcothn
thnho
ho ccoo jjhh h`raku
h`rakujtur
jturh,
h, jjhh p
pcs
cskh
kh,, jh kh
khzh
zh y jjhh ehn
ehnrak
rakhk
hkaûo
aûo dc utco
utcosaj
sajags
ags..
Ýoakg pucnjg mhiès kgoquasthdg pgr jgs hztckhs. Jgs thrhskgs aokaocrhnho h sus
Khrhktcréstakhs
iucrtgs, thinaáo crho shkraeakhdhs sus iumcrcs y sarvacotcs, y crho cotcrrhdgs
cspckahjcs
 muotg kgo
kgo cj d
daeuo
aeuotg.
tg.
^cja`aûo pgjatcésth
Davaoadhd Kurakhvcra rcprcscothnh cj euc`g dc sgj y jh `ucrrh< y Kucrhvhpcra jh ihdrc dc
praokaphj tgdgs jgs dagscs.
[u dckhdcokah euc hprgxaihdhicotc co cj høg dc 83>8 kgo jh kgoquasth
Dckhdcokah
csphøgjh.

8;
8;8
8

 
 ICVAKH[ g H]TCKH[
[atuhkaûo Eucrgo cj ýjtaig pucnjg co jjc`hr h jh zgoh, sc unakhrgo co cj "Hjtapjhog Kcotrhj"
kgogkadg kgig "vhjjc dc Iáxakg" y sc hscothrgo co uo asjgtc dcj jh`g dc
@cg`rèeakh
Tcxkgkg. Durhotc cj Rcragdg "Rgstkjèsakg" quc vh dcj 8;>3 h 83>8 d.k.
Fucy Tjhtghoa, suprcig `gncrohotc< Kafuhkghtj, Kgoscmcrg Rraokaphj< Tjhtgkho,
kgoscmg dc jgs 4 euokagohrags< Rgkftckhs, kgicrkahotcs, dapjgiètakgs y cspéhs<
Gr`hoazhkaûo
euokagohrags, muckcs, rckhudhdgrcs dc aipucstgs. Ihkfcfuhjcs, khipcsaogs
sgkahj hrtcshogs kgostruktgrcs hrtasths dhozhotcs `ucrrcrgs< Thicics khr` khr`hdgrcs
hdgrcs y
cskjhvgs.
[c gr`hoazhnho co tgrog hj tjhtghoa, quaco dcsa`ohnh h jgs dciès cstrhtgs dc jh
Gr`hoazhkaûo sgkacdhd. Crho uo csthdg iajathrazhdg kgo uo sastcih iajathr naco dceaoadg. Jh
Rgjétakh kaudhd sc davadéh co nhrrags jjhihdgs Khjpujjas, quc kgoegrihnho uoh ecdcrhkaûo
dc khjpujjas.
Dcshrrgjjg dc jh icdakaoh. Ssg dc jhs ihtciètakhs. Dcshrrgjjg dc jh hstrgogiéh.
Hpgrthkagocs
Rarèiadcs Kûdakcs. Gpcrhkagocs dcj kgrhzûo. Cskucjhs= khjickhk y Tcpgkfkhjja.
kujturhjcs
Janrgs [h`rhdgs
Kaudhdcs [u ýoakh
ýoakh kaud
kaudhd
hd aipgrthotc jh jjhihrgo "Tcogkf
"Tcogkftat
tatjèo"
jèo",, co fgogr h su shkcrdgtc
praokaphjcs Tcogkf.
Kgnrg dc tranutgs h khipcsaogs, cskjhvgs y pucnjgs sgictadgs. @ucrrh dc
Ckgogiéh kgoquasth= hipjahkaûo tcrratgrahj y kgnrg dc jgs tranutgs. Kgicrkag jgkhj=
taho`uas< h`rakujturh aotcosavh, usg dc kfaohiphs, khzh, pcskh y rckgjckkaûo.
Ýoakh kujturh kgo uo `gncrohotc suprcig. Cj trgog pgdéh scr pgr fcrcokah g pgr
Khrhktcréstakhs
cjckkaûo (ognjcs). Rraicrh y ýoakh kujturh quc euodh trcs cskucjhs aokjuycodg
cspckahjcs
uoh phrh iumcrcs. [hkraeakags fuihogs y khoanhjasig kgo eaocs rcja`agsgs.
^cja`aûo Dc pcrkcpkaûo pcsaiasth y ehthjasth.
Davaoadhd
Fuatzajgpgkftja,
Fuatzajgp gkftja, Tjhjgk, Xuctzhjkûhtj, Tcxkhtjapgkh, Tgohtau, Tgohotzao, ctk.
praokaphj
Dckhdcokah H jh jjc`hdh
jjc`hdh dc jgs csphøgjcs y trh
trhss jh khédh dc jh kaudhd dc Tcogkftatjèo
Tcogkftat jèo co 83>8

5.>. Cj varrcaohtg y jh aosthurhkaûo dc jhs hudacokahs.

Dcspuás dc jh khédh dc Tcogkftatjèo, jgs dciès pucnjgs yh og gpusacrgo rcsastcokah, rcsthnh
aosthurhr cj `gnacrog co jh oucvh Csphøh quc sarvacrh h jh kgrgoh csphøgjh.
Cj varrcaohtg y jhs hudacokahs, eucrgo egrihs dc `gnacrog aosthurhdhs co Iáxakg pgr cj rcaog csphøgj
trhs jh kgoquasth.
Cxastého davcrsgs y kgotaougs kgoejaktgs pgr cj pgdcr dc jh Oucvh Csphøh, iasigs, quc jjcvhrgo hj
rcy Khrjgs A h dcsa`ohr uo `gnacrog kgjcktavg. Co 83>0 sc oginrû h Øuøg Ncjtrèo dc @uzièo kgig
prcsadcotc dc jh praicrh Hudacokah @gncrohdgrh y kgig gadgrcs cotrc gtrgs h Muho Grtaz dc
Ihtacozg y Dac`g Dcj`hdajjg.
Jh `cstaûo dc csth praicrh Hudacokah euc dc uoh krucjdhd cxkcsavh co cj trhtg fhkah jgs aodé`cohs h
quacocs dcspgmhrgo dc sus prgpacdhdcs y sgictacrgo h iýjtapjcs hnusgs. Jh arrhkagohjadhd quc
dcigstrhrgo hj `gncrohr gnja`û hj gnaspg Muho dc ]uièrrh`h h dckjhrhr "co cotrcdakfg" h jh Kaudhd
dc Iáxakg y trhsjhdhrsc kgo sus shkcrdgtcs h Tcxkgkg. Eaohjicotc, jhs iýjtapjcs qucmhs co kgotrh

8;>

 
 dc Øuøg dc @uzièo y sgkags, jjcvû hj sgncrhog csphøgj h oginrhr co 83;2 jh sc`uodh Hudacokah
@gncrohdgrh, prcsadadh pgr [cnhstaèo ^hiércz dc Euojchj y co khjadhd dc gadgrcs Uhskg dc Xuarg`h,
Muho dc [hjicrûo, Hjgosg dc Ihjdgohdg y Erhokaskg Kcyogs.
^hiércz dc Euojchj quc sc fhnéh dcscipcøhdg kgig gnaspg dc [hotg Dgiao`g y sus gadgrcs,
krchrgo muoths cokhr`hdhs dc cvathr hnusgs kgotrh jgs ohturhjcs, jcs rcdumcrgo jgs tranutgs,
csthnjckacrgo jh prgfanakaûo dc quc sc jcs gnja`hrh h trhnhmhr `rhtuathicotc, ehvgrckacodg jh
cdukhkaûo aodé`coh y dcmhrgo co jancrthd h jgs pucnjgs phrh oginrhr h sus hjkhjdcs y rc`adgrcs.
Cj 83 dc Gktunrc dc 83;3, jjc`û hj pucrtg dc Ucrhkruz Hotgoag dc Icodgzh y Rhkfckg, kgodc dc
Tcodajjh, quc fhnéh sadg oginrhdg varrcy dc jh Oucvh Csphøh. Jh `cstaûo dcj praicr varrcy sc coegkû
h trhthr dc hjavahr jh pcogsh satuhkaûo co quc sc cokgotrhnho jgs aodé`cohs, yh quc ehvgrckaû su
cdukhkaûo, prgfanaû quc sc jcs utajazhrh kgig ncstahs dc khr`h, rc`ujû jhs cokgiacodhs, csthnjckaû
jh praicrh aiprcoth, krcû jh Khsh dc Hkuøhkaûo dc igocdh y euodû Uhjjhdgjad (Igrcjah Iakfghkèo).
Jh hktavadhd pgjétakh dcj varrcy dc Icodgzh, kujiaoû co 8332, hj scr sustatuadg dc su khr`g pgr Juas
dc Ucjhskg. Cj varrcaohtg euc jh egrih quc hdgptû cj `gnacrog csphøgj co Hiárakh y quc cxtcodaû
fhsth 86>8.
5.;. Jhs aostatukagocs ckjcsaèst
ckjcsaèstakhs.
akhs. JJhh aoquasakaûo.
[a naco jh kgrgoh csphøgjh sc gkuphnh dc jh cvho`cjazhkaûo, dcsdc kgstchrjh, gr`hoazhr y hutgrazhr
jhs iasagocs y rckhnhr jgs daczigs< jhs aostatukagocs rcja`agshs rchjazhnho jh hktavadhd dc `hohr phrh
jh a`jcsah khtûjakh h iajjgocs dc oucvgs eacjcs, sgnrc tgdg pgr jhs iasagocs dc prcdakhdgrcs
icodakhotcs dc kjcrg rc`ujhr, sao kgipctcokah kgo gtrh rcja`aûo daecrcotc, quc csthnh prgfanadh co
Oucvh Csphøh.
Hj a`uhj quc cj pgdcr kavaj dc jgs kgoquasthdgrcs kgothnh kgo rcprcscothkaûo c aoejucokah co khsa
tgdgs jgs pucnjgs y co tgdgs jgs oavcjcs dc jh pgnjhkaûo, cj kjcrg h trhvás dc jh rcprcscothkaûo kcotrhj
co jhs kaudhdcs aipgrthotcs, tcoéh jh Daûkcsas u gnasphdgs, co pgnjhkagocs icogrcs, kurhtgs,
phrrgquahs, dgktraohs g khpcjjhoéhs, quc crh cj cskhjûo iès nhmg dcj kjcrg sckujhr.
Jhs hktavadhdcs dcj kjcrg, rc`ujhr g kgovcotuhj, sgo euodhicothjicotc cdukhtavhs. Co áj rckhyû
aoakahjicotc cj pcsg dc jh cvho`cjazhkaûo c fazg csth thrch, shjvg cxkcpkagocs, kgo hnoc`hdh jhngr
iasagohj, dara`adh sgnrc tgdg h jgs aodags phrh krchr uo `rupg dc pcrsgohmcs egrihdgs
aotcjcktuhjicotc dcotrg dc jh ehiajah dc jgs khkaqucs, quc prgsa`uacrho jh thrch. Jgs iasagocrgs
tcoého hj`uohs vcothmhs g prcrrg`htavhs dc jhs quc khrckéh cj kjcrg rc`ujhr, sgnrc tgdg co jh
pgsanajadhd dc hdiaoastrhkaûo dc fhkacodhs y gtrhs prgpacdhdcs. Jgs aodags y khsths cstuvacrgo
cxkjuadgs dc jh pgsanajadhd dc scr grdcohdgs shkcrdgtcs.
Jh aoquasakaûo csphøgjh euc krchdh co 8462 kgo cj prgpûsatg dc kgosgjadhr jh uoadhd dcj rckaáo
krchdg Csthdg csphøgj< kgo jhs thrchs dc kuadhr jh purczh dc rcja`aûo khtûjakh cotrc jgs csphøgjcs,
dhdh jh kcrkhoéh dcj igvaiacotg rcegriasth rcja`agsg, y phrh pcrsc`uar h jgs mudégs y iusujihocs
kgovcrsgs quc prhktakhrho co sckrctg jgs ratuhjcs og khtûjakgs, hsé kgig phrh dctckthr kuhjquacr
nrgtc dc fcrcméh g dcsvahkaûo dc jgs dg`ihs krastahogs. Durhotc iukfgs høgs, jh Aoquasakaûo tuvg cj
phpcj dc egrthjckcr jh gncdacokah fhkah jh a`jcsah khtûjakh y fhkah cj igohrkh csphøgj y cj rckfhzg h
tgdg jg quc oc`hrh jh rcja`aûo y jh pgjétakh dcj Csthdg. Cstc iasig csqucih dc kgotrgj adcgjû`akg y
pgjétakg, quc euokagoû phrh Csphøh, euc csthnjckadg co Hiárakh co 8331 y co phrtakujhr co jh Oucvh
Csphøh durhotc 8308.

8;;

 
 So hspcktg aipgrthotc co jh Oucvh Csphøh euc quc dcspuás dcj csthnjckaiacotg jc`hj dcj tranuohj
co 8308, jgs aodags qucdhrgo eucrh dc su murasdakkaûo aoquasatgrahj pgr dgs rhzgocs= rcprcscothnho jh
ihygréh dc jh pgnjhkaûo y, pgrquc tcûrakhicotc crho "krastahogs oucvgs" kgo quacocs sc dcnéh
hktuhr kgo ihygr tgjcrhokah. Jhs euokagocs aoquasatgrahjcs dcj tranuohj ogvgfasphog hnhrkhnho h jh
pgnjhkaûo dc kgjgogs csphøgjcs pcoaosujhrcs, cxtrhomcrgs, icstazgs, oc`rgs y iujhtgs, huoquc h
cstgs trcs ýjtaigs `rupgs sgkahjcs sc jcs muz`û praokaphjicotc pgr fckfakcréh y pgja`hiah, y og
htrhmcrgo jh htcokaûo dcj tranuohj ckjcsaèstakg co gtrgs hspcktgs. Jh [hoth Aoquasakaûo tcoah dcotrg
dc sus hktavadhdcs kgtadahohs va`ajhr quc og sc jcycrho gnrhs prgfanadhs, pgr ásg, kgo kacrth
rc`ujhradhd sc punjakhnh uo jasthdg dc janrgs y hutgrcs og pcriatadgs< pcrsc`uéh khsgs dc supucsth
fckfakcréh, hdavaohkagocs, nrumcréh y jh pcrsckukaûo dc pckhdgs quc supucsthicotc htcothnho
kgotrh jh aotc`radhd dcj Csthdg Csphøgj. Jh suprcsaûo dceaoatavh dc cstc tranuohj sc rchjazû yh co jh
prgxaiadhd dc jh prgkjhihkaûo dc aodcpcodcokah dc Iáxakg, co 86>2.
5.4. Cj kragjjasig.
Cj kragjjasig euc uo igvaiacotg sgkahj y kujturhj ohkadg dc uo scotaiacotg dc pcrtcocokah pgr jgs
famgs dc pcoaosujhrcs ohkadgs co tcrratgrag hicrakhog y quc sur`aû co cj sa`jg VUAA, `rhkahs h jh
kgosgjadhkaûo dc jhs adchs ajustrhdhs. Jh phjhnrh kragjjg euc utajazhdh phrh oginrhr h jgs famgs dc
csphøgjcs y csphøgjhs ohkadgs co Hiárakh.
Co jh Oucvh Csphøh, cj kragjjasig sc cxphodaû hj aotcragr dc jhs ûrdcocs rcja`agshs yh quc jh ihygr
phrtc dc cjjhs csthnh kgostatuadhs pgr jgs kragjjgs, sacodg dcsthkhdh jh jhngr dcshrrgjjhdh pgr jgs
 mcsuéths, quacocs
quacocs eucrgo
eucrgo jgs ièxai
ièxaigs
gs prgpujs
prgpujsgrcs
grcs dc jh
jhss adchs
adchs ajustrhd
ajustrhdhs
hs quc
quc sc vacrgo rcejcmhdh
rcejcmhdhss co
co
cj hrtc y jctrhs ogvgfasphohs, y quc sc trhosegrihrgo co uo hotckcdcotc dc jh jukfh pgr jh
aodcpcodcokah dc Iáxakg. Cj praicr igvaiacotg kragjjg euc sgegkhdg rèpadhicotc
rèpadh icotc y sc gra`aoû kgi
kgig g
rcspucsth h csths jcycs ciatadhs pgr jh kgrgoh. Euc uo pcqucøg hjzhiacotg gr`hoazhdg pgr jgs famgs
dc Fcroèo Kgrtcs quacocs prgpusacrgo jancrhr h jh oucvh Csphøh dc jh hota`uh. Jg hotcragr sc suiû
h jh aipgsanajadhd dc hkkcdcr h khr`gs dc aipgrthokah jgs kuhjcs crho hsa`ohdgs h csphøgjcs
pcoaosujhrcs quc ogrihjicotc vahmhnho fhkah Hiárakh pgr nrcvcs pcragdgs dc tacipg kgo cj sgjg
eao dc kuipjar kgo cj rgj hsa`ohdg pgr jh Kgrgoh.
Og gnsthotc, jgs kragjjgs dacrgo gra`co h uoh gja`hrquéh ckgoûiakh y sgkahj co Oucvh Csphøh `rhkahs
h jh hkuiujhkaûo dc khpathj icdahotc cj cmcrkakag dcj kgicrkag, jh iaocréh y jh kgiprh dc tcrrcogs.
Hsé thinaáo utajazhrgo kgig iátgdg dc hskcosg sgkahj, jgs ihtraigoags cstrhtá`akgs quc jcs
hsc`urhnho cj pgdcr y cj ihotcocrsc kcrkhogs h jgs kérkujgs ognjcs.
Trhs daecrcotcs hkgotckaiacotgs fastûrakgs quc aipcdého hskcodcr h jgs kragjjgs, cstgs kgicozhrgo
h fhkcrsc jjhihr hicrakhogs y oc`hrgo hkcpthr cj jadcrhz`g dc jh kgrgoh csphøgjh, dhodg gra`co h
jgs kgoejaktgs pgr jh aodcpcodcokah quc sur`acrgo durhotc cj sa`jg VAV co tgdh Hiárakh y dc jgs
kuhjcs, Oucvh Csphøh og cstuvg cxcoth.

0. Oucvh Csphøh dcsdc ssu

u kgosgjadhkaûo fhsth jh Aodcpcodcokah
0.8. Cj hnsgjutasig ajustrhdg.
Cj sastcih dc `gnacrog csthnjckadg co Csphøh durhotc cj sa`jg VUAAA, cs kgogkadg kgig "dcspgtasig
g hnsgjutasig ajustrhdg", quc sc hpgyh co cj hr`uicotg dc quc cj `gnacrog rckhc, pgr dcsa`oag
davaog, sûjg co cj Igohrkh, y cstc prgiucvc jhs rcegrihs ockcshrahs co ncoceakag dcj pucnjg. Csth

8;4

 
 egrih dc `gnacrog tuvg iès hkcpthkaûo dgodc jh ognjczh tcoéh iès aoejucokah y sc khrckéh dc uoh
nur`ucséh dcshrrgjjhdh, kgig euc cj khsg dc Rgrtu`hj y Csphøh.
Cstgs `gnacrogs sa`uacrgo cj igdcjg hpjakhdg co Erhokah, dgodc phrh rcegrzhr cj hnsgjutasig sc
aipusacrgo rcegrihs hj csthdg quc nuskhnho iès ao`rcsgs pgr jh véh dc jgs aokrcicotgs easkhjcs, cj
egrthjckaiacotg dcj cmárkatg, jh rcdukkaûo dc jhs htranukagocs dc jgs phrjhicotgs, jh kcotrhjazhkaûo
dcj pgdcr y jh dasiaoukaûo dc jhs hutgogiéhs, hphrcmhdhs kgo jh rcdukkaûo dc jgs dcrckfgs g eucrgs
dc rcaogs, prgvaokahs y iuoakapags.
Kgo csth
csth egrih dc `gnacrog
`gnacrog cj Igohrkh gntuvg iès pgdcr, sc aipujshrgo rcegrihs
rcegr ihs ckgoûiakhs quc
ncoceakahrgo h jh h`rakujturh y sc icmgrû jh aodustrah y cj aotcrkhinag kgicrkahj. Hdciès sc aipujsû
jh kujturh kgo jh krchkaûo dc uoavcrsadhdcs y hkhdciahs phrh jh egrihkaûo dc jgs euokagohrags
csththjcs y iajathrcs, huoquc og eucrgo khphkcs dc rcdukar jgs pravajc`ags dc jh ognjczh y dcj kjcrg.
0.>. Cj krckaiacotg
krckai acotg dc Oucvh Csphøh= Cxphosaûo
C xphosaûo dc jh iaocréh
iaocréh,, jh
jh  
h`rakujturh
h`rakujturh y `hohdcréh.
Cj huicotg dc jh pgnjhkaûo dc gra`co fasphog y jhs prctcosagocs dc gntcocr icmgrcs sucjgs phrh cj
hjaicotg dc sus `hohdgs, cj huicotg dc oýicrg y cxtcosaûo dc jhs fhkacodhs y cj dcspjhzhiacotg
kgotaoug dc jhs cxpjgrhkagocs y fhjjhz`gs dc icthjcs prckagsgs, prgpakaû cj huicotg dc jhs tacrrhs
kgjgoazhdhs, quc phrh cj sa`jg VUAAA yh fhného rcnhshdg jgs jéiatcs dcj tcrratgrag icsghicrakhog. Csth
cxphosaûo fhkah cj ogrtc jjcvû thinaáo jh aotcokaûo dc davuj`hr jh kujturh curgpch h trhvás dcj
adagih,
adagih, egrihs dc trhnhmg y tckogjû`akhs,
tckogjû`akhs, krccokah y jcycs.
Jh dcihodh dc pjhth co Curgph y cj kgicrkag aotcrog, ehkajatû jh kgotrhthkaûo dc pcrsgohs janrcs h
jhs quc sc jcs ph`hnh uo shjhrag y sc jcs pgdéh kgnrhr uo aipucstg co daocrg< huicotû cj oýicrg dc
trhnhmhdgrcs cspckahjazhdgs co jhs iaohs, quc crho iès prgduktavgs quc jgs mgrohjcs covahdgs pgr
jhs kgiuoadhdcs hj trhnhmg tcipgrhj dcj rcphrtaiacotg, kgo quacocs sc pcrdéh tacipg (khdh 42 déhs)
co khphkathkaûo co cj ihocmg dc fcrrhiacoths, sc`uradhd y jh adcotaeakhkaûo dcj icthj.
Rgr cj hu`c dc jh iaocréh y cj aipujsg ckgoûiakg quc sc fazg ihoaeacstg co cj kgicrkag y jhs
kaudhdcs, sc huicotû jh hkuøhkaûo dc igocdhs, phrh jg kuhj crh aosueakacotc jh kckh icxakhoh y sc
hutgrazû jh kgostrukkaûo dc uo cdaeakag co 80;8 y phrh 80;> sc fazg ur`cotc su hipjahkaûo phrh
kuipjar kgo jh dcihodh dc grg y pjhth higocdhdgs phrh cj kgicrkag jgkhj y jh cxpgrthkaûo.
Kgo cj hu`c dc jh aodustrah iaocrh, thinaáo tuvacrgo krckaiacotg jhs fhkacodhs quc suiaoastrhnho
jgs hjaicotgs phrh jgs trhnhmhdgrcs y egrrhmcs phrh jgs hoaihjcs dc targ. [ur`acrgo oucvgs geakags y
sc rckupcrhrgo gtrgs, kgig jgs dc fcrrcréh, kgrdcjcréh, tcxtajcs, kurtaduréh, quc dcného prgvccr jhs
icrkhokéhs h jh iaocréh. [c rcegrzû cj kgicrkag cotrc jgs kcotrgs iaocrgs y jhs kaudhdcs.
Hj jhdg dc jhs igdaeakhkagocs co jh iaocréh, hj`uogs prgduktgs h`rékgjhs rcnhshrgo icrkhdgs jgkhjcs
y rc`agohjcs phrh kgicrkahr, hdciès dc jgs prgduktgs trhdakagohjcs dc khøh dc hzýkhr, khkhg, thnhkg
y `rhoh, kgo prgduktgs dc kgrdcjcréh dc kèøhig phrh jh ihraoh dc `ucrrh quc dcspjhzû h jh
kgrdcjcréh dcj Nèjtakg. Gtrg cjcicotg quc aipujsû jh h`rakujturh co jh Oucvh Csphøh euc jh a`jcsah,
co su khjadhd dc scr pgsccdgrh dc `rhodcs egrtuohs quc aovcrtéh co prásthigs h aotcrás. [gnrctgdg,
sc dag cotrc jgs trhnhmhdgrcs aodcpcodacotcs quc dcschnho hdquarar uo rhokfg g icmgrhr co
prgdukkaûo, icdahotc uoh fapgtckh.

8;
8;3
3

 
 0.;. Dcshrrgjjg y kgosuihkaûo dc jh Aodcpcodcokah.
Jgs pjhotchiacotgs dc jgs kragjjgs, dc uoh u gtrh ihocrh, kgodukého h gntcocr cj trhtg dc a`uhjdhd
dc jhs kgjgoahs kgo Csphøh g scr rckgogkadgs kgo pgdcrcs egrihjcs, huoquc dcpcodacotcs dc jh
ictrûpgja. Cs dckar, kgo uoh hutgogiéh rchj, yh pjhotchdh dcsdc cj igicotg dc jh hpjakhkaûo dc jhs
rcegrihs dc jh khsh dc Ngrnûo. Jgs kragjjgs sgstcoého quc cj Hyuothiacotg dcncréh `gncrohr, pcrg
og dcncréh rchjazhr hj`ýo khinag co cj `gnacrog durhotc jh huscokah dcj ^cy. [c hearihnh thinaáo
quc sc pgdéh jjc`hr h jh scphrhkaûo dc jh Kgjgoah, pcrg quc cstg og crh ockcshrag, huoquc jcs nhsthnh
kgo rckgogkcrè hj`uaco dc jhs muoths csphøgjhs. Jgs pjhotchiacotgs dc jgs hutgogiasths sc vacrgo
dctcoadgs h khush dcj `gjpc dc csthdg rchjazhdg pgr @hnracj Qcjig, quc og sc dctuvg h cipjchr jh
vagjcokah á aokjusg cj kraico kgo thj dc hph`hr jgs scotaiacotgs hutgogiasths. Cstg rcprcscotû uo
`gjpc dc csthdg hj prgpag varrcaohtg kgo cj heèo dc prgtc`cr jgs aotcrcscs pcoaosujhrcs. Cj `gjpc dc
csthdg dcigstrû quc jhs hsparhkagocs dc `gncrohrsc, hr`uicothodg jh jc`hjadhd, og cokgotrhnho
uoh shjadh pgr csh
csh véh. Jhs pgsakagocs
pgsakagocs cotrc jgs kragjjgs quc cspcrhnho iès dc csh pgsturh, sc eucrgo
hnhodgohodg, phrh rcsuiarsc co dgs= [c crh phrtadhrag dcj rá`aico kgjgoahj g kgotrhrag h cstc.
Gtrgs kragjjgs, kgig Hodrás Xuaothoh ^gg y su prgictadh Jcgoh Uakhrag, hsaiajhodg jh cxpcracokah
dc quacocs nuskhnho jh hutgogiéh y jg cxprcshnho dc ihocrh hnacrth, pgoého co racs`g su vadh, pgr
jg quc kgokjuycrgo quc dcného cipjchr jh eucrzh y cskg`cr uo khiaog daecrcotc hj dcj
Hyuothiacotg.
Hyuothia cotg. Thj euc
e uc cj khiaog cskg`adg
cskg`adg pgr jgs kgosparhdgrcs dcj kcotrg dc Oucvh Csphøh, dgod
dgodcc
phrtakapû Ia`ucj Fadhj`g, dcspuás dc vcr erhkhshdgs gtrgs aotcotgs.
Cj igvaiacotg aodcpcodcotasth csthnh kcotrhjicotc gr`hoazhdg co jh Aotcodcokah dc @uhohmuhtg,
jh iès pgnjhdh, káotrakh y rakh dc Oucvh Csphøh, kgo ja`crh aoejucokah co dastaoths phrtcs dcj
varrcaohtg. [c prgpgoéh uo jcvhothiacotg phrh cj ics dc gktunrc, pcrg hj vcrsc dcskunacrtg cj
igvaiacotg,
igvaia cotg, cstc
cs tc sc hotakapû
hotak apû y jjhiû h jh rcncjaûo
rcncjaû o phrh jh ihdru`hdh
ihdru`hdh dcj déh
déh 85 dc scptacinr
scpt acinrcc dc
dc
8682. Jhs khushs dcj jcvhothiacotg dc 8682, og csthnho sgjg co jgs dcscgs dc cihokaphkaûo dc jgs
kragjjgs, saog co uoh scrac dc ehktgrcs quc jcs pcriataû aoejuar co hj`uohs phrtcs dc jh pgnjhkaûo y
hrrhstrhr h iajjhrcs dc pcrsgohs aokgoegrics. Dgs cjcicotgs dastaotavgs dcj prgkcsg rcvgjukagohrag
dc 8682, eucrgo= Jh ihsavh phrtakaphkaûo dc aodé`cohs, hrtcshogs, trhnhmhdgrcs dc jhs iaohs, kurhs
dcj nhmg kjcrg, quc sc kgo`rc`hrgo co kacotgs dc iajcs y, jh vagjcokah kgo quc sc rchjazhrgo jhs
hkkagocs dc `ucrrh dgodc phetacrphrgo cshs eucrzhs.

Cs erhy [crvhodg Tcrcsh dc Iacr, uog dc jgs praicrgs co dcshrrgjjhr kgo ihygr kjhradhd jgs
hr`uicotgs quc scothrého jhs nhscs dc jh jukfh hutgogiasth. Rhrh cj shkcrdgtc Iacr, Hiárakh crh
uo rcaog hutûogig dc Csphøh, kgo uoh adcotadhd prgpah y cj igvaiacotg aosur`cotc fhnéh aoakahdg
cj rcskhtc dc jh jukfh quc, hphrcotcicotc, kgo jh iucrtc dc Ia`ucj Fadhj`g, fhnéh cotrhdg co
erhokg dckjavc. Jgs hutgogiasths og pjhotchnho jh scphrhkaûo tgthj dc Csphøh, euc co cj trhoskursg
dc jh `ucrrh dc aodcpcodcokah quc jgs kragjjgs, hfgrh co kgiphøéh dc aodags y icstazgs, dckadacrgo
jukfhr pgr jh scphrhkaûo tgthj,
tgthj , sgnrc tgdg h rhéz dájh
dájh rcsthurhkaûo
r csthurhkaûo dc jh igohrquéh csphøgjh co 8684,
y kgo cjjh, jh vucjth dcj hnsgjutasig. Jh jukfh pgr jh aodcpcodcokah kgnrû eucrzh h phrtar dc 868>,
kgo jh arrupkaûo dc jgs cmárkatgs dc Mgsá Ihréh Igrcjgs y Rhvûo, quc yh jukfhnho pgr jh
aodcpcodcokah dceaoatavh dcj phés rcspcktg h jh ictrûpgja y cj hrrang dcj csphøgj Erhokaskg Mhvacr
Iaoh cj 8680.

Jhs adchs sgkahjcs dcj aosur`cotc Igrcjgs pjhsihdhs co "Jgs [cota

[cotaiacotgs
iacotgs dc jh Ohkaûo", dgkuicotg
dgkuicotg
jcédg hj aohu`urhr jgs trhnhmgs dcj Kgo`rcsg dc Kfajphokao`g co scptacinrc dc 868;, sgo cj icmgr

8;5

 
 cmcipjg dc jh kgo`rucokah dc cstc shkcrdgtc icxakhog. Co cj cskratg sc pjhotchnh jh jukfh pgr jh
aodcpcodcokah dc Csphøh, h jh quc kgosadcrhnh ohkaûo fcrihoh, pcrg ouokh dgiaohdgrh dc jgs
tcrratgrags hicrakhogs. Igrcjgs dcsthkh jh aipgrthokah dc quc jhs kgiuoadhdcs aodé`cohs rckgnrco
jh prgpacdhd y cj usg dc sus tacrrhs< pgr praicrh vcz sc pjhotch cj rcphrtaiacotg dc jhs raquczhs dc
jgs kragjjgs y csphøgjcs cotrc jgs dcspgscédgs dc jh Oucvh Csphøh. Jgs trhnhmgs dcj Kgo`rcsg dc
Kfajphokao`g dcscingkhrgo co jh Kgostatukaûo dc Hphtzao`ho, quc euc punjakhdh co gktunrc dc
8684< dakfg dgkuicotg og tgiû co kucoth jhs praokaphjcs adchs sgkahjcs dc Igrcjgs y kcotrhnh su
hr`uicotg co gr`hoazhr hj phés phrh scr `gncrohdg kgo jh ihygr a`uhjdhd pgsanjc. H Igrcjgs sc jc
cokgicodû kuadhr h jgs aotc`rhotcs dcj Kgo`rcsg, hj kuipjar su iasaûo euc fckfg prasagocrg co
Tcxihjhkh. Co scptacinrc dc 8683, trhsjhdhdg h jh kaudhd dc Iáxakg, dgodc sc jc kgodcoû h igrar
eusajhdg cj >> dc dakacinrc dc 8683< kgo su iucrtc, cj igvaiacotg Aosur`cotc dckjaoû.
Cj >> dc Ihyg dc 8621, sc kgovgkû h jhs kgrtcs co jhs quc jgs tcrratgrags hicrakhogs csthnho
aovathdgs h covahr rcprcscothotcs. So høg dcspuás, co scptacinrc dc 8682, sc aoakahrgo jgs trhnhmgs
co cj pucrtg dc Kèdaz< jh rcprcscothkaûo dc jhs kgjgoahs hicrakhohs crh dc >1 daputhdgs dc uo tgthj
dc 824. Jgs icxakhogs iès dcsthkhdgs eucrgo Mgsá Ia`ucj ^higs Hrazpc, Hotgoag Mghquéo Rárcz,
[hjvhdgr [hoihrtéo, cotrc gtrgs. Jh ihygr phrtc dc jgs daputhdgs hicrakhogs crho dc adcgjg`éh
jancrhj y prgotg sc adcotaeakhrgo kgo sus fgiûjg`gs dc Csphøh. Jh Kgostatukaûo dc Kèdaz, pjhotchnh
hspcktgs tho sgnrcshjacotcs kgig jh davasaûo hdiaoastrhtavh dcj Csthdg co daputhkagocs prgvaokahjcs,
jh gr`hoazhkaûo dcj pgdcr iuoakaphj, jh a`uhjdhd kgostatukagohj dcj tcrratgrag, jh krchkaûo dc uoh
iajakah ohkagohj y, sgnrctgdg, jh jancrthd pgjétakh. Jh Kgostatukaûo sc prgiuj`û cj ;2 dc scptacinrc
dc 868>. Hj cotrhr co va`gr dc oucvh kucoth jh Kgostatukaûo jancrhj, sc aipjhothrgo uoh scrac dc
icdadhs, thjcs kgig jh jancrthd dc jgs prcsgs pgjétakgs, jh hngjakaûo dc jh aoquasakaûo, jh jancrthd dc
aiprcoth, jh rcpgsakaûo dc jgs hyuothiacotgs y jhs daputhkagocs< pcrg sgnrctgdg, jg iès
trhskcodcotc euc quc sc jhozû jh kgovgkhtgrah phrh oginrhr daputhdgs h jhs Kgrtcs. Cj khiaog fhkah
jh aodcpcodcokah y, sgnrctgdg, phrh cj csthnjckaiacotg dc uoh rcpýnjakh co jh Oucvh Csphøh, crh
sgjg kucstaûo dc tacipg.
Kgogkadh jh ogtakah dcj murhic
Kgogkadh murhicotg
otg dc jh Kgostatukaûo pgr cj igohrkh Ecrohodg UAA co cj ics dc hnraj,
jhs hutgradhdcs sc oc`hnho h prgiuj`hrjh< sao cinhr`g, jh prcsaûo dc jgs kgicrkahotcs, hj`uogs
ihsgocs y sgnrctgdg jh kghkkaûo dcj cmárkatg, gnja`hrgo hj Uarrcy h murhrjh co ihyg dc 86>2. Dgs
pcrsgohmcs eucrgo aipgrthotcs phrh jh kgosuihkaûo dc jh aodcpcodcokah= Uakcotc @ucrrcrg y
H`ustéo dc Aturnadc. Cj praicrg, dc gra`co icstazg, tcoéh kgig praokaphj khpathj su cotrc`h y
fgogrhnajadhd hotc jh jukfh pgr jh jancrthd dc Oucvh Csphøh< cj sc`uodg, iajathr rchjasth dcsdc 8621,
sc dastao`uaû pgr jh durczh kgo jh quc kginhtaû h jgs aosur`cotcs, durhotc kcrkh dc 82 høgs. Hings
prgkjhihrgo cj Rjho dc A`uhjh, cj >4 dc ecnrcrg dc 86>8, quc pjhotchnh jhs trcs `hrhotéhs=
Aodcpcodcokah, ^cja`aû
^cja`aûoo y S
Soaûo
oaûo dc tgdgs jgs hicrakhogs y curgpcgs. Cj dgkui
dgkuicotg
cotg rckgogkéh
kgig ýoakh h jh rcja`aûo khtûjakh y csthnjckéh uoh igohrquéh kgostatukagohj quc jc scréh gerckadh h
Ecrohodg UAA.
Cj >0 dc [cptacinrc dc 86>8 cotrhnh h jh Kaudhd dc Iáxakg cj Cmárkatg Tra`hrhotc, hj ercotc vcoéh
H`ustéo dc Aturnadc y sus trgphs rchjasths, co jh rcth`uhrdah dcseajhnho jgs sgjdhdgs surcøgs quc
durhotc høgs sc fhného gpucstg h jh dgiaohkaûo csphøgjh. Jgs adchjcs sgkahjcs dc Ia`ucj Fadhj`g y
Mgsá Ihréh Igrcjgs fhného qucdhdg dcspjhzhdgs, jh jukfh pgr jh aodcpcodcokah jh cokhnczhnho jgs
rchjasths quc durhotc høgs jh kginhtacrgo.

8;0

 
 6. Dc jh kgosuihkaûo
kgosu ihkaûo dc jh
jh Aodcpcodcokah ^cvgjukaûo 
Aodcpco dcokah hj aoakag dc jh ^cvgjukaûo 
Icxakhoh (86>8-8188)
6.8. Cj codcudhiac
codcudhiacotg otg dc Iáxakg y kgoejaktgs kgo jgs rcsadcotcs rcsadcotcs  
cxtrhomcrgs.
Jh dcskhpathjazhkaûo, prgduktg dc jh shjadh dc daocrg fhkah Csphøh pgr jgs prásthigs egrzgsgs
csthnjckadgs co jh praicrh dákhdh dcj sa`jg VAV, jh pgstcragr shjadh dc khpathjcs csphøgjcs y jh
dcshrtakujhkaûo dc jh ckgogiéh h khush dc jh `ucrrh dc aodcpcodcokah dacrgo kgig rcsujthdg uo
phogrhih dcshjcothdgr. Kgo jh `ucrrh dc aodcpcodcokah, jh ckgogiéh icxakhoh fhnéh dckhédg
kgosadcrhnjcicotc dcnadg h jh iucrtc dc ouicrgsgs trhnhmhdgrcs h`rékgjhs y iaocrgs, jh
aosc`uradhd dc jgs khiaogs y h jh ehjth dc khpathjcs phrh jh aovcrsaûo. [ao cinhr`g, ásth dckhdcokah
crh rcjhtavh, pucs hj`uogs csthdgs kgig ]hkhtckhs sc rckupcrhrgo prgothicotc y su ckgogiéh
krckaû dc ihocrh kgosthotc. Cj ihygr prgnjcih ckgoûiakg euc coercothdg pgr cj pgdcr ecdcrhj,
quaco dcncréh vcjhr pgr jh sc`uradhd dcj tcrratgrag ohkagohj y kgothnh kgo cskhsgs rckursgs phrh
jg`rhrjg. Khdh csthdg sc kgosadcrû sgncrhog, co vartud dc quc jh pgnjhkaûo dcotrg dc su tcrratgrag
jg crh, y iukfgs dc cjjgs fakacrgo tgdg jg quc cstuvg h su hjkhokc phrh cvathr quc cj pgdcr ecdcrhj
sc egrthjckacrh y gkuphrh cj ju`hr dcmhdg pgr jh hotcragr ictrûpgja. Hsaiasig, cj rc`agohjasig sc
dcnaû h jh erh`icothkaûo hdiaoastrhtavh krchdh h rhéz dc jh aipjhothkaûo dc jhs rcegrihs ngrnûoakhs
co cj sa`jg PAO y sc h`udazh pgr cj egrthjckaiacotg dc jhs ájatcs rc`agohjcs h rhéz dc jh @ucrrh pgr jh
Aodcpcodcokah.
Jh nhthjjh pgr jh aodcpcodcokah dc Iáxakg, dcmû hdciès dc aoouicrhnjcs párdadhs fuihohs,
pcrdadhs ckgoûiakhs. Jgs kgoejaktgs dcj csthdg kgo jgs rcsadcotcs cxtrhomcrgs kgosastého co quc jgs
sc`uodgs pcdého hj csthdg uo rcshrkaiacotg pgr jhs párdadhs sueradhs co su phtraigoag, dcnadg h jhs
nhthjjhs gkurradhs.
6.>. Jh `ucrrh kgo Csthdg
Csthdgss Soadgs.
Jh aodcpcodcokah dc Tcxhs co 86;5 y su pgstcragr aokgrpgrhkaûo h jgs Csthdgs Soadgs dc Hiárakh
co 8643, eucrgo jgs praicrgs phsgs dc uo aotcrás høcmg dc hqucj phés pgr jgs tcrratgrags ogrtcøgs dc
Iáxakg. Dcsdc jgs praicrgs høgs quc sa`uacrgo h jh aodcpcodcokah icxakhoh, jgs dapjgiètakgs
csthdguoadcoscs prcscothrgo hj `gnacrog ouicrgshs prgpucsths phrh jh kgiprh dc jgs tcrratgrags
dc Hjth Khjaegroah y Oucvg Iáxakg, co tgdhs jhs gkhsagocs cj `gnacrog icxakhog sc oc`û saquacrh h
trhthr cj hsuotg, sa naco tgiû icdadhs cokhiaohdhs h egrthjckcr jhs ergotcrhs, aipujshr jh ia`rhkaûo
dc icxakhogs fhkah hqucjjhs tacrrhs y csthnjckcr uo kacrtg kgotrgj sgnrc jhs ia`rhkagocs
csthdguoadcoscs. Csthdgs Soadgs dc Hiárakh trhosathnh pgr uo pcragdg dc cxphosaûo dcig`rèeakh
y ckgoûiakh quc jc fhkéh vcr h jgs tcrratgrags icxakhogs prèktakhicotc dcsgkuphdgs, kgig uoh
cxkcjcotc pgsanajadhd dc hipjahr sus dgiaoags y hkkcdcr h jgs rckursgs ohturhjcs dc jh rc`aûo.
Kuhodg jhs trgphs csthdguoadcoscs yh hvhozhnho vcjgzicotc sgnrc cj tcrratgrag, jgs csthdgs sc
oc`hrgo h prcsthr hyudh hj `gnacrog ecdcrhj c aokjusg Qukhtèo, aoicrsg co uoh rcvucjth aodé`coh
kgotrh cj `gnacrog, sc scphrû dc Iáxakg y sc dckjhrû daspucstg h uoarsc h jgs Csthdgs Soadgs dc
Hiárakh. Cj `cocrhj [hoth Hooh sc dara`aû fhkah cj ogrtc phrh fhkcr ercotc h jh aovhsaûo, pcrg jh ehjth
dc rckursgs, jh aocxpcracokah dc jhs trgphs y sus prgpags crrgrcs cstrhtá`akgs jg hrrhstrhrgo dc
dcrrgth co dcrrgth.

8;6

 
 H pcshr dc tgdgs jgs aotcotgs dc jhs trgphs icxakhohs pgr ercohr cj hvhokc csthdguoadcosc/ástgs
eucrgo co vhog y uoh trhs gtrh jhs pgnjhkagocs eucrgo khycodg fhsth quc eaohjicotc jh Kaudhd dc
Iáxakg euc gkuphdh. Cj `cocrhj [hoth Hoh rcouokaû h jh prcsadcokah y cj `gnacrog euc dasucjtg, pgr
jg quc cj phés sc cokgotrû pgr kgipjctg dcshrtakujhdg. Eaohjicotc, sc jg`rû rcuoar uo kgo`rcsg co
Xucráthrg y sc oginrû uoh kgiasaûo cokhr`hdh dc oc`gkahr jh phz kgo jgs Csthdgs Soadgs dc
Hiárakh. Cj rcsujthdg euc jh earih dcj Trhthdg dc @uhdhjupc, dgodc sc csthnjckéh quc Iáxakg kcdéh
jgs tcrratgrags dc Oucvg Iáxakg y Hjth Khjaegroah, h khinag rckanaréh uoh aodcioazhkaûo pgr 83
iajjgocs dc pcsgs. Dc csth ihocrh, cj phés pcrdaû iès dc jh iathd dc su tcrratgrag.
6.;. Jh aotcrvcokaûo erhokcsh y cj aipcrag.
Jh jjc`hdh h jh prcsadcokah dcj aodé`coh ghxhqucøg Ncoatg Muèrcz co 8630, hsé kgig dcj `rupg dc
kgjhngrhdgrcs quc jg hkgiphøhnh, sc trhdumg co jh cxpcdakaûo dc uo kgomuotg dc jcycs quc
prctcodého jh scphrhkaûo dceaoatavh cotrc jh a`jcsah y cj Csthdg h trhvás dc jh krchkaûo dcj rc`astrg
kavaj, jh ohkagohjazhkaûo dc jgs kcicotcrags y jh vcoth gnja`hdh dc jgs nacocs dc jh a`jcsah. Cstc
kgomuotg dc icdadhs, kgogkadhs kgig Jcycs dc ^cegrih, prgvgkû jh aokgoegriadhd dc jgs `rupgs
kgoscrvhdgrcs quc og thrdhrgo co dceaoar uoh cstrhtc`ah phrh cvathr quc thjcs jcycs sc pusacrho co
prèktakh. Cj coercothiacotg nájakg cotrc jancrhjcs y kgoscrvhdgrcs durû trcs høgs, co jg quc sc fh
jjhihdg @ucrrh dc ^cegrih, y kujiaoû kgo cj trauoeg dc jgs praicrgs. [ao cinhr`g, jgs
kgoscrvhdgrcs og sc dacrgo pgr vcokadgs y hj`uogs dc cjjgs nuskhrgo jh aosthurhkaûo dc uo igohrkh
cxtrhomcrg co Iáxakg. Kgo cstc eao, sc trhsjhdhrgo h Curgph co nuskh dc uo khodadhtg adûocg y dcj
hpgyg phrh jjcvhr h khng su ciprcsh. Eaohjicotc, cokgotrhrgo co cj hrkfaduquc hustréhkg
Ihxaiajahog dc Fhnsnur`g hj khodadhtg quc nuskhnho y co jgs dcscgs aipcrahjasths dcj cipcrhdgr
erhokás Ohpgjcûo AAA cj hpgyg iajathr quc ockcsathnho phrh jh aotcrvcokaûo.
Cj cipcrhdgr y su cspgsh jjc`hrgo h jh Kaudhd dc Iáxakg cj 8> dc muoag dc 8654, kgo jg quc sc
aohu`urû cj [c`uodg
[c`uodg Aipcrag Icxakhog. Kgotrhrag
Kgotr hrag h jg quc cspcrhnho jgs kgoscrvhdgrcs
kgoscrvhdgr cs icxakhogs,
cj cipcrhdgr igstrû uo uo   kjhrg cspératu jancrhj, pucs og sûjg pusg cspckahj cipcøg co cj
icmgrhiacotg dc jh cdukhkaûo y co jh satuhkaûo dc jgs aodé`cohs saog quc sc oc`û h ckfhr htrès jgs
praokapags dc jh ^cegrih aoakahdh pgr Muèrcz. Jh pgjétakh jancrhj sc`uadh pgr cj Cipcrhdgr jc euc
hjcmhodg cj hpgyg dc nucoh phrtc dc jgs kgoscrvhdgrcs quc gra`aohjicotc vcého kgo h`rhdg su
vcoadh. H cjjg sc h`rc`û quc jgs kgoejaktgs co jgs quc sc vag covucjth Erhokah co Curgph jjcvhrgo hj
Cipcrhdgr Ohpgjcûo AAA h rctarhr sus trgphs dc Iáxakg hotcs dc jg quc sc tcoéh prcvastg. Cstc fckfg
euc hprgvckfhdg pgr jh rcsastcokah icxakhoh phrh aotcosaeakhr jh jukfh. H pcshr dc jgs aotcotgs dcj
Cipcrhdgr Ihxaiajahog pgr krchr uo cmárkatg prgpag, euc aoýtaj pucs cj hvhokc dc jhs eucrzhs
rcpunjakhohs crh aiphrhnjc. Co 8650, Ihxaiajahog y sus iès kcrkhogs sc`sc`uadgrcs,
uadgrcs, phrtakujhricotc
jgs `cocrhjcs icxakhogs Ia`ucj Iarhiûo y Jcgohrdg Ièrqucz, sc rceu`ahrgo co Xucráthrg kgo jh
cspcrhozh dc pgdcr rcsastar jgs cinhtcs dcj cmárkatg rcpunjakhog< sao cinhr`g, prgotg sc vacrgo
gnja`hdgs h rcodar jh pjhzh. Ihxaiajahog, Iarhiûo y Ièrqucz eucrgo kgodcohdgs h iucrtc y eucrgo
eusajhdgs cj 81 dc muoag dc 8650. Cj sc`uodg Aipcrag Icxakhog fhnéh jjc`hdg h su eao.
6.4. Co nuskh dc uo sastcih
sast cih pgjétakg= jh ^cegrih jancrhj.
Kg
Kgoo cj trauoeg
trau oeg dc jh rcvgjukaûo
r cvgjukaûo dc Hyutjh y cj kgosckucotc
kgosckucot c dcrrgkhiacotg
dcrr gkhiacotg dc [hoth Hooh, sc dag phsg
phsg
h jh gr`hoazhkaûo dcj `gnacrog jancrhj. Co Gktunrc dc 8633, uoh muoth dc rcprcscothotcs csththjcs
cja`aû h Muho Èjvhrcz kgig prcsadcotc prgvasagohj, quaco kgostatuyû uo `hnaoctc dc jancrhjcs purgs.

8;1

 
 Cosc`uadh dag aoakag jh ^cegrih, kgo jh prgiuj`hkaûo dc jh jcy quc supraic jgs eucrgs iajathr y
ckjcsaèstakg kgogkadh
kgogkadh kgig "Jcy Muèrcz".
Mu èrcz".
A`ohkag Kgigoegrt, quaco h eaohjcs dc 8633 sustatuyû h Muho Èjvhrcz co jh prcsadcokah, kgotaouû kgo
jh cxpcdakaûo
cxpcdakaûo dc jcycs rc
rcegria
egriasths=
sths= co muo
muoag
ag dc 8635 jh "Jcy Jcrdg" y co hnraj dc 8630 jh "Jcy A`jcsahs".
Cj `rupg kgoscrvhdgr y cj hrzgnasphdg dc Iáxakg kgosadcrhrgo cstgs dckrctgs kgig uo hthquc h jh
a`jcsah khtûjakh y h jh prgpacdhd pravhdh. Co ecnrcrg dc 8635, sc rcuoacrgo jgs daputhdgs co uo
Kgo`rcsg Kgostatuycotc phrh cjhngrhr jh Kgostatukaûo co jgs dcnhtcs, hj`uogs jancrhjcs igdcrhdgs
pjhotchrgo quc sûjg sc rcegrihrh jh Khrth Ih`oh, pcrg csth prgpucsth og prgspcrû. Cj rcsujthdg euc
uoh oucvh Kgostatukaûo, quc euc earihdh pgr jgs daputhdgs dcj Kgo`rcsg cj 3 dc ecnrcrg dc 8630. Jh
kgostatukaûo khusû dcskgotcotgs co cj `rupg kgoscrvhdgr prgouokaèodgsc co su kgotrh hj `ratg dc
"rcncjaûo y eucrgs" kgo cj Rjho dc Thkunhyh (dakacinrc 8630).
Kgigoegrt, kgovcokadg dc quc og crh vahnjc `gncrohr kgo jh Kgostatukaûo sc hdfaraû hj pjho, pcrg
jgs prgpags kgoscrvhdgrcs jg dcskgogkacrgo co cocrg dc 8636, y phrtaû h Csthdgs Soadgs. Ncoatg
Muèrcz, prcsadcotc dc jh [uprcih Kgrtc dc Mustakah, hsuiaû jh prcsadcokah dcj phés.
Rgkg dcspuás, ]ujgh`h, quaco fhnéh prgiuj`hdg cj pjho dc Thkunhyh, gkupû jh khpathj y euc
oginrhdg prcsadcotc pgr uoh muoth dc rcprcscothotcs dc jgs dcphrthicotgs, iacotrhs quc Muèrcz
csthnjckaû su `gnacrog kgostatukagohj co @uhohmuhtg, co cj trhoskursg dc jh @ucrrh dc ^cegrih
(8636-8652). Muèrcz daktû jhs jjhihdhs "Jcycs dc rcegrih", co Ucrhkruz co 8631.
6.3. Jgs `gnacrogs dc jh rrcpýnjakh
cpýnjakh ^csthurhdh (pgsatavasig, pgjéta
pgjétakh
kh  
hotakjcrakhj, aokgrpgrhkaûo dc jhs jcycs dc ^cegrih dc 8631 h jh  jh 
Kgostatukaûo).
[c fh jjhihdg "^cpýnjakh ^csthurhdh" hj pcragdg kgiprcodadg cotrc 8650, høg co quc tcriaoû cj
aipcrag dc Ihxaiajahog, y 8605, kuhodg dhréh kgiacozg uoh oucvh cthph quc co jh fastgrah sc
rc`astrhrè kgig "cj Rgrearahtg". Durhotc jgs oucvc høgs trhoskurradgs cotrc 8650 y 8605, sc
sukcdacrgo jgs `gnacrogs dc Ncoatg Muèrcz praicrg (8650-860>), y cj dc [cnhstaèo Jcrdg dc Tcmhdh
dcspuás (860>-8605), kgo khrhktcréstakhs iuy saiajhrcs. Hings prcsadcotcs crho kavajcs y, pgr jg
iasig, aipraiacrgo aotcotgs pgr rckgostruar cj phés g, icmgr dakfg, pgr cipczhr h kgostruar uo
Iáxakg igdcrog y pgocr co prèktakh jgs prgycktgs quc dcsdc jh ^cvgjukaûo dc Hyutjh csthnho co cj
pcoshiacotg dc jgs fginrcs dc jh `cocrhkaûo dc Muèrcz y co jhs jcycs quc cjhngrhrgo.
Rraicrg Muèrcz, y juc`g Jcrdg dc Tcmhdh, eucrgo jgs rcsthurhdgrcs dcj `gnacrog rcpunjakhog co jh
khpathj quc KGIGOEG^T fhnéh pcrdadg kgo su aodckasaûo dcsdc hqucj cocrg dc 8636, y quc Muèrcz,
co 865>, dcnacrh hnhodgohr hicohzhdg pgr cj cmárkatg erhokg-icxakhog. Co 8650 phrckéh quc, yh
sao trgpaczgs, cj jancrhjasig icxakhog scréh uoh rchjadhd, hj icogs co jg quc sc rceacrc h jh egrih
rcpunjakhoh dc `gnacrog. Durhotc cj `gnacrog dc Ncoatg Muèrcz sc prgiuj`hrgo jhs jcycs dc rcegrih
quc scphrhnho hj csthdg dc jh a`jcsah.
Cj trauoeg dc jgs jancrhjcs sgnrc cj Aipcrag dc Ihxaiajahog sa`oaeakhnh thinaáo uoh `rho dcrrgth phrh
cj kgoscrvhdurasig icxakhog< sc rcsthurhnh jh ^cpýnjakh Ecdcrhj y sc kgosgjadhnh cj pgdcr dc jgs
jancrhjcs. Rgkg tacipg dcspuás dc rcaosthjhdg cj `gnacrog co jh khpathj, Muèrcz sc daspusg h pgocr
co grdco jgs hsuotgs hdiaoastrhtavgs y h rcgr`hoazhr jgs prgycktgs dcj prg`rhih jancrhj quc jhs
karkuosthokahs jc fhného aipcdadg jjcvhr h jh prèktakh.

842

 
 Co jh rccjckkaûo dc Muèrcz, fhnéh gtrgs dgs khodadhtgs= uog crh [cnhstaèo Jcrdg dc Tcmhdh, quaco sc
fhnéh pgstujhdg phrh jh prcsadcokah supgoacodg quc h Muèrcz yh og jc aotcrcshnh gtrh rccjckkaûo, y
cj gtrg khodadhtg crh Rgrearag Déhz, aiphkacotc yh pgr gntcocr cj pgdcr pgjétakg hj quc sus iáratgs
iajathrcs krcéh jc fhného fckfg icrckcdgr. Rcrg Muèrcz og csthnh daspucstg h dcmhr jh prcsadcokah,
`gzhnh tgdhvéh dc `rho prcsta`ag pgpujhr y csg jc hoaihnh h kgotaouhr co cj pgdcr durhotc iès
tacipg phrh kuipjar kgo jgs prgycktgs quc fhnéh pjhochdg y kuyh kgipjcth rchjazhkaûo hýo og crh
pgsanjc. Xuazè krcéh quc su gnrh sc dcskgotaouhréh sa cj cmckutavg khinahnh dc ihogs y sc prgpusg
sc`uar `gncrohodg h jh ohkaûo.
Jcrdg dc Tcmhdh fhnéh cipczhdg yh h trhnhmhr pgr su khodadhturh, hprgvckfhodg cj aipgrthotc
pucstg quc tcoéh co cj `gnacrog dc Muèrcz< fhnéh kgjgkhdg co cj Kgo`rcsg h pcrsgohs dc su kgoeahozh
y tcoéh thinaáo nucohs hiasthdcs, thotg co cj cmárkatg kgig cotrc jh `cotc dc prcosh. Kgo cstgs
hdcptgs, jg`rû egrihr uo phrtadg quc og jjc`û h scr iuy `rhodc dcnadg h quc Jcrdg og `gzhnh dc
uoh tgthj saiphtéh pgr su khrèktcr gr`ujjgsg y hrrg`hotc. Co khinag, Rgrearag Déhz crh iukfg iès
pgpujhr y kgothnh kgo ouicrgsgs sc`uadgrcs co vhrahs phrtcs dc jh rcpýnjakh< pgr cjjg jgs jcrdasths
dckadacrgo uoarsc h su phrtadg, kgo cj gnmctg dc fhkcr iès eucrtc jh gpgsakaûo co kgotrh dc Muèrcz.
[cnhstaèo Jcrdg dc Tcmhdh crh uo fginrc dc iuy vhsth kujturh y dc `rho aoejucokah pgjétakh< fhnéh
sadg kgjhngrhdgr iuy cstrckfg dc Muèrcz dcsdc jgs høgs dc jh Aotcrvcokaûo erhokcsh, y iukfhs dc
jhs dckasagocs dc ástc eucrgo aosparhdhs pgr Jcrdg dc Tcmhdh. Rgr csth rhzûo, su `gnacrog euc, co
iukfgs hspcktgs, uoh kgotaouhkaûo dc Muèrcz.

6.5. Igvaiacotgs dc dc gpgsakaûo hj `gnacrog

`gnacrog dc Muèrcz.
Muèrcz.
Rgrearag Déhz, prcvacodg quc Muèrcz ihoapujhréh jhs cjckkagocs y trauoehréh kgo erhudcs, prcphrû uoh
rcncjaûo hrihdh kgig ýoakg khiaog dc hkkcsg hj pgdcr. Hotcs dc kgogkcr cj rcsujthdg dc jhs
cjckkagocs, quc sc kcjcnrhrgo cj >3 dc muoag dc 8608, uo `rupg dc pgrearasths sc sunjcvû co Thipakg
y dcskgogkaû h Muèrcz kgig prcsadcotc< jg iasig fazg Mcrûoaig Trcvaøg co Igotcrrcy. [ao
cinhr`g, cj cmárkatg muhrasth jg`rû dgiaohrjgs, y huoquc iukfgs eucrgo eusajhdgs, jgs dara`cotcs
jg`rhrgo cskhphr. Kgig crh dc cspcrhrsc, dhdhs jhs erhudujcoths karkuosthokahs co quc sc
cecktuhrgo jhs cjckkagocs, Muèrcz rcsujtû trauoehotc c aoakaû su oucvg pcragdg 8608-8603 co cj ics
dc gktunrc.
Rgkgs déhs dcspuás sc punjakû co Ghxhkh cj Rjho dc jh Ograh, pgr cj quc Rgrearag Déhz sc dckjhrhnh co
kgotrh dc jh rccjckkaûo aodceaoadh dc Muèrcz, prgpgoéh uoh scrac dc rcegrihs pgjétakhs y sgkahjcs, y

kgokjuéh
jh ýjtaihdakacodg "qucRcrg
rcvgjukaûo". oao`ýo
oao`cstc
ýo kaudhdhog sc aipgo`h
pjho og tuvgaipg o`h
áxatg< jgsy phrtadhrags
pcrpctýc codccj Jcrdg
cmcrkakag
cmcrkakog
ag dcj pgdcr y ásth
jg sa`uacrgo, scrè
y co jh
Kaudhd dc Iáxakg iuy pgkgs pgjétakgs jg rcsphjdhrgo.
Dcsdc quc Muèrcz aoakahrh su oucvg ihodhtg co 8608 sc prgdumcrgo kgotaouhs rcncjagocs co su
kgotrh, hpgyhdhs pgr Déhz y pgr gtrgs hdvcrshrags dc cstc, pcrg khsa tgdhs eucrgo kgotrgjhdhs pgr cj
cmárkatg dcj `gnacrog.
Eaohjicotc, cshs rcncjagocs dcmhrgo dc tcocr scotadg kgo jh rcpcotaoh iucrtc dc Muèrcz, khushdh
pgr uo aoehrtg cj 86 dc mujag dc 860>. Hj igrar Ncoatg Muèrcz, kgrrcspgodéh h [cnhstaèo Jcrdg dc
Tcmhdh, kgig iaoastrg dc jh [uprcih Kgrtc dc Mustakah, dcscipcøhr aotcraohicotc cj pgdcr
cmckutavg. Trcs icscs dcspuás sc vcraeakhrgo jhs cjckkagocs y cj prcsadcotc aotcraog trauoeû sgnrc
Rgrearag Déhz y gtrgs khodadhtgs, phrh `gncrohr h jh Ohkaûo durhotc cj kuhtracoag quc cipczhnh co
dakacinrc dc 860> y tcriaohréh co ogvacinrc dc 8605.

848
848

 
 6.0. Cj Rgrearah
Rgrearahtg.
tg. Jh dakthdur
dakthdurhh kgig icdag phrh kgoqua
kgoquasthr
sthr jh phz y sus
sus  
khrhktcréstakhs.
Rgr Rgrearahtg sc cotacodc h jh cthph dc jh fastgrah trhoskurradh cotrc 8605 y 8188, khrhktcrazhdh pgr
cj `gnacrog dc Rgrearag Déhz, quc sûjg sc arruipaû cotrc 8662 y 8664 kgo cj pcragdg prcsadcokahj dc
Ihoucj @gozèjcz. H phrtar dcj 8 dc dakacinrc dc 8664, Déhz `gncroû aoaotcrruipadhicotc. Jh
eajgsgeéh co quc sc nhsû cj Rgrearahtg euc cj pgsatavasig, quc prcdakhnh cj grdco y jh phz, h pcshr dc
kgothr kgo dctrhktgrcs praokaphjicotc co jh azquacrdh pgjétakh. @rhkahs hj usg dcj khpathjasig, jgs

iaoastrgs
uo hvhokcdc
coFhkacodh dcj `gnacrog
jh ckgogiéh dcj phés. pgrearasth, Ihoucj Dunjho y Mgsá Qvcs Jaihotgur pudacrgo jg`rhr
Gtrh khrhktcréstakh dcj Rgrearahtg euc quc jgs davcrsgs `rupgs pgjétakgs dcj phés kgovcr`acrgo co cj
@hnaoctc dc Rgrearag Déhz. Durhotc su praicr ihodhtg, cj `hnaoctc cstuvg kgoegrihdg co su
tgthjadhd pgr jgs hota`ugs kginhtacotcs dc jh ^cvgjukaûo dc Tuxtcpck. [ao cinhr`g, co su sc`uodg
pcragdg prcsadcokahj, jjc`hrgo muhrasths kgig Ihtéhs ^gicrg c A`ohkag Ihraskhj, jcrdasths kgig
^gicrg ^unag y Mghquéo Nhrhodh, y uo aipcrahjasth, Ihoucj Dunjho. Kgo jgs `gncrohdgrcs, Déhz
prgkurû ihotcocr cstrckfh rcjhkaûo, co cspckahj co jg rcjhkagohdg kgo jhs cjckkagocs dc jhs
jc`asjhturhs y tranuohjcs dc mustakah jgkhjcs, jh kgostrukkaûo c ecrrgkhrrajcs, cj kginhtc h jgs yhquas,
quacocs jjcvhnho iès dc kaokucoth høgs hthkhodg [gogrh, y thinaáo co gtrgs hsuotgs icogrcs.
Jh phz quc sc aipusg durhotc cj `gnacrog dc Déhz pcriataû cj dcshrrgjjg dc jh kujturh y jh kacokah co
Iáxakg, dhdg quc dcsdc eaohjcs dcj sa`jg VUAAA jh kgotaouh aocsthnajadhd pgjétakh, sgkahj y ckgoûiakh
aipadaû quc sc aipusacrh uo kjaih prgpakag h jh kacokah y h jh kujturh. [ao cinhr`g, durhotc cj
Rgrearahtg ejgrckaû jh jatcrhturh,
jatcr hturh, jh paoturh, jh iý
iýsakh
sakh y jh cskujturh. Jhs hktavadhdcs kacotéeakhs eucrgo
prgigvadhs dcsdc cj `gnacrog, pucs sc kgosadcrhnh quc uo hvhokc kacotéeakg dcj phés pgdéh kgojjcvhr
khinags pgsatavgs co jh cstrukturh ckgoûiakh. Euc cotgokcs kuhodg sc euodhrgo aostatutgs,
nanjagtckhs, sgkacdhdcs kacotéeakhs y hsgkahkagocs kujturhjcs. Dc a`uhj ihocrh, cj hrtc pgpujhr nuskû
co jh kujturh dc Iáxakg uo cjcicotg phrh pjhsihr sus kgipgsakagocs y cxprcsag cxprcsagocs,
ocs, y hsé sc jg`rhrgo
iucstrhs dcj hrtc icxakhog quc eucrgo cxfanadhs co cj iuodg cotcrg. Cj pgsatavasig jg`rû fhkcr
quc co Iáxakg funacrh uo rcohkaiacotg dcj cstudag dc jh fastgrah ohkagohj, kgig uo cjcicotg quc
heahozû h Déhz co cj pgdcr y kgotranuyû h jh uoadhd.
Khrhktcréstakhs ckgoûiakhs= Déhz gtgr`û tgdh kjhsc dc aovcrsagocs= vaoacrgo 4 phéscs, khpathj
ogrtchicrakhog, euc aovcrtadg co véhs eárrchs. Khp
Khpathj
athj csph
csphøgj
øgj co jh aodustrah tcxtaj, cj khpath
khpathjj erhokás
aovartaû co jh cdukhkaûo tuvg `rho ncoceakag pgrquc sc hnracrgo eucotcs dc trhnhmg pcrg tuvg su phrtc
oc`htavh, pgrquc jgs gnrcrgs eucrgo cxpjgthdgs pgr jgs khpathjasths. Rgr gtrh phrtc sc dag cj
jhtaeuodasig, quc crho cogrics prgpgrkagocs dc tacrrh quc pcrtcockého h uo sûjg ducøg pcrg pgr
scr tho `rhodcs og pgdého hprgvckfhrsc pgr kgipjctg.
Khrhktcréstakhs pgjétakhs= jh dakthdurh quc cmcrkaû Rgrearag Déhz durhotc ;8 høgs tuvg uo `gnacrog
geakahj y jgs dciès eucrgo rccjckkagocs. [c fazg rgdchr dc uo `rupg dc pcrsgohs quc euc kgogkadg
kgig "jgs kacotéeakgs". Déhz houjû jh kgostatukaûo y dcshphrckacrgo jhs `hrhotéhs aodavaduhjcs, sc
rcstrao`acrgo jh jancrthd dc prcosh y jancrthd dc cxprcsaûo. Cj khkaquasig euc uoh prèktakh kgiýo y
kgrracotc, durhotc cj pgrearahtg h trhvás dc jh vagjcokah y hicohzhs aipgoého cj pgdcr dcj pgrearahtg.

Khrhktcréstakhs dc jh sgkacdhd= jh hrastgkrhkah pgr Rgrearag Déhz, su ehiajah y iajathrcs. @gzhnho dc

iukfgs pravajc`ags, tcoého iukfhs prgpacdhdcs, og ph`h
ph`hnho
nho aipucstgs, vahm
vahmhnho
hnho iukfg, ihodh
ihodhnho
nho

84
84>
>

 
 h sus famgs h cstudahr hj cxtrhomcrg, ctk. Jh nur`ucséh egrihdh pgr jgs phrtakujhrcs quc kgiprhrgo
jhs prgpacdhdcs dc jh a`jcsah, uogs jg supacrgo hprgvckfhr y vcodacrgo sus tacrrhs h cxtrhomcrgs, pgr
csg sc vgjvacrgo rakgs, gtrgs sûjg kgostruycrgo sao ph`hr aipucstgs. Jh pcqucøh nur`ucséh crho jgs
ihcstrgs, jgs kgicrkahotcs, ctk.< tcoého nucoh pgsakaûo ckgoûiakh, tcoého prcphrhkaûo, crho jgs
aotcjcktuhjcs, ph`hnho aipucstgs, ctk. Co jh kjhsc gnrcrh crho ihjtrhthdgs, sc jcs ph`hnh dc 32
kcothvgs h uo pcsg hj déh, og tcoého cdukhkaûo, vavého co pásaihs kgodakagocs, og fhnéh jcycs quc
prgtc`acrho h jgs gnrcrgs. Khipcsaogs, crho khsa kgig cxpjgthdgs, sc jcs ph`hnh dc >3 h 32
kcothvgs y crho ihjtrhthdgs.
Khrhktcréstakhs dc jh cdukhkaûo= cj 02% dc jh pgnjhkaûo crh hohjehncth. [c euodû jh Soavcrsadhd
Ohkagohj
Ohkagohj dc Iáxakg co 8182, su euodhdgr euc Mustg [acrrh,
[ac rrh, pcrg sû
sûjg
jg euc phrh jhs kjhscs rak
rakhs.
hs. Durhotc
cj pgrearahtg sur`acrgo cskratgrcs, sc dag uoh `rho hktavadhd kujturhj y sc dacrgo dgs kgrracotcs=
^gihotakasig y sus rcprcscothotcs euctgo A`ohkag Ihoucj Hjthiarhog, @uajjcrig Rractg y A`ohkag
^hiércz< y Igdcroasig, Ihoucj @ut @utaárr
aárrcz
cz Oèmcrh y Hihdg Øcrvg.
6.6. Dasadcokahs, fucj`hs y rcprcsaûo.
Jh ehjth dc jancrthd pgjétakh y jhs ihjhs kgodakagocs dc vadh y dc trhnh
trhnhmg
mg dc jh ihygréh dc jh pgnjh
pgnjhkaûo
kaûo
icxakhoh `cocrû uoh scrac dc igvaiacotgs pgjétakgs y sgkahjcs quc, pgr uo jhdg, dcmhrého co kjhrg
cj tapg dc `gnacrog cmcrkadg pgr Déhz y, pgr gtrg, cj krckacotc dcskgotcotg dc jh pgnjhkaûo. Dcsdc
eaohjcs dcj sa`jg VAV, cipczhrgo h sur`ar `rupgs quc sc gpgoého h jh dakthdurh dc Déhz y quc
cxprcshnho sus adchs h trhvás dc pcraûdakgs aodcpcodacotcs eaohokahdgs pgr cjjgs iasigs.
Rcraûdakgs kgig "^c`cocrhkaûo", euodhdg co 8122 y, pgstcragricotc "Cj famg dcj Hfuazgtc", hings
nhmg jh darckkaûo dc jgs fcrihogs Ejgrcs Ih`ûo, kratakhrgo dc ihocrh kgosthotc hj `gnacrog c
fakacrgo cvadcotcs jgs `rhdgs dc pgnrczh co jgs quc fhnéh sadg suiadh jh pgnjhkaûo icxakhoh. Hj
hkcrkhrsc cj pcragdg dc cjckkagocs co 8121, jh hktavadhd dc cstgs `rupgs sc aotcosaeakû kgo cj
prgpûsatg dc gr`hoazhrsc phrh jukfhr pgr tcriaohr kgo cj dgiaoag cmcrkadg pgr Rgrearag Déhz y sus
kgjhngrhdgrcs sgnrc cj hphrhtg dcj Csthdg.
Jh nýsqucdh pgr icmgrcs kgodakagocs jhngrhjcs jjcvû h jgs gnrcrgs aodustrahjcs h gr`hoazhrsc phrh
jukfhr pgr cjjhs, h khinag eucrgo rcpraiadgs icdahotc cj usg dc jh eucrzh. Co 8125 jgs trhnhmhdgrcs
dc jh ciprcsh csthdguoadcosc Khohoch Kgosgjadhtcd Kggpcr satuhdh co cj Csthdg dc [gogrh,
aoakahrgo uoh fucj`h `cocrhj phrh cxa`ar uoh icmgrh co jgs shjhrags, hsé kgig a`uhjdhd co cj ph`g h
jgs trhnhmhdgrcs csthdguoadcoscs quacocs rckaného igotgs ihygrcs saipjcicotc pgr su
ohkagohjadhd. Cj huicotg dc jhs tcosagocs cotrc jgs fucj`uasths y jgs ciprcshrags csthdguoadcoscs,
jjcvû h cstgs ýjtaigs h sgjakathr hpgyg hj `gncrohdgr dc Hrazgoh, quaco covaû dcsthkhicotgs
hrihdgs phrh kgotrgjhr h jgs trhnhmhdgrcs. Cj `gnacrog icxakhog pcriataû jh cotrhdh dc trgphs
csthdguoadcoscs hj tcrratgrag ohkagohj c aokjusg kgjhngrû kgo cjjhs phrh hkhnhr kgo cj igvaiacotg
gnrcrg. Eaohjicotc, jh eucrzh pýnjakh hnraû euc`g kgotrh jgs ihoaecsthotcs prgvgkhodg jh iucrtc dc
hj icogs >; dc cjjgs, kgotrgjû cj igvaiacotg gnrcrg y rcsthnjckaû cj grdco co jh kgiphøéh.
H pcshr dc jgs sukcsgs gkurradgs co Khohoch, uo høg dcspuás aoakaû uo oucvg igvaiacotg gnrcrg
co jh eènrakh dc tcxtajcs dc ^ag Njhokg, Ucrhkruz. Jgs trhnhmhdgrcs aoakahrgo uoh fucj`h phrh cxa`ar
uoh icmgrh dc jgs shjhrags y jh rcspucsth dc jgs ciprcshrags euc dckjhrhr cj phrg dc jhngrcs co tgdhs
jhs eènrakhs tcxtajcs dc jh rc`aûo heckthodg kgo cjjg h iajcs dc trhnhmhdgrcs. Jgs gnrcrgs sgjakathrgo
jh aotcrvcokaûo dcj prcsadcotc Déhz quaco dag su ehjjg h ehvgr dc jgs ciprcshrags< jgs gnrcrgs og jg
hkcpthrgo c aotcothrgo qucihr jh eènrakh. Jh rcspucsth dcj `gnacrog, oucvhicotc euc cj covaû dc jh

84;

 
 eucrzh pýnjakh, quc hnraû euc`g kgotrh jgs trhnhmhdgrcs ihthodg h vhrags dc cjjgs. Cj grdco fhnéh
sadg rcsthnjckadg, pcrg h uo kgstg iuy hjtg.

1. Aostatukagocs rcvgjukagohrahs y dcshrrgjjg ckgoûiakg (8188

(8188-8101
-8101))
1.8. Jh aosurrckkaûo ihdcrasth.
Sog dc
dc jgs `rup
`rupgs
gs pgjétakgs iès hktavgs co véspcrh
véspcrhss dc jh ^cvgjukaûo euc cj cokhnczhdg pgr Erhokaskg
A. Ihdcrg, quaco sc pgstujû h jh prcsadcokah dc jh ^cpýnjakh kgo Mgsá Ihréh Raog [uhrcz kgig
vakcprcsadcotc. [us aotcotgs dc fhkcr prgph`hodh pgjétakh eucrgo kginhtadgs pgr cj `gnacrog kgo
jh pcrsckukaûo dc Ihdcrg y sus sc`uadgrcs. Cj déh dc jhs cjckkagocs, Ihdcrg euc fckfg prasagocrg y
sc dckjhrû cj trauoeg hrrgjjhdgr dcj `cocrhj Déhz/quaco rcsujthnh cjcktg phrh uo oucvg pcragdg dc
`gnacrog. Déhs iès thrdc, Ihdcrg euc pucstg co jancrthd y sc dara`aû fhkah cj ogrtc dgodc sc rcuoaû
kgo sus kgjhngrhdgrcs y dckadaû jcvhothrsc co hrihs kgotrh cj `gnacrog nhmg jh nhodcrh dcj pjho dc
[ho Juas co 8182. Jh ^cvgjukaûo Icxakhoh fhnéh kgicozhdg.
Hotc cj hvhokc dc jhs trgphs rcvgjukagohrahs fhkah cj kcotrg dcj phés, Rgrearag Déhz dckadaû rcouokahr
vgjuothrahicotc h jh prcsadcokah dc jh ^cpýnjakh y cxajahrsc h Curgph, pucs og qucréh scr igtavg dc
quc aoakahrho oucvhs jukfhs kavajcs co cj phés. Cstc rèpadg trauoeg dc jhs eucrzhs rcvgjukagohrahs
pcriataû quc cj dcrrhihiacotg dc sho`rc eucrh iéoaig.
1.>. Davcrsadhd rc`ago
rc`agohj
hj dc jgs igvaiacotgs rcvgjukagohrags.

Jh nhthjjh
phés kgotrhdcjh su
h jg jhr`g dakthdurh
fastgrah<fazg cvadcotc
hsé euc jh davcrsadhd
durhotc rc`agohjdcy aodcpcodcokah,
jhs rcvgjukagocs sgkahj quc fh khrhktcrazhdg
dc jh rcegrihhj
Muhrasth y dc jh jukfh sgkahj aoakahdh co 8182. Jhs erhkkagocs rcvgjukagohrahs csthnho kgipucsths pgr
daecrcotcs kjhscs sgkahjcs, dc hkucrdg kgo jhs hktavadhdcs ckgoûiakhs quc rchjazhnho y cj cotgrog
`cg`rèeakg co cj quc fhnathnho= Co cj ogrtc cj `rupg dc cxtrhkkaûo pgpujhr dara`adg pgr Erhokaskg
Uajjh (vajjasths) quc kgogkého y rckgogkého jhs `rhodcs cxtcosagocs dc jh zgoh< co csth phrtc dcj phés
sc aotc`rhrgo thinaáo jgs cmárkatgs dc Rhnjg @gozèjcz y Hjvhrg Gnrc`ûo, tgdgs cjjgs gerckacrgo su
hpgyg h Khrrhozh. Q co jh phrtc sur dcj phés y kcrkhog h jh khpathj, jhs fucstcs khipcsaohs dc Ciajahog
]hphth, quc kgosadcrhnho trhakagohdgs sus adchjcs pjhsihdgs co cj Rjho dc Hyhjh. Co tgdgs cjjgs
hphrckého rcprcscothotcs dc kjhsc icdah, prgecsagoasth y hjthicotc pgjatazhdh. Co jhs kgiuoadhdcs
iaocrhs g kcotrgs aodustrahjcs dc hj`uohs kaudhdcs, `rupgs dc gnrcrgs sc gr`hoazhrgo y phrtakaphrgo
co cj prgkcsg hrihdg. Rrgotg qucdhrgo trcs `rhodcs scktgrcs= Khrrhokasths, Uajjasths y ]hphtasths
quc kgosa`uacrgo jh khédh dcj usurphdgr Uaktgrahog Fucrth (8184). Og gjvadcigs quc kgig sukcdc
co tgdh kgoergothkaûo nájakh, sc egriû uoh kjhsc iajathr kuyh prcscokah y pgdcr dc jhs hrihs, jc
kgjgkhrgo co uo ju`hr dcsthkhdg co jh cthph dc rckgostrukkaûo dcj phés.
1.;. Jh Kgostatuk
Kgostatukaûo
aûo dc 8180.
Dcjc`hdgs dc jhs kgrracotcs co hrihs aotcothrgo, sao jg`rhrjg, uo hkucrdg phrh uoaeakhr jgs kratcrags
hj trauoeg dc jh ^cvgjukaûo co jh Kgovcokaûo dc H`uhskhjacotcs dc 8183. Khrrhozh dag egrih h jh
tcodcokah kgostatukagohjasth hj høg sa`uacotc, trhs dcrrgthr h sus gpgsatgrcs co cj khipg dc nhthjjh.
H praokapags dc 8180, jgs daputhdgs cjcktgs phrh cj Kgo`rcsg rcprcscothnho h jgs davcrsgs cstrhtgs
sgkahjcs= prgecsagohjcs, jancrhjcs, adcûjg`gs, iajathrcs y uoh iaogréh kginhtavh dc gnrcrgs y
khipcsaogs. Dc csth Hshinjch Kgostatuycotc, rcuoadh co Xucráthrg, sur`aû jh Khrth Ih`oh

(Kgostatukaûo
dc dc 8180)
oucstrg phés. quchpjakhkaûo
Rhrh su durhotc khsa
co uo
uohsa`jg fh ogrihdg
ohkaûo quc khdhjh vcz
vadhcs
dciès
`gncrohotcs
pjurhj coy kuhotg
`gncrohdgs
h su

844

 
 egrihkaûo sgkahj y kgo pgsakagocs ckgoûiakhs y pgjétakhs cxtrcihs, cstc dgkuicotg fh sadg
igdaeakhdg co sus hrtékujgs phrh hdhpthrsc h jhs kgodakagocs dcj iuodg hktuhj, sao pcrdcr jgs
prckcptgs sgkahjcs, rcsujthdg dc jh ^cvgjukaûo h jh kuhj sc dcnc.
1.4. @ucrrh krastcrh, cmárkatg y gr`hoazhkagocs sgkahjcs.
So prgnjcih quc prgvgkû uoh `rhvc krasas co Iáxakg, euc cj dcshkucrdg cotrc jhs hutgradhdcs
ckjcsaèstakhs y cj Csthdg rcspcktg h jh hutgradhd kavaj quc jh Kgostatukaûo dc 8180 csthnjckéh sgnrc
hj`uohs ihoaecsthkagocs pgjétakhs dcj kjcrg. Dc 81>5 h 81>1 sc dcshrrgjjû jh jjhihdh "@ucrrh g
^cncjaûo Krastcrh", quc aovgjukrû h vhrags csthdgs dcj kcotrg y gkkadcotc dcj phés. Cstg jjcvû h jh
párdadh dc kacotgs dc vadhs dc icxakhogs, jjcvhdgs h uoh kgoergothkaûo hrihdh kgo cpasgdags
krucjcs quc kgoigvacrgo h jh gpaoaûo pýnjakh, iacotrhs durû cj kgoejaktg quc kgokjuyû kgo uo
hrrc`jg cotrc jhs phrtcs. Tho ao`rhtg cpasgdag dc oucstrh fastgrah kgotcipgrèoch sc h`rhvû, pgr uoh
ehjth dc vgjuothd phrh htcodcr h uoh rchjadhd sgkagkujturhj= jh hutgradhd ckjcsaèstakh dc oucstrg phés,
hpgyhdh pgr uo pucnjg dc hrrha`hdh rcja`agsadhd ercotc h jhs jcycs dc jh Kgostatukaûo dc 8180 quc
prgkurhnh dceaoar jh scphrhkaûo cotrc jh a`jcsah y cj Csthdg.
Cj cmárkatg pgstrcvgjukagohrag sc kgoegriû kgo cjcicotgs dc davcrsh cxtrhkkaûo sgkahj y kgo
khrhktcréstakhs rc`agohjcs quc kgrrcspgodého h aotcrcscs sgkagckgoûiakgs dc daecrcotcs ihtakcs<
pgr jg `cocrhj, jgs hjtgs ihodgs sc gtgr`hnho pgr jh hota`úcdhd co jh jukfh y co gtrhs gkhsagocs
pgrquc cstgs mcecs prgvcoého dc Kgjc`ag Iajathr. Khdh erhkkaûo rcvgjukagohrah csthnjckéh sus prgpags
ickhoasigs phrh aotc`rhr jgs davcrsgs oavcjcs co cj cmárkatg< pgr cmcipjg, oa Uajjh, oa ]hphth tcoého
prcphrhkaûo iajathr prgecsagohj, sao cinhr`g sc hutgoginrhrgo kgig `cocrhjcs.
Co kuhotg h jhs rcprcscothkagocs saodakhjcs y khipcsaohs, uohs y gtrhs sc aotc`rhrgo hj phrtadg ýoakg
h phrtar dc 81;6, kgo jg quc sc jcs kgotrgjû hj tacipg quc sc kuipjého hj`uohs dc sus dcihodhs.
Csths aostatukagocs gnrcrg, pgjétakhs y khipcsaohs, ihotuvacrgo pgr iès dc 82 høgs uoh tcodcokah
quc jhs adcotaeakhnh kgo su gra`co< pgstcragricotc sc unakhrgo dcotrg dc jhs cstrukturhs ckgoûiakhs
y pgjétakhs dcj Csthdg. [c pucdc kgokjuar quc jgs gr`hoasigs khipcsaogs y gnrcrgs krckacrgo co
oýicrg dc aotc`rhotcs y hdquaracrgo prcscokah pgjétakh durhotc cj rcstg dc jh fastgrah dcj Iáxakg
kgotcipgrèocg.
1.3. Khudajjasig, cmárkatg, phrtadg ýoakg
ýoakg..
Cj khudajjasig cs cj cmcrkakag dc jgs mcecs iajathrcs g kavajcs dc jh rcvgjukaûo hj ercotc dc sus cmárkatgs
g sc`uadgrcs kgo tcodcokahs daecrcotcs. Rhrh 81>2, quaco rcsujtû prgth`goasth dc tgdg cjjg euc
Hjvhrg Gnrc`ûo, rckgogkadg pgr jhs ohkagocs aipgrthotcs dc su tacipg, praokaphjicotc Csthdgs
Soadgs, kgig jédcr ckgoûiakg y pgjétakg dcsdc jh Rraicrh @ucrrh Iuodahj. Tuvg cspckahj aotcrás co
aipujshr icdadhs jhngrhjcs, cdukhtavhs y h`rhrahs< og gnsthotc, sc prcscothrgo prgnjcihs dc
davcrsh éodgjc hotc jgs kuhjcs aipusg su hutgradhd. Kgo cj prgpûsatg dc jg`rhr uoh csthnajadhd
pgjétakh y sgkahj, euodû aostatukagocs c aipujsû uo kratcrag dc kgotrgj quc jg ihotuvg kgig mcec
ièxaig. Gnrc`ûo euc hscsaohdg co 81>6 hj trhthr dc rccjc`arsc. Khjjcs ihotuvg cj kgotrgj dcj phés
kgo uo hutgrathrasig, co cj jjhihdg "Ihxaihtg" (81>6 h 81;4). H phrtar dcj kgotrgj sgnrc jgs
prgkcsgs cjcktgrhjcs, dc jh kgokcotrhkaûo dcj pgdcr co ihogs dcj Cmckutavg (prcsadcokahjasig) y,
pgstcragricotc, kgo jh egrihkaûo dc uo phrtadg ýoakg, sc scothrgo jhs nhscs dcj sastcih pgjétakg quc
rc`aréh hj phés co jhs sa`uacotcs dákhdhs. Soh egrih dc ihotcocr csh satuhkaûo, euc gntcocr cj hpgyg
aokgodakagohj dc jh rcprcscothkaûo gnrcrh, jh dc jgs scrvadgrcs dcj Csthdg (nurgkrhkah geakahj) y gtrhs
h`ruphkagocs quc dckjhrhrgo su aokgrpgrhkaûo h jh pgjétakh dcj prcsadcotc (kgrpgrhtavasig).

84
843
3

 
 Tgdhs jhs hkkagocs nrcvcicotc scøhjhdhs, dacrgo vadh h uoh eucrtc rcprcscothkaûo pgjétakh, cj
Rhrtadg Ohkagohj ^cvgjukagohrag (RO^, 81>1), quc sc trhosegrih co cj Rhrtadg dc jh ^cvgjukaûo
Icxakhoh (R^I, 81;6), y co cj Rhrtadg ^cvgjukagohrag Aostatukagohj (R^A, 8143)< kgo cstc prgkcsg sc
hsc`urhnh uoh sukcsaûo prcsadcokahj
prcsa dcokahj phrh quaco eucrh oginrhdg pgr cstc gr`hoasig
gr`hoasig pgjétakg. Fhnéh
Fhnéh
ohkadg cj pcragdg dcj phrtadg ýoakg quc igdaeakû su oginrc, pcrg ihotuvg cj dgiaoag dc jhs
hkkagocs dcj Csthdg icxakhog pgr cj rcstg dcj sa`jg VV.
1.5. ^cegrih h`rhrah.
Co jh kgostatukaûo dc 8180 hphrckc cj hpgyg jc`hj quc prgpakaû davcrshs hkkagocs< hj`uohs dc cjjhs
sgo jhs Kgiasagocs H`rhrahs quc, durhotc jh sc`uodh dákhdh dcj sa`jg phshdg trhthrgo co egrih
igdcrhdh dc kgokajahr jgs aotcrcscs dc uoh prgpacdhd kgiuohj y jgs aotcrcscs dc uoh prgpacdhd
pravhdh. Jhs rcjhkagocs cotrc jgs `rupgs sgkahjcs ihotcoého uo `rhdg dc tgjcrhokah iuy dcjakhdg< jh
aotcosadhd dc jhs hkkagocs pgjétakhs gkuphnh jh htcokaûo dc jh sgkacdhd.
Co jh tcrkcrh dákhdh dcj sa`jg phshdg, sc geakahjazh jh ^cegrih H`rhrah quc sc prgpgoc trcs icths
nèsakhs= csthnjckcr jgs jéiatcs dc jh prgpacdhd kgiuohj y pravhdh< dgthr dc tacrrhs h uo krckacotc
oýicrg dc khipcsaogs y kgiuoadhdcs sao tétujg jc`hj dc prgpacdhd< y cjcvhr jh khjadhd y khotadhd
co jh prgdukkaûo
prgdukkaûo h`rhrah. Jhs igdhjadhdcs quc csthnjckacrgo jgs jjhihdgs
jjhihdgs "dcjatgs h`rhrags"
h`r hrags" trhthnho
trhthnh o
dc hdckuhrsc h jhs ockcsadhdcs dc khdh uog dc cjjgs. Cj prgpûsatg crh trhosegrihr uo kratcrag dc
nhmg rcodaiacotg phrh kgostruar uo Csthdg igdcrog y sueakacotc co cj hprgvckfhiacotg dc jgs
rckursgs ohturhjcs.
1.0. Ca kgotcxtg aotcrohkagohj=
aotcrohkagohj= jh [c`uo
[c`uodh
dh @ucrrh Iuodahj
Iuodahj y su aiphktg 
aiphktg 
co jh ckgogiéh ohkagohj.
Jh ckgogiéh y jh pgjétakh dc jgs phéscs quc sc coercothrgo co cj sc`uodg kgoejaktg iuodahj
pcriatacrgo quc csthdgs ocutrhjcs co su pgsakaûo adcgjû`akh ihotuvacrho uo ratig dc prgdukkaûo
aodustrahj quc egrthjckacrh su sgncrhoéh. Csc euc cj khsg dc oucstrg phés, quc aokrcicotû cj covég dc
ihtcrahs praihs y prgduktgs sciacjhngrhdgs h phrtc dc jgs phéscs co kgoejaktg.
Jh ckgogiéh dcj phés tuvg uo pcragdg dc hu`c pgr jhs vcoths dc sus prgduktgs y thinaáo sc dcsthkh
uo nuco oýicrg dc ia`rhotcs quc hsastacrgo h jh ckgogiéh csthdguoadcosc trhnhmhodg co jhs
eènrakhs y cj khipg dc csc phés.
1.6. Kjhsakasig, rgihotakasig y igdcroasig co Iáxakg.
Cj kjhsakasig cs uoh kgrracotc
kgrraco tc dc pcoshiacotg cstátakh
cstá takh c aotcjcktuhj
aotcjckt uhj quc tuvg su hpg`cg
hpg`cg co jgs sa`jgs
sa`jgs
VUAAA y VAV, hnhrkhodg dcsdc 80;2 h 86>2 hprgxaihdhicotc, aosparhdg co jgs phtrgocs cstátakgs y
eajgsûeakgs dc jh @rckah kjèsakh. Jgs cskratgrcs icxakhogs dcj sa`jg VAV cstuvacrgo aoicrsgs y
kgiprgictadgs kgo jh vadh pgjétakh y sgkahj dcj phés. Co Iáxakg prcvhjckacrgo cj rgihotakasig y cj
kjhsakasig. Hj`uogs dc cjjgs, kgig Mgsá Mghquéo Rcshdg, Ihoucj Khrpaû y Mgsá Ihréh ^gh Nèrkcoh,
aoejuadgs pgr jh kujturh kjèsakh dc jh hota`úcdhd, sc dcdakhrgo h cskranar sgnrc tcihs dc jh ápgkh.
Cj rgihotakasig icxakhog sc dastao`uéh pgr hihj`hihr cj pcragdasig, jh pgjétakh, cj pgsatavasig y cj
jancrhjasig, pucs sur`aû co jgs høgs prcvags h jh ^cvgjukaûo Icxakhoh. Cj pgcth Ihoucj Hkuøh cs
pgsanjcicotc
dc cj ièxaig
cstc igvaiacotg rcprcscothotc
hrtéstakg sgo= dcj rgihotakasig co Iáxakg. Jgs rhs`gs iès aipgrthotcs

845

 
 - ^upturh kgo jgs kgovcokagohjasigs ocgkjèsakgs.
- Hnhodgog dc jh uoaegriadhd cstajéstakh.
- Tcihs dc `ucrrh y gtrgs hkgotckaiacotgs fastûrakgs.
- Kgipgsakagocs
Kgipgsakagocs daoèiakhs.
da oèiakhs.
- Uasaûo aotaiasth dcj phashmc.

- ^cjhkaûo scotaicothj cotrc cj hrtasth y sus tcihs.

Cj Igdcroasig jatcrhrag tuvg uo sur`aiacotg, pcrg thinaáo euc uo rcsur`ar  dc
 dc jhs prcgkuphkagocs,
jhs igtavhkagocs quc igvacrgo hj scotaiacotg rgièotakg dc hqucjjh ápgkh< sc rctgih jh cscokah dc
hquáj cspératu y sc cra`c y rcoucvh dcspuás dc jh kgiprgnhkaûo kgo euodhicotg eajgsûeakg sgnrc jh
aipgsanajadhd c aogpcrhokah dc jh rhzûo (Lhot y gtrgs).
[ur`c cotgokcs uoh aoogvhkaûo euodhdh co uo cspératu aokgoegric -krasas csparatuhj prgpah dcj eao
dc sa`jg- quc hnrhzhrè davcrshs aoejucokahs phrh `rhduhjicotc tgihr uoh egrih oucvh, uo oucvg
igvaiacotg. Tcodcokahs dc daecrcotcs jhtatudcs kgotranuarèo h csth hihj`hih ckjáktakh,
prgvcoacotcs dc Ao`jhtcrrh, Athjah, CSH, Csphøh, cotrc gtrgs, y, praokaphjicotc, Erhokah. [ur`aû, pucs,
uo
uo igvaiacotg
 igvaiacotg kgsigpgjath cspgotèocg.

Fhy quacocs kgosadcrho quc co Fasphoghiárakh cj Igdcroasig,

Igdcroasig,   kgig jatcrhturh, nrgtû nhmg jh
nhtuth dcj oakhrh`úcosc ^unáo Dhrég kgo su Hzuj
su  Hzuj   (8666) Cj táriaog igdcroasths
igdcroasths   tcoéh uoh khr`h
dcspcktavh, pcrg Dhrég y gtrgs jg hsuiacrgo kgo gr`ujjg. Cj igdcroasig jatcrhrag euc co `cocrhj,
Iáxakg aokjuadg, uoh kgrracotc dc rupturh hotc cj kgoegriasig, jh nur`ucséh, jh kgtadahoadhd, jg
vuj`hr, cj tacipg y cj csphkag. Jg`rû uoh trhsegrihkaûo cstátakh, dc hrigoéh y pcreckkaûo< cohjtckaû
jg scosgrahj y vhjgrcs fuihogs rchjcs. Rrgeuodgs scotaiacotgs dc fhstég, cvhsaûo, trastczh, sgjcdhd,
higr, janrc cxprcsaûo dc jh scxuhjadhd, crgtasig -aokjusavc iumcrcs kgig Dcjiarh H`ustaoa-,
rcvhjgrhkaûo dc jg fasphog y jg aodé`coh, eucrgo tgdgs tcihs rckurrcotcs dc csth kgrracotc jatcrhrah.
Cotrc eaohjcs dc 8122 y 8182 (jhs ngrrhskhs dcj pgrearahtg), Iáxakg euc uo krasgj dc hktavadhd
igdcroasth -pgr cstgs høgs sur`c jh rcvasth Hzuj-
rcvasth Hzuj- og
 og sûjg co pgcséh saog thinaáo co prgsh, coshyg,
kucotg, ogvcjh, tchtrg y pcragdasig. Fung thinaáo quacocs krchrgo dcsdc cj cxajag. [c dcmû dc
kgpahr jg csphøgj phrh hducøhrsc dc jg prgpag, sgnrc tgdg co cstajg, h pcshr dc jhs ohturhjcs
aoejucokahs (Rhrohsahoasig y [aingjasig), y jg quc euc dc suih aipgrthokah, cj suihrsc h jh
rcpcrkusaûo jatcrhrah faspèoakh quc pgr vcz praicrh sc tuvg co Curgph.
Cs hipjah jh jasth dc jgs cskratgrcs trhskcodcotcs quc Hiárakh dag hj iuodg. Cotrc jgs icxakhogs
ea`urhrgo, cotrc gtrgs, Ihoucj @utaárrcz Oèmcrh, [hjvhdgr Déhz Iarûo, Hihdg Øcrvg, Coraquc
@gozèjcz Ihrtéocz, Juas @gozh`h Srnaoh y Mgsá Muho Thnjhdh.

82. Iáxakg co jh crh `jgnhj (8102->222

(8102->222))
82.8. Aosthurhkaûo dcj ocgjancrhjasig.
Jh dgktraoh dcj ocgjancrhjasig ohkaû h eaohjcs dc jh dákhdh dc 8102 kgig jh rcspucsth dc jgs phéscs
khpathjasths iès dcshrrgjjhdgs dc gkkadcotc hotc jh krasas dcj khpathjasig. Jgs dcecosgrcs dcj
ocgjancrhjasig hpgyhnho uoh hipjah jancrhjazhkaûo ckgoûiakh, cj janrc kgicrkag dcj scktgr pravhdg,
quc phshréh h dcscipcøhr jhs kgipctcokahs trhdakagohjicotc-hsuiadhs pgr cj Csthdg.

840

 
 Co oucstrg Iáxakg, euc cj EIA quaco fazg jjc`hr jgs praicrgs jaokhiacotgs ocgjancrhjcs co 8105 kgo
igtavg dcj sur`aiacotg dc oucstrh praicrh krasas eaohokacrh dc rcjacvc aotcrohkagohj. [cas høgs iès
thrdc, h eaohjcs dc 816>, cj prcsadcotc co tuig Ia`ucj dc jh Ihdrad ciprcodaû jh pravhtazhkaûo dcj
scktgr phrhcsththj, eariû jh cotrhdh dcj @HTT y dag jgs praicrgs phsgs co cj rckgrtc hj `hstg sgkahj,
tgdg cjjg kgig kgosckucokah dc fhncr earihdg jh Khrth dc aotcokaûo kgo cj EIA co jh quc sc
kgiprgictaû h quc Iáxakg hdgpthréh cj igdcjg ckgoûiakg ocgjancrhj. Co 8166, jh kgotaouadhd dc
dakfg igdcjg ocgjancrhj sc hsc`urû kgo jh cjckkaûo dc Khrjgs [hjaohs, su praicrh icdadh co ruth dcj
ocgjancrhjasig euc dckrcthr uoh rcegrih easkhj quc dasiaouyû jhs thshs aipgsatavhs h jgs
ciprcshrags.
ciprcshra gs. Tgdg cstg pgr kathr hj`uogs cmcipjgs, pucstg quc jh dgktraoh dcj jancrhj
jancrhjasig
asig fh rc`adg
rc`adg
co jhs ýjtaihs dákhdhs jhs dckasagocs kgokcroacotcs h jh ckgogiéh icxakhoh. Jgs `gncrohotcs co
turog fho kgotaouhdg hpjakhodg jh dgktraoh dcj ocgjancrhjasig fhsth dgodc jcs fh sadg pgsanjc y
ýoakhicotc jh vgjuothd dc jgs scktgrcs iès kgokcroacotc, cxprcshdh h trhvás dc sus rcprcscothotcs
co jhs Kèihrhs jc`asjhtavhs, fho pucstg jéiatc h jgs dcsa`oags dcj khpathjasig trhosohkagohj co su
aotcrás pgr hprgpahrsc dc jhs ciprcshs csththjcs quc kgotrgjho jgs cocr`átakgs.
82.>. Cj trhthdg
trhth dg dc Janrc Kgicrkag.
Kgicrka g.
So Trhthdg dc Janrc Kgicrkag kgosastc co uo hkucrdg kgicrkahj rc`agohj g najhtcrhj phrh hipjahr cj
icrkhdg dc nacocs y scrvakags cotrc jgs phéscs phrtakaphotcs, kgig kgotaocotcs g co tgdg cj iuodg.
Nèsakhicotc, kgosastc co jh cjaiaohkaûo g rcnhmh susthokahj dc jgs hrhokcjcs phrh jgs nacocs cotrc

jhs phrtcs,dcjy hkucrdgs

Iuodahj Kgicrkagco ihtcrah
g pgr dc hkucrdg
iutug scrvakags.cotrc
Cstc hkucrdg
jgs phéscs.sc ra`c pgr jhs rc`jhs dc jh Gr`hoazhkaûo
Cj Trhthdg dc Janrc Kgicrkag dc Hiárakh dcj Ogrtc (TJKHO), cs uo hkucrdg rc`agohj cotrc jgs
`gnacrogs dc Khohdè, dc jgs Csthdgs Soadgs y dc Iáxakg phrh krchr uoh zgoh dc janrc kgicrkag. Cstc
hkucrdg kgicrkahj euc oc`gkahdg durhotc jh hdiaoastrhkaûo dcj prcsadcotc icxakhog Khrjgs [hjaohs
dc @grthra, dcj prcsadcotc csthdguoadcosc @cgr`c F.P. Nusf, y dcj praicr iaoastrg khohdacosc
Nraho Igjrgocy. Dakfg
Dakfg hkucrdg sc eariû pgr Iáxakg, cj 80 dc dakacinrc dc 811>, y cotrû co va`cokah
va`cokah
h phrtar dcj 8rg dc cocrg dc 8114, kuhodg sc kuipjaû kgo cj prgkcdaiacotg dc rhtaeakhkaûo pgr phrtc
dcj pgdcr jc`asjhtavg dc khdh phés quc jg suskranaû.
Jgs gnmctavgs dcj Trhthdg sgo= (h) cjaiaohr gnstèkujgs hj kgicrkag y ehkajathr jh karkujhkaûo trajhtcrhj
dc nacocs y dc scrvakags cotrc jgs tcrratgrags dc jhs phrtcs< (n) prgigvcr kgodakagocs dc kgipctcokah
jchj co jh zgoh dc janrc kgicrkag< (k) huicothr susthokahjicotc jhs gpgrtuoadhdcs dc aovcrsaûo co
jgs tcrratgrags dc jhs phrtcs< (d) prgtc`cr y fhkcr vhjcr, dc ihocrh hdckuhdh y cecktavh, jgs dcrckfgs
dc prgpacdhd aotcjcktuhj co tcrratgrag dc khdh uoh dc jhs phrtcs< (c) krchr prgkcdaiacotgs ceakhkcs
phrh jh hpjakhkaûo y kuipjaiacotg dcj Trhthdg, phrh su hdiaoastrhkaûo kgomuoth y phrh jh sgjukaûo dc
kgotrgvcrsahs< y (e) csthnjckcr jaochiacotgs phrh jh ujtcragr kggpcrhkaûo trajhtcrhj, rc`agohj y
iujtajhtcrhj cokhiaohdh h hipjahr y icmgrhr jgs ncoceakags dcj Trhthdg.
82.;. Jh rcegrih cjcktgrhj co Iáx
Iáxakg
akg y jh hjtcrohokah co cj pgdcr kgig véh 
phrh jh dcigkrhtazhkaûo.
Jhs rcegrihs cjcktgrhjcs, tuvacrgo kgig gnmctavg kgiýo dcvgjvcr jh krcdanajadhd h jhs aostatukagocs
pgjétakhs y h jgs prgkcsgs cjcktgrhjcs. Cj praicr phsg, co 8105, kgosastaû co jh Jcy dc Gr`hoazhkagocs
Rgjétakhs y Rrgkcsgs Cjcktgrhjcs (JGRRC), quc cotrû co va`gr co 8101. Csth jcy hnraû jh pgsanajadhd hj
rc`astrg dc oucvgs phrtadgs kgodakagohdg hj rcsujthdg dc jhs cjckkagocs. Tgdhs jhs rcegrihs

846
846

 
 cjcktgrhjcs, dcsdc 8100 fhsth jh dc 8115, fho adg co cj scotadg dc hipjahr jh phrtakaphkaûo dc jhs
eucrzhs pgjétakhs ohkagohjcs co cj Kgo`rcsg dc jh Soaûo, co jgs kgo`rcsgs jgkhjcs, co jhs
`uncrohturhs, g co jhs prcsadcokahs iuoakaphjcs, jg kuhj euc pcriatacodg jh krckacotc pjurhjadhd
pgjétakh co cj sastcih pgjétakg icxakhog.
Fhy quc scøhjhr quc h phrtar dc 8115 cj ûr`hog darcktavg dcj AEC, cj Kgoscmg @cocrhj, cs uoh aosthokah
kgjc`ahdh co cj quc yh og aotcrvacoc cj jc`asjhtavg, sûjg phrtakaph kgo vgz pcrg og kgo vgtg. Cj AEC
(Aostatutg Ecdcrhj Cjcktgrhj) tacoc su gra`co co jhs rcegrihs kgostatukagohjcs jjcvhdhs h khng co 8161
y jh cxpcdakaûo, hj høg sa`uacotc, dcj Kûda`g Ecdcrhj dc Aostatukagocs y Rrgkcdaiacotgs Cjcktgrhjcs
(KGEARC). Cj AEC ohkaû kgig uoh rcspucsth h jhs cxa`cokahs kaudhdhohs dc kgothr kgo uoh aostatukaûo
cjcktgrhj aiphrkahj, quc nraodhrh pjcoh kcrtczh, trhosphrcokah y jc`hjadhd h jgs phrtadgs co
kgotacodh, kgig uo oucvg phsg hdcjhotc co jh ruth dc jh dcigkrhtazhkaûo. [ao cinhr`g, kgig jg
fcigs icokagohdg co davcrshs gkhsagocs, tgdg cstè co kgosthotc khinag. ^ckacotcicotc cj AEC
sueraû igdaeakhkagocs y fgy jg jjhihigs AOC (Aostatutg Ohkagohj Cjcktgrhj).
82.4. Igvaiacotgs sgkahjcs dcsdc jgs høgs 52 kgig prgigtgrcs dc jh
jh  
phrtakaphkaûo kaudhdhoh.
Cj kgokcptg dc sgkacdhd kavaj, cipczû h cipjchrsc co Iáxakg h phrtar dcj Igvaiacotg Cstudahotaj
Rgpujhr dc 8156, co jh nýsqucdh dc egrihs dc phrtakaphkaûo iès cecktavhs y jh va`cokah hutáotakh dc
uo csthdg dc dcrckfg. Cj kgokcptg dc sgkacdhd kavaj co Iáxakg tacoc dgs hspcktgs= ohkc kgig
kgokcptg jancrhdgr kgotrh jhs egrihs kgrpgrhtavhs csthnjckadhs pgr cj rá`aico dc phrtadg dc Csthdg
y, hj iasig tacipg, kgig aostruicotg quc ehvgrckc jgs khinags ocgjancrhjcs dcj Csthdg icxakhog
y cj dc su phpcj co jh ckgogiéh. Xuacocs fho aipujshdg jh daoèiakh dc jh sgkacdhd kavaj
kgosthotcicotc sc dcsjaodho dc uoh phrtc dc jh kjhsc pgjétakh y dc jgs icdags dc kgiuoakhkaûo
ihsavh dc jgs kuhjcs rckcjho kgo rhzgocs mustaeakhdhs.

841

 
 IHTCIÈTAKH[
8. [a`oaeakhdg y usg dc jgs oýicrgs
Oýicrgs cotcrgs
8.8. [a`oae
[a`oaeakhdg
akhdg y us
usg
g dc jh
jhss gpcrhkagocs nèsakhs kgo oýicrgs cotcrgs.
Co ihtciètakhs, oýicrg cotcrg sc pucdc dceaoar kgig "hqucj quc kgosth dc uoh g iès uoadhdcs h
daecrcokah dc jgs qucnrhdgs y jgs iaxtgs". Jgs oýicrgs cotcrgs, sgo oýicrgs quc pcrtcockco hj
kgomuotg egrihdg pgr cj kcrg, jgs oýicrgs pgsatavgs y jgs oýicrgs oc`htavgs.
-3 -4 -; -> -8 2 8 > ; 4 3

Jgs oýicrgs pgsatavgs sgo hqucjjgs quc rcprcscotho khotadhdcs rcjhkagohdhs kgo `hohr, tcocr,
suihr, csthr pgr cokaih dc, ctk.
Jgs oýicrgs oc`htavgs sgo hqucjjgs quc rcprcscotho khotadhdcs rcjhkagohdhs kgo dcncr, rcsthr,
`hsthr, csthr pgr dcnhmg dc, ctk.
Rgr cmcipjg= h Rcdrg jc dho 822 pcsgs khdh scihoh phrh `hsthr, cstg quacrc dckar quc kgiacozh jh
scihoh kgo 822 pcsgs pgsatavgs. H iathd dc scihoh padc uo prásthig h su ihdrc dc 32 pcsgs yh

quc jg hquc
daocrg su tcoéh
ihdrc.scJgs
jc fh tcriaohdg,
oýicrgs Rcdrgaodakho
oc`htavgs tcriaohquc
jh scihoh kgo rcprcscothdh
jh khotadhd -32 pcsgs pucstg
cs uoquc dcnc
dáeakat cocsc
jhs
gpcrhkagocs quc fh`higs kgo cjjgs y og pgr csg dcmho dc scr oýicrgs cotcrgs.
Jgs oýicrgs cotcrgs sgo utajazhdgs dcotrg dc jhs 4 gpcrhkagocs nèsakhs co ihtciètakhs, dc jhs
kuhjcs vcrcigs nrcvcicotc sus praokaphjcs khrhktcréstakhs=
[uih y ^csth. Jh suih g hdakaûo cs, cj rcsujthdg dc høhdar h uoh khotadhd gtrh u gtrhs fgig`áochs.
Cj scotadg dc csth gpcrhkaûo cs høhdar
høhda r h uoh khotadhd uoh g iès
iès khotadhdcs y gntcocr
gntcoc r hsé cj rcsujthdg
dc jh hdakaûo dc jhs iasihs.
Jh rcsth g sustrhkkaûo, cs uoh gpcrhkaûo ihtciètakh quc kgosastc co quathr, shkhr, scphrhr, rcdukar,
ctk., uoh khotadhd g scrac dc khotadhdcs dc uo tgdg y kuyg rcsujthdg sc dcogiaoh daecrcokah.
daecrcokah. Cs
 Cs jh
gpcrhkaûo kgotrhrah h jh suih.
Co cstc khsg cs aipgrthotc rckhjkhr quc hj trhnhmhr kgo oýicrgs pgsatavgs y oýicrgs oc`htavgs, fhy
quc pgocr cspckahj kuadhdg kgo jh jcy dc jgs sa`ogs quc og cs iès quc jhs rc`jhs quc aodakho kuèj cs
cj sa`og quc
quc dcnc jjcvhr cj rcsujth
rcsujthdg,
dg, dc kkhdh
hdh uoh dc jhs kgi
kginaohkagocs
naohkagocs pgsanjcs dc ssa`ogs,
a`ogs, hj rchj
rchjazhr
azhr
uoh gpcrhkaûo.
Dc cstc igdg tcocigs quc co jh suih y jh rcsth, jh jcy dc sa`ogs dakc=
Hj rcsthr g suihr oýicrgs pgsatavgs, cj rcsujthdg scrè pgsatavg.
Hj rcsthr g suihr oýicrgs oc`htavgs, cj rcsujthdg scrè oc`htavg.
Hj rcsthr g suihr oýicrgs pgsatavgs kgo oc`htavgs, g vakcvcrsh, cj rcsujthdg tcodrè cj sa`og
dcj cotcrg quc sch ihygr.
Gnscrvcigs jh sa`uacotc thnjh phrh uo icmgr cotcodaiacotg=

832

 
 [uih ^csth
Rgsatavg + Rgsatavg Rgsatavg Rgsatavg Rgsatavg
- Rgsatavg
Oc`htavg + Oc`htavg Oc`htavg Oc`htavg - Oc`htavg Oc`htavg
Rgsatavg + Oc`htavg Cj sa`og dcj cotcrg Rgsatavg Oc`htavg
- Cj sa`og dcj cotcrg
Oc`htavg + Rgsatavg quc sch ihygr Oc`htavg - Rgsatavg quc sch ihygr

Iujtapjakhkaûo y Davasaûo. Jh iujtapjakhkaûo kgosastc co fhjjhr cj prgduktg dc dgs ehktgrcs, tgihodg

uog dc cjjgs jjhihdg iujtapjakhodg,
iujtapjakhodg,   thoths vckcs pgr suihodg kgig uoadhdcs kgotacoc cj gtrg
jjhihdg iujtapjakhdgr.
iujtapjakhdgr. Cs
 Cs dckar, quc sa tcocigs uoh iujtapjakhkaûo dc jh egrih > x4, cj iujtapjakhodg
(>) tacoc quc suihrsc pgr sé iasig jhs vckcs quc aodakh cj iujtapjakhdgr (4), jg kuhj qucdhréh dc jh
sa`uacotc ihocrh=
> x4 9 6  s c s u i h  4 vckcs cj dgs   > + > + >4-> 9 6

Cj sa`og quc sc ush phrh aodakhr jh iujtapjakhkaûo cs "x" y co gkhsagocs sc pgoc cj oýicrg dcotrg dc
uo phráotcsas.
Iujtapjakhodg [a`og Iujtapjakhdgr A`
A`uuhj h Rrgd
Rrgduk
uktg
tg g rrcs
csuj
ujth
thdg
dg
3 V 3 9 >3

Jh davasaûo
jjhihdh kgosastc
 Cs jhco
davasgr. Cs
davasgr. hvcra`uhr
gpcrhkaûo kuhothsh vckcs
kgotrhrah uoh khotadhd
jh iujtapjakhkaûo, jjhihdh
su sa`og davadcodg, 
davadcodg,
cs "/" dgodc  rcprcscoth
kgotacoc gtrh,
quc
cj davadcodg cstè sgnrc cj davasgr (>3/393)
[a`og dc kgkacotc g
Davadcodg Davasgr A`uhj h
davasaûo rcsujthdg
>3  /  3 9 3

Jh jcy dc jgs sa`ogs co cj khsg dc jh iujtapjakhkaûo y jh davasaûo, ogs dakc=

[a sc iujtapjakh g davadc uo oýicrg pgsatavg pgr (g cotrc) gtrg oýicrg pgsatavg, cj rcsujthdg
cs pgsatavg.
- [a sc iiujta
ujtapjakh
pjakh g dava
davadc
dc uo oýicrg oc`htavg pgr (g cot cotrc)
rc) gtrg oýicrg oc`htavg, cj
rcsujthdg cs pgsatavg.
[a sc iujtapjakh g davadc oc`htavg pgr (g cotrc) pgsatavg g pgsatavg pgr (g cotrc) oc`htavg, cj
rcsujthdg saciprc cs oc`htavg.
Co rcsuico iujtapjakhkaûo g davasaûo kgo sa`ogs a`uhjcs rcsujthdg pgsatavg< iujtapjakhkagocs g
davasagocs kgo sa`ogs daecrcotcs cj rcsujthdg cs oc`htavg.
Iujtapjakhkaûo Davasaûo
Rgsatavg V Rgsatavg Rgsatavg Rgsatavg  /  Rgsatavg Rgsatavg
Oc`htavg V Oc`htavg Rgsatavg Oc`htavg  /  Oc`htavg Rgsatavg
Rgsatavg V Oc`htavg Oc`htavg Rgsatavg  /  Oc`htavg Oc`htavg
Oc`htavg V Rgsatavg Oc`htavg Oc`htavg  /  Rgsatavg Oc`htavg

838

 
 8.>. ^csgjukaûo dc prgnjcihs kgo gpcrhkagocs nèsakhs.
Dcotrg dc jh vadh kgtadahoh, ushigs jhs ihtciètakhs phrh rcsgjvcr prgnjcihs dc dastaoth éodgjc,
dcsdá shncr kuèotg ogs tacoco quc dcvgjvcr dc khinag sa ph`higs hj`g kgo uo najjctc, fhsth jjcvhr
jh kgothnajadhd dc uoh ciprcsh. Cs aipgrthotc adcotaeakhr jhs kuhtrg gpcrhkagocs nèsakhs co
ihtciètakhs quc hpjakhigs dahrahicotc.
H kgotaouhkaûo cxpgocigs csths gpcrhkagocs nèsakhs co jh rcsgjukaûo dc uo prgnjcih scokajjg=

Hrtyr
Hrtyrgg tacocrchjazh
dé` ogrihj, uo
uohh tacodh, co cjjh
kgiprhs h susvc
vcodc
odc hnhrrgtcs
prgvccdgrcs dcy$8632,
sus vcoths dahrahs
y tacoc sgodcdcgpcrhkaûo
`hstgs $>332.22,dcpcsg
pcsgs.
s. Co uo
$;32.
[uih.. ·H kuèotg hskacodco7 sus `hstg
[uih `hstgss cotrc kgiprhs y `hstgs
`hstgs dc gpcrhkaûo7
gpcrhka ûo7
[c suiho jhs kgiprhs h prgvccdgrcs (-8632) y jgs `hstgs dc gpcrhkaûo (-;32), gntcoacodg uo tgthj
dc ->>22 pcsgs dahrags< pucstg quc jh suih dc khotadhdcs cs dc sa`og oc`htavg, cj rcsujthdg cs
oc`htavg.
(-8632) + (-;32) 9->>22 
9->>22 
^csth. Xuathodg `hstgs ·Kuèotg `hoh dahrahicotc7
[c rcsth h jhs vcoths dahrahs (>332) jgs `hstgs (->>22), gntcoacodg uohs `hohokahs dc $;32 pcsgs
dahrags< pucstg quc co jh rcsth dc khotadhdcs dc sa`ogs kgotrhrags, cj rcsujthdg cs dcj sa`og dcj
oýicrg dc ihygr vhjgr, co cstc khsg jgs >332 pcsgs pgsatavgs.
(>332)
(>332) - (->>
(->>22)
22) 9;32
Iujtapjakhkaûo. ·Kuèotg cs su vcoth icosuhj7
[c iujtapjakh jh `hohokah dahrah (;32) pgr jgs déhs dcj ics (;2), gntcoacodg uoh vcoth icosuhj dc
$05,322
$05 ,322.. Co cstc khs
khsg
g og cs ockcshrag pgocr cj sa`og, pucs ccjj phráotcsas
phr áotcsas aodakh quc jgs oýicrgs d
dcc
dcotrg sc tacoco quc iujtapjakhr y kgig jgs dgs sgo pgsatavgs, cj rcsujthdg cs pgsatavg.
;32 x ;2 9 82322
Davasaûo. Xuacrc kgiprhrsc uogs zhphtgs quc kucstho $8422 pcsgs, ·Kuèotgs déhs tcodrè quc
trhnhmhr phrh ph`hr jgs zhphtgs7.
[c davadc cj prckag dc jgs zhphtgs (8422), cotrc jhs `hohokahs dahrahs (;32) y ogs dh uo tgthj dc 4 déhs
quc tcodrè quc hfgrrhr jhs `hohokahs dahrahs y pucstg quc jhs khotadhdcs sgo pgsatavhs, cj rcsujthdg
cs pgsatavg.
8422/;32 94

Oýicrgs er hkk
hkkaa gohrags
gohra gs y dc
dckaih
kaihjc
jcss
8.;. ^cjhkagocs dc prgpgrkagohjadhd
prgpgrkagohjadhd..
Rhrh kgiprcodcr icmgr cj tcih aotrgdukarcigs praicrg cj kgokcptg dc oýicrg erhkkagohrag y
ouicrg dckaihj.

83>
83>

 
 Oýicrg Erhkkagohrag. Cs hqucj oýicrg quc pucdc scr rcprcscothdg co jh egrih h/n, dgodc "h" y
"n" sgo oýicrgs cotcrgs y n cs daecrcotc dc kcrg. Hj oýicrg "h" sc jc jjhih ouicrhdgr  y hj oýicrg
"n" dcogiaohdgr.
Cstc tapg dc oýicrgs sgo utajazhdgs phrh rcprcscothr phrtcs dc uo oýicrg cotcrg, co jhs quc cj
ouicrhdgr ogs dakc kuèoths phrtcs tcocigs y cj dcogiaohdgr co kuhoths phrtcs cstè davadadg cj
cotcrg.
Rgr cmcipjg, sa tcocigs uo phst
phstcj
cj quc rcprcscoth uo cotcrg, y ogs kgicigs dc cstc
c stc   ;
uoh kuhrth phrtc, ogs qucd
qucdho
ho trcs kuhrths phrtcs. Davad
Davadaigs
aigs cj phstc
phstcjj co kuhtrg quc 
quc  —
cs oucstrg
oucstr g dcogiaohdgr y ogs qucdho ; phrtcs ddcj
cj phstcj quc cs oucstrg ouicrhdgr.
ouicrhdgr.   4-
Oýicrg Dckaihj. Cs hqucj oýicrg quc kgosth dc uoh phrtc cotcrh y uoh dckaihj, scphrhdhs pgr
uoh kgih g uo puotg. Jgs oýicrgs dckaihjcs ogs sarvco phrh aodakhr quc fhy uoh khotadhd supcragr
hj cotcrg pcrg quc og hjkhozh phrh kgipjcthr uo cotcrg iès. Rgo`higs cj khsg dc jhs igocdhs dc
uo pcsg= cj pcsg cs cj cotcrg y cxastco igocdhs dc 2.32 pcsgs (32 kcothvgs), jh khotadhd sc pgoc
dcspuás dcj puotg (puotg dckaihj) phrh aodakhr quc oû cs uo oýicrg cotcrg.
Jgs Oýicrgs dckaihjcs y jgs erhkkagohrags sgo prgpgrkagohjcs, cs dckar, sc pucdco trhosegrihr uogs
co gtrgs.
Rhrh khinahr jgs oýicrgs dckaihjcs h erhkkagohrags, sûjg sc dcnc pgocr dcnhmg dcj oýicrg dckaihj
uo ouicrhdgr quc sch uoh pgtcokah dc 82, dcpcodacodg dc jh kaerh dcj oýicrg dckaihj. [a cj
oýicrg dckaihj tacoc 8 kaerh, sc pgodrè kgig dcogiaohdgr cj oýicrg 82< sa tacoc > kaerhs kgig
dcogiaohdgr sc pgodrè 822< sa tacoc ; kaerhs, sc pgodrè kgig dcogiaohdgr 8222, ctk.
> >>  >>> 
>>> 
82  822  8222

Fhnacodg fckfg jg hotcragr, dcncigs saipjaeakhr cj oýicrg erhkkagohrag oucvg, prgkcdaiacotg quc
kgosastc co davadar jh ihygr khotadhd dc vckcs cj ouicrhdgr y cj dcogiaohdgr, cotrc cj iasig
oýicrg. Rgr cmcipjg, sa tcocigs >3 sgnrc 822, sc pucdc davadar cotrc 3 y qucdhréh 3 sgnrc >2< csth
erhkkaûo sc pucdc davadar cotrc 3 y qucdhréh 8 sgnrc 3. Cs dckar 2.>3 cquavhjc h 8/3.

>3 Davadaigs cotrc 3 3 Davadaigs cotr

cotrcc 3 W 8
822 Davadaigs cot
cotrc
rc 3 >2 Davadaigs cot
cotrc
rc 3 3

Rhrh khinahr dc oýicrgs erhkkagohrags h dckaihjcs, sûjg fhy quc hpjakhr jh rc`jh dc trcs. [c tacoco
trcs vhjgrcs kgogkadgs, jgs dgs dc jh erhkkaûo y cj dcogiaohdgr dc jh gtrh quc cs 8. [c iujtapjakh cj
ouicrhdgr pgr cj dcogiaohdgr dc uoh pgr cj dcogiaohdgr dc jh gtrh y sc davadc cotrc cj
dcogiaohdgr dc jh praicrh. Cmcipjg= phrh kgovcrtar ;4 h dckaihj, sc dcnc iujtapjakhr 8 x 8 y davadar
cotrc >.

83;

 
 8.4. [a`oaeakhdg y, usg dc jhs gpcrhkagocs nèsakhs kgo oýicrgs  oýicrgs  
erhkkagohrags y dckaihjcs.
Co jgs oýicrgs dckaihjcs y oýicrgs erhkkagohrags thinaáo sc hpjakho jhs gpcrhkagocs nèsakhs
(suih, rcsth, iujtapjakhkaûo y davasaûo). H kgotaouhkaûo cxpjakhrcigs nrcvcicotc jgs
prgkcdaiacotgs
prgkcdai acotgs y praokaphjc
praokaphjcss kkhrhktcréstakhs=
hrhktcréstakhs=
Oýicrgs erhkkagohrags. Jhs gpcrhkagocs nèsakhs kgo oýicrgs erhkkagohrags, tacoco khrhktcréstakhs
phrtakujhrcs quc rcquacrco
r cquacrco dc uo cstudag phrtakujhr.
[uih dc oýicr
oýicrgs
gs erhkkagohrags.
erhkkagohrags. Cj
 Cj prgkcdaiacotg dc jh suih dc oýicrgs erhkkagohrags sc rchjazh dc
jh sa`uacotc ihocrh=
Dcncigs nuskhr uo oýicrg quc sch davasanjc cotrc jgs jgs  
dcogiaohdgrcs hj quc jjhihrcigs "kgiýo dcogiaohdgr". Co cj  cj   8 4
khsg quc csthigs
cst higs cmcipjaeakh
cmcipjaeakhodg,
odg, cj kgiýo dcogiaohdgr cs >4 pucs pucs   5 + 6~ >4 ~
cs davasanjc
d avasanjc cotrc 5 y cotrc 6.
Qh tcocigs cj kgiýo dcogiaohdgr y icdahotc cstc, gntcodrcigs  gntcodrcigs 
jgs ouicrhdgrcs quc vhigs h suihr. suihr. Cstgs sscc gntacoco icdahotc jh  jh  8 4 4 + 8>
rc`jh dc trcs, sc iujtap
iujtapjakh
jakh cj ouicrhdgr pgr cj dcogiaohdgr kg kgiý
iýoo 
 y sc davadc cotrc cj dcogi
dcogiaohdg
aohdgr.r. Co cj kh
khsg
sg dc 8/5
8/5,, sc iujtap
iujtapjakh
jakh 8 x   5 + 6 ’ >4
 >4 y sc davadc cotrc 5 dhodg kgig rc rcsujthdg
sujthdg 44..
Fhnacodg fckfg cj prgkcdaiacotg hotcragr, sc fhkc jh suih dc jgs 
jgs   8 4 4 + 8> 85
ouicrhdgrcs. Rhsh a`uhj kgo cj dcogiaohdgr kgi
kgiýo.
ýo. 5 + 6 ~ >4 ‚ >4

Rgr ýjtaig fhnrè quc kgiprgnhr sa cj rcsujthdg sc pucdc saipjaeakhr

saipjaeakhr..  85 6 4 >
Co cj khsg dcj cmcipjg, 85/>4 sséé sc pucdc saipjaeakhr.
saipjaeakhr. >4~ 8> ‚ 5 ’ ;

^csth dc oýicrgs erhkkagohrags.

erhkkagohrags. Co
 Co cj khsg dc jh rcsth kgo oýicrgs erhkkagohrags, jgs phsgs h sc`uar,
sgo jgs iasigs quc co jh suih.

[c nuskh uo dcogiaohdgr kgiýo. Co cj cmcipjg cs 6, pucstg quc cs ; 8

davasanjc cotrc jgs dgs dcogiaohdgrcs. 4~ 6 ‚ ¥
[c gntacoco jgs ouicrhdgrcs pgr jh rc`jh dc ;. Co cj khsg dc jh ; 8 5 - 8
praicrh erhkkaûo, sc iujtapjakh ; x 6 y sc dav
davadc
adc cotrc 4 gn
gntcoaco
tcoacodg
dg
kgig rcsujthdg 5. 4 6 6
; 8 5 -8 3
[c rchjazh jh gpcrhkaûo.
4 6 6 6
Rgr ýjtaig sc saipjaeakh, co cstc khsg sc qucdh a`uhj pucs og sc 3
pucdc saipjaeakhr. 6

Iujtapjakhkaûo dc oýicrgs erhkkagohrags.

Iujtapjakhkaûo erhkkagohrags. H
 H kgotaouhkaûo vcrcigs cj prgkcdaiacotg phrh rcsgjvcr jh
iujtapjakhkaûo dc oýicrgs erhkkagohrags.

834

 
 Co jh iujtapjakhkaûo, cj prgkcdaiacotg cs iuy scokajjg pucstg quc sc
iujtapjakho jgs ouicrhdgrcs pgr jgs ouicrhdgrcs y jgs > 0 >x0
dcogiaohdgrcs pgr jgs dcogiaohdgrcs, kgig sc iucstrh co cj 4* 85 ~ 4x85 —
cmcrkakag.
> 0  >x  >x0 
0   84
[c rchjazh jh gpcrhkaûo.
4 V 85 ~ 4x85 ~ 54
54
84 0
Rgr ýjtaig, saipjaeakhigs.
54 —;>

Davasaûo dc oýicrgs erhkkagohrags. 

erhkkagohrags.  Cj prgkcdaiacotg phrh rchjazhr uoh davasaûo dc oýicrgs
erhkkagohrags cs cj sa`uacotc=
[c dcnc iujtapjakhr cj ouicrhdgr dc jh praicrh erhkkaûo pgr cj > > >x6
dcogiaohdgr dc jh sc`uodh, kgjgkhodg jh gpcrhkaûo co jh phrtc dcj
ouicrhdgr thj y kgig hphrckc co cj cmcipjg. 3 6
Rhrh gntcocr jh gpcrhkaûo dcj ouicrhdgr, sc iujtapjakh cj
> > >x6
dcogiaohdgr dc jh praicrh erhkkaûo pgr cj ouicrhdgr dc jh sc`uodh
y jh gpcrhkaûo sc kgjgkh co jh phrtc dcj dcogiaohdgr. 3 6 3x>

[c rchjazho jhs gpcrhkagocs. >3 ' 6~

> 3x>
>x6
3x> ‚ 85
82
85 6
Rgr ýjtaig sc saipjaeakh.
s aipjaeakh.
82 ‚ 3

Oýicrgs dckaihjcs. [go jjhihdgs hsé, pgrquc rcprcscotho khotadhdcs aoecragrcs hj cotcrg. Cj
táriaog dckaihj prgvacoc, dc sgo davasanjcs co dckcohs. Kcotcohs, g iajjhrcs. H kgotaouhkaûo
vcrcigs jhs rc`jhs dc khdh uoh dc jhs gpcrhkagocs nèsakhs y su dcshrrgjjg=
[uih dc oýicrgs dckaihjcs
Co cj khsg dc jh suih, tcocigs quc adcotaeakhr cj puotg unakhdp h jh .435 + .0;
azquacrdh dc oucstrh kaerh, y hkgigdhrjgs co grdco, cs dckar, hj jhdg
dcrckfg dcj puotg kgjgkhigs praicrg jgs dákaigs (MJ), kcotásaigs (.88) y .435
+.0;
iajásaigs (.888). kgig sc vc co oucstrh rcprcscothkaûo
^chjazhigs oucstrh gpcrhkaûo dc thj ihocrh quc jgs oýicrgs sc suico
dc azquacrdh h dcrckfh, co cj praicr khsg sgjg fhy 5 iajásaigs, phrh
suihr, pgr thotg nhmh thj y kgig csth. Co cj sc`uodg khsg fhy 3 + ; .435
kcotásaigs y ogs dh 6 kcotásaigs y co cj tcrkcr khsg fhy 4 +0 dákaigs, cj +.0;
rcsujthdg dh 88, sao cinhr`g sgjg pucdc fhncr 1 dckaigs, dcspuás dc csh 8.865
khotadhd sc kgovacrtco co cotcrgs. Co cstc khsg oucstrh gpcrhkaûo ogs dh
kgig rcsujthdg, 8 cotcrg, 865 iajásaigs.

833
833

 
 ^csth dc oýicrgs dckaihjcs
. 033 - .>
.>;;
Co cj khsg dc jh rcsth sc rchjazh cj iasig prgkcdaiacotg quc co jh suih.
Kgicozhigs pgr nuskhr quc kgaokadho jgs oýicrgs . 033
-.>;

Rrgkcdcigs h rchjazhr jh gpcrhkaûo, kgicozhodg pgr jgs oýicrgs dcj .033

-.>;
jhdg
jhdg dcrckfg, hsé fhsth cokgotrhr cj rrcsujthdg
csujthdg
.3>3

Iujtapjakhkaûo dc oýicrgs dckaihjcs

.>;4*.30
Jh iujtapjakhkaûo sc fhkc kgig jhs iujtapjakhkagocs trhdakagohjcs pcrg
fhy quc pgocr htcokaûo co jgs puotgs dckaihjcs kgig cxpjakhrcigs co .>;4
cstc cmcrkakag. x. 30

Hqué fhy quc rchjazhr cj prgkcdaiacotg kgig co jhs gpcrhkagocs kgo .>;4
oýicrgs cotcrgs, kgicozhodg dc dcrckfh h azquacrdh, co cstc khsg  x.3
 x .3 0 

kgicozhigs pgr cj oýicrg 0. 85;6

Hfgrh sc`uaigs kgo cj 3 y cj rcsujthdg jg kgjgkhigs h phrtar dcj .>;4

r 30
sc`uodg da`atg dcj rcsujthdg hotcragr, dc dcrckfh h azquacrdh kgig
 Hsi e 

hphrckc h kgotaouhkaûo. 85;6

8802

Fhnacodg gntcoadg jgs dgs rcsujthdgs, rchjazhigs jh suih dc jgs .>;4

iasigs. x.30
Fhnacodg gntcoadg cj rcsujthdg eaohj, sgjg rcsth kgothr kuhotgs 85;6
oýicrgs cxastco dcspuás dcj puotg dckaihj cotrc jhs dgs khotadhdcs, y +8802
kgjgkhr cj puotg co dgodc kgrrcspgodc 8;;;6
Co cstc khsg cotrc jhs dgs khotadhdcs suiho 3 dé`atgs dcspuás dcj
puotg dckaihj, trcs dc jh praicrh khotadhd y dgs dc jh sc`uodh,
.8;;;6
cotgokcs kgig co oucstrg rcsujthdg sgjg fhy 3 dé`atgs, sc pgoc hotcs
dcj uog, gntcoacodg kgig rcsujthdg=

Davasaûo dc oýicrgs dckaihjcs

Co jh davasaûo cs cj iasig prgkcdaiacotg quc co jhs davasagocs
trhdakagohjcs, pcrg co cstc khsg kgig co tgdhs jhs gpcrhkagocs kgo
.3; f- .> 9 >.53
dckaihjcs, sc dcnc pgocr cspckahj htcokaûo co kgjgkhr hdckuhdhicotc
cj puotg dckaihj hj tcriaohr jh gpcrhkaûo

835

 
 8.3. Rgrkcothmcs.
Rgrkcothmc cs uo táriaog quc sc utajazh phrh cskranar jgs oýicrgs nhmg jh hphracokah dc uoh erhkkaûo
dc kaco. [c pucdc dceaoar kgig "cj oýicrg quc rcprcscoth jh prgpgrkagohjadhd dc uoh phrtc
rcspcktg h uo tgthj quc sc kgosadcrh davadadg co kaco uoadhdcs". Cj sa`og dc pgrkcothmc cs "%".
Cj pgrkcothmc davadc cj tgthj dc hj`g co kaco phrtcs y sc tgih kgig rcecrcokah phrh cxpgocr jh phrtc
dcj tgthj quc sc dcsch igstrhr. Hsé tcocigs quc ;2% quacrc dckar ;2 dc khdh 822.

Rgdcigs
Rgdci
shncr gspgrkcothmc
cj gntcocr cj pgr
pgrkcothmc
pgr kcothmc dc uo tgthj kuhjquacrh
822 y davadaáodgjh iujtapjakhodg
cotrc cj tgthj dcj uoavcrsg.jh khotadhd dc jh quc dcschigs
dcschigs

Rgr cmcipjg= tcocigs quc vcodcr uoh khmh dc 422 kfgkgjhtcs y fcigs vcodadg 53, phrh shncr quá
pgrkcothmc dc 422 cs 53, fhkcigs jh sa`uacotc gpcrhkaûo=
Rraicrg iujtapjakhigs cj oýicrg quc dcschigs shncr cj
pgrkcothmc, pgr 822, co cstc khsg cs 53 pgr 822. 53x822 9 5322
Cj rcsujthdg dc jh gpcrhkaûo hotcragr, jg davadaigs cotrc cj
5322 422 9 85.>3
uoavcrsg quc kgipgoc cj 822%, quc co cstc khsg cs 422.
Hsé gntcocigs quc 53 kfgkgjhtcs cs cj 85.>3% dc 422. 85.>3%

8.5. Rgtcokahkaûo
Rgtcokahkaûo. Dceaoarcigs y rhdahkaûo.
kgig Rgtcokah hj "rcsujthdg dc cjcvhr uo oýicrg h gtrg oýicrg g h uoh
cxprcsaûo kuhjqu
ku hjquacrh
acrh".
". Jh pgtcokah
pgtcokah sc cskranc dc jh egrih hn, hj oýicrg g cxprcsaûo "h",
" h", sc jc jjhih
nhsc dc jh pgtcokah y
pgtcokah y cxpgocotc
cxpgocotc hj
 hj oýicrg g cxprcsaûo "n".
Jh pgtcokahkaûo rcprcscoth quc jh nhsc dc jh pgtcokah dcnc scr iujtapjakhdh pgr sé iasih, thoths
vckcs jg aodaquc cj cxpgocotc. Rgr cmcipjg, sa tcocigs jh cxprcsaûo ;> sc dcshrrgjjh dc jh ihocrh
;x;< sa jh pgtcokah cs ;;sc dcshrrgjjh ;x;x;< y hsé sukcsavhicotc.
^hdakhkaûo. Jh rhéz kuhdrhdh cs jh gpcrhkaûo aovcrsh h jh pgtcokahkaûo phrh cxpgocotc dgs. Hj
khjkujhr jh rhéz kuhdrhdh dc uo oýicrg, sc nuskh gtrg oýicrg quc hj cjcvhrjg hj kuhdrhdg dá cj
oýicrg gra`aohj.

Jh rhéz kuhdrhdh dc uo oýicrg sc saingjazh dc jh ihocrh Uø

8.0. ^csgjukaûo dc prgnjcihs kgo oýicrgs erhkkagohrags g dckaihjcs.
Jgs oýicrgs erhkkagohrags y dckaihjcs tacoco hpjakhkagocs dcotrg dc jh vadh dahrah, pucstg quc co
uoh `rho khotadhd dc satuhkagocs ihocmhigs khotadhdcs quc og sgo oýicrgs cotcrgs, thjcs kgig
sgo jgs jatrgs, jgs ictrgs, ctk.
;
Rrgnjcih 8. Mgsá
8. Mgsá trhnhmh co uoh pazzcréh, tgdgs jgs déhs hj kcrrhr jc sgnrho - dc pazzh vc`cthrahoh, y
— dc pazzh
pazzh dc pcpcrgoa.
pcpcr goa. ·Kuhot
·K uhoths
hs pazzhs jc sgnrho hj déh7 Q ·Kuèoths h jh scihoh7
scihoh7
; W 3 (; x; )+ (3x>) 1 + 82 81
6 + 8> ’ ~>4
~>4 >4 ‚ >4
81
Hj déh jc sgnrh=
sgnrh= — dc pazzh.

830
830

 
 Rhrh shncr kuèoths pazzhs jc sgnrho h jh scihoh, suihrcigs 0 vckcs jh khotadhd dcj déh=
81 81 81 81 81 81 81 W 81x0 W 8;; W 8;
>4 + >4
>4 + >4 + >4
>4 + >4 + >4
>4 + > 4 ‚ ’ >4‚ ‚ ">4"‚ 3 >4
8;
Jc sgnrh=
sgnr h= 3 —
>4
dc r p
pazzh
azzh h jh scihoh
scihoh..

Rrgnjcih >. Jhurh
>. Jhurh tacoc uoh kuncth dc fcjhdg dc kaokg jatrgs. Co jh eacsth dc su famg vh h rcphrtarjh
co kgogs dc 6- dc jatrg. ·Kuèotgs kgogs tcodrè quc kgiprhr7

Kgovcrtaigs praicrg
pra icrg jgs kaokg jatrgs co gkthvgs. §g 9 8, cotgokcs 3 cs a`
a`uhj
uhj h _6
6 3 6 x 3 42
6Vj~6xj~~6
Jhurh tacoc quc kgiprhr 42 kgogs dc fcjhdg
^csgjukaûo dc prgnjcihs kgo oýicrgs dckaihjcs
Rrgnjcih 8. Muho vh kgiprhr uo jèpaz, uoh `gih y uoh pjuih. Cj jèpaz jc kucsth $4.>5, jh `gih
$;.> y jh pjuih $0.4>5, sa tacoc $>2 pcsgs. ·Kuèotg jc vh h sgnrhr7
4.>5
;.>
+ 0.4>5
84.665
H $>2 pcsgs, jc kgjgkhrcigs trcs kcrgs phrh quc kgokucrdc kgo jhs iajásaihs dc jh gpcrhkaûo.
>2.222
- 84
84.6
.665
65
3.884
Muho sc vh h `hsthr $84.665 pcsgs y jc dhrèo dc khinag $5.884 pcsgs.

Rrgnjcih
scrac. >. Juas
[a khdh kgjckkagoh
tainrc kgsthnhtainrcs pgsthjcs,
$0.> pcsgs, cj déh dcjhhycr
hj kgipjcthr kgiprg
scrac< cj vhjgruodcjgtc phrh
khdh kgipjcthr
tainrc, uoh
hskcodaû
$;.>04 pcsgs iès quc cj vhjgr quc tcoého hotcragricotc. ·Kuèotg daocrg `hohrè kgo jh scrac dc
822 tainrcs sa cfsûjg fh `hsthdg $5>3.6 pcsgs7
0.>22
+ ;.>04 82.404 x 822 9 8240.4
82.404
Cj vhjgr dc jgs 822 tainrcs cs dc $ 8240.4 pcsgs. Hfgrh jc rcsthrcigs h csh khotadhd, jg quc Juas,
`hstû hj kgiprhr jgs tainrcs y hsé shnrcigs jh khotadhd quc `hohrè.
8240.4

- 5>
5>3.
3.66
4>8.5

836

 
 >. Èj`cnrh
>.8. [a`o
[a`oaeakhdg
aeakhdg y usg dc jhs jatcrhjcs.
Kgicozhrcigs cstc tcih dceaoacodg cj kgokcptg dc èj`cnrh kgig "jh phrtc dc jhs ihtciètakhs co
jh kuhj jhs gpcrhkagocs hratiátakhs sgo `cocrhjazhdhs cipjchodg oýicrgs, jctrhs y sa`ogs". Khdh
jctrh g sa`og rcprcscoth sainûjakhicotc uo oýicrg u gtrh cotadhd ihtciètakh. Kuhodg hj`uog dc
jgs sa`ogs rcprcscoth uo vhjgr dcskgogkadg sc jjhih aokû`oath.
aokû`oath. Dc
 Dc jg hotcragr sc dcsprcodc quc jh
utajazhkaûo dc jhs jctrhs cs hj`g kgiýo.

Co èj`cnrh jhs jctrhs sgo jjhihdhs jatcrhjcs g vhrahnjc

vhrahnjcss  y sc uusho
sho phrh rcpr
rcprcsco
cscothr
thr khotadhdcs
dcskgogkadhs g aokû`oaths. Rgr cmcipjg= ;x rrcprcscot
cprcscothh trcs vckcs jh khotadhd dcskgogkadh g cj
trapjc dc dakfh khotadhd, V
khotadhd, V > rcp
 rcprcs
rcscoth
coth uoh khotadhd cjcvh
cjcvhdh
dh hhjj kuhdrhdg y i + o rcp
rcprcs
rcscoth
coth jh
suih dc dgs khotadhdcs kuhjcsquacrh.
Co cj jco`uhmc hj`cnrhakg sc usho co kgikginaohkaûo
naohkaûo cotr
cotrcc oýicrgs y jctrhs phrh rcprcs
rcprcscothr
cothr jhs
khotadhdcs aovgjukrhdhs
aovgj ukrhdhs ccoo uuoh
oh satuhkaûo dhdh, cmcipjg=
[atuhkaûo g prgnjcih Jco`uhmc hj`cnrhakg
Hj dupjakhr uo oýicrg y suihrjc 3, sc gntacoc 83 >x + 3 9 83

Cxprcsago
Cxprcsa gocs
cs hj
hj`` cn
cnrr hakhs
>.>. Cxprcsaûo kgiýo dc prgnjcihs hj`cnrhakgs dc hdakaûo y sustrhkkaûo.
Hotcs dc cotrhr co ihtcrah, dcncigs dcmhr kjhrg cj kgokcptg dc igogiag y pgjaogiag.
Igogiag. So igogiag cs jh cxprcsaûo hj`cnrhakh co jh quc hphrckco jatcrhjcs kgo sus cxpgocotcs,
kgceakacotcs (g oýicrgs) y prgduktgs g davasagocs< og aokjuyc suihs oa rcsths.
Igogiag kgceakacotc jatcrhj cxpgocotc
>h> > h >

;x; ; V ;

[c jjhiho táriaogs scicmhotcs 

scicmhotcs  h jgs igogiags quc tacoco jhs iasihs jatcrhjcs kgo jgs iasigs
cxpgocotcs y quc pucdco daecrar sûjg co jgs kgceakacotcs.
Rgjaogiag. Cs jh cxprcsaûo kgipucsth dc dgs g iès táriaogs hj`cnrhakgs uoadgs pgr jgs sa`ogs iès
g icogs. Jgs dc dgs g trcs táriaogs rckanco jgs oginrcs cspckahjcs dc naogiag
naogiag   y traogiag,
traogiag,  
rcspcktavhicotc.
So pgjaogiag cs jh suih (g rcsth) dc igogiags. H khdh uog dc cstgs igogiags sc jcs jjhih táriaog
táriaog  
dcj pgjaogiag.
[uih dc Igogiags y Rgjaogiags
Co cj khsg dc jgs igogiags,
igogiags, sûjg sc pucdco suihr igogi
igogiags
ags quc tco`ho a`uh
a`uhjj phrtc jjatcr
atcrhj,
hj, cs dckar,
quc scho scicmhotcs.
4  i ;o + > i ;o  9 (4 + > )i ;o 9 5 i ;o

831

 
 Rhrh suihr pgjaogiags, sc suiho jgs táriaogs (g igogiags) scicmhotcs. [a cj pgjaogiag quc sc
kgjgkh co cj praicr ju`hr og cstè grdcohdg, praicrg sc prgkcdc h grdcohrjg co scotadg dckrckacotc
kgo rcspcktg dc hj`uoh dc sus vhrahnjcs y juc`g sc kgjgkho jgs táriaogs dcj sc`uodg pgjaogiag
dcnhmg dc jgs rcspcktavgs táriaogs scicmhotcs. Rgr ýjtaig, sc prgkcdc h rchjazhr jh suih,
rckgrdhodg quc sûjg sc suiho jgs kgceakacotcs.

Rraicrg sc grdcoho y sc pgoco uog cokaih dcj 82x; + 3x>  —;x —88 

gtrg jgs igogiags scicmhotcs.  >x ; —  x > +  ;x  + 6

[c suiho dc azquacrdh h dcrckfh y 82x; + 3x>  —;x —88 

kgicozhrcigs pgr suihr jgs táriaogs 82x; + >x; —  x>
 x > + ;x +  6
>x;, quc ogs dh kgig rcsujthdg 8>x;
8>x;
Kgo cj sa`uacotc igogiag fhkcigs jg iasig y
ogs cokgotrhigs quc fhy sa`ogs daecrcotcs, 82x; + 3x> —;x —88 
hpjakhodg jh jcy dc jgs sa`ogs sc pgoc cj sa`og >x; — x> + ;x + 6
dcj igogiag dc ihygr vhjgr dcspuás dc fhkcr 8>
8>x;
x; + 4 x >
jh gpcrhkaûo.
Co jh sa`uacotc satuhkaûo sc fhkc jg iasig quc 82x; + 3x> —;x —88 
co cj khsg hotcragr pcrg co cstc khsg hj tcocr >x; — x > + ;x + 6
sa`ogs daecrcotcs y scr dcj iasig vhjgr
ouiárakg ogs qucdh kcrg. 8>x; + 4x> —2
82x; + 3x> —;x —88 
Rgr ýjtaig suihigs cj táriaog quc sa`uc >x; — x > + ;x + 6
qucdhodg cj rcsujthdg dc jh suih.
8>x; + 4x> - 2 - ;

^csth dc Igogiags y Rgjaogiags.

[ûjg sc pucdco rcsthr igogiags scicmhotcs. Rhrh cjjg sc suih hj igogiag iaoucodg cj gpucstg
dcj sustrhcodg, pgr cmcipjg.
Tcocigs uoh rcsth dc igogiags kgig jh quc ( —;x >y ;) —(0 x>y
x>y ;)
hphrckc co cj rckuhdrg.
Jg praicrg quc dcncigs fhkcr cs khinahr cj
sustrhcodg dc sa`og, y kgovcrtar jh gpcrhkaûo
co uoh suih. Co cj cmcipjg quc tcocigs, cj (- ; x >y ;) + (—
(—0x
0x >y ;)
sustrhcodg
sustrhco dg cs 0xy y qucdh kgig -0xy y cj sa`og
dc jh gpcrhkaûo khinah dc icogs h iès.
^ckgrdcigs quc sûjg
sûjg sc suiho jgs kgceakacotcs \(-;) + (-0 )Y x>y
x>y ;
hpjakhodg jhs rc`jhs dc jh suih.
Gntcocigs cj rcsujthdg. —82 x>
x>yy ;

Rhrh rcsthr jgs pgjaogiags, sc ush cj iasig prgkcdaiacotg quc phrh jg igogiags. [c jc suih hj

iaoucodg cj gpucstg dc khdh táriaog scicmhotc dcj sustrhcodg=

852

 
 r> , , ; '
- i û —; i o  + - i o  
3 4
8
—\—>i o> + 5 — - i ;Y

Jgs táriaogs dcj sustrhcodg quc og tacoco scicmhotc sc kgjgkho dctrès.

> ;
—;i>>o + - i o > 
 —i ; —;i
3 4

8 ,
+ -Trr +  
0
>00808 — 5

; , W 88 W
—  i —  ; i o   F — —  io —5
3 4
>.;. ^csgjukaûo dc prgnjcihs kgo cxprcsagocs hj`cnrhakhs.
hj`cnrhakhs.
[uih= Co uoh eènrakh sc rchjazû uo aovcothrag dc ngtcs dc paoturh. Co cj praicr pasg sc cokgotrhrgo
kaokg ngtcs dc paoturh hzuj (3h), 4 dc paoturh vcrdc (4v), ; dc rgmh (;r) y dgs njhokhs (>n). Co cj
sc`uodg
sc`uod g pas
pasg
g sc cokgotr
cokgotrhrgo
hrgo scas hzujcs (5h), ssactc
actc vcrdcs (0v)
(0v),, gkfg rgmhs (6r) y oucvc njhok
njhokhs
hs
(1n). ·Kuèoths sgo co tgthj7
(3h +  4
 4vv + ; r  +  >n
 >n))  + (5h + 0v +   6r + 1n)
3h +  4
 4vv  + ;r +  >n
5h + 0v + 6r + 1n

 F h + S v + j j r + S n
^csth= Soh scihoh dcspuás, tacoco quc rcpaothr jh eènrakh. Stajazho gkfg hzujcs (6h), dgs vcrdcs
(>v), scas rgmhs (5r) y dacz njhokhs (82n). Dcj tgthj dcj aovcothrag. ·Kuèotgs ngtcs sgnrhrèo7
(jah + é j v +   88 r +   88 n) -   (6h + > v +   5 r +   82 n)
^ckgrdcigs quc sc khinah cj sustrhcodg h sa`og kgotrhrag phrh rchjazhr jh gpcrhkaûo quc hfgrh
scrè uoh suih hpjakhodg jhs rc`jhs dc jh iasih. Xucdhodg dc jh sa`uacotc ihocrh=
(jah + é j v  + jj r + 88·) + (—6h  —> v — 5r - 82
825)
5)

Q hfgrh sé prgkcdcigs h rchjazhr jh suih=

j a h +  A j v +  j j r + 8888 n
+   —6h — >v —5 r —82n

;h +  1v +  3r +  An

858

 
 Ckuhkagocs dc praicr `rhdg
>.4. ^csgjukaûo dá ckuhkagoc
ckuhkagocss dc praicr `rhd
`rhdg.
g.
Rhrh rcsgjvcr ckuhkagocs dc praicr `rhdg kgo uoh aokû`oath, hpjakhigs cj kratcrag dcj gpcrhdgr
aovcrsg (aovcrsg hdatavg g aovcrsg iujtapjakhtavg), kgig vcrcigs co cj sa`uacotc cmcipjg=
^csgjvcr jh ckuhkaûo
>x - ; 93;

Tcocigs jh ckuhkaûo >x-

>x - ; 9 3;
Dcncigs tcocr jhs jctrhs h uo jhdg y jgs oýicrgs hj gtrg jhdg dc
jh a`uhjdhd (9). Cotgokcs, phrh jjcvhr cj -; hj gtrg jhdg dc jh
>x-
>x - ; + ; 93;+
93; + ;
a`uhjdhd, jc hpjakhigs cj aovcrsg hdatavg (cj aovcrsg hdatavg dc -; 
-;  
cs +;, pgrquc jh gpcrhkaûo aovcrsh dc jh rcsth cs jh suih).
Co cj praicr iacinrg -; sc cjaiaoh kgo +; y tcodrcigs= >x 9 3; + ;
^chjazhigs jh gpcrhkaûo >x 9 35
Hfgrh tcocigs cj oýicrg > quc cstè iujtapjakhodg h jh vhrahnjc
g aokû`oath x, cotgokcs jg phshrcigs hj gtrg jhdg dc jh a`uhjdhd
>x ( V) 9 35 (8/>)
davadacodg. Rhrh fhkcrjg, hpjakhigs cj aovcrsg iujtapjakhtavg dc >
(quc cs Ua) h
a) h hings jhdgs dc jh ckuhkaûo
[aipjaeakhigs
[aipjaeakhi gs y tcodr
tcodrcigs
cigs hfgrh= x 9 35 / >
e   
V  A    I 2 
^chjazhigs jh gpcrhkaûo y qucdh dc jh sa`uacotc ihocrh
Cj vhjgr dc jh aokû`oath g vhrahnjc "x" cs >6.

>.3. ^csgjukaûo dc prgnjcihs kgo ckuhkagocs dc praicr `rhdg

`rhdg..
Rrgnjcih 8. Hrturg tacoc co su khmûo 5 khmhs dc pjuigocs, dgs khmhs sgo dc kgjgr oc`rg y kuhtrg dc
kgjgrcs y dh uo tgthj dc 0> pjuigocs. ·Kuèotgs pjuigocs tacoco khdh khmh7
Egrihigs oucstrh ckuhkaûo. [hncigs quc sgo dgs khmhs dc
> p + 4p 9 0>
oc`rg y kuhtrg dc kgjgr. H cstgs jc kgjgkhrcigs jh jatcrhj "p".
Kgicozhrcigs pgr suihr jgs igogiags dc oucstrh ckuhkaûo, (> + 4)p 9 0>
rckgrdhodg quc sûjg sc suiho jgs kgceakacotcs y hsé tcocigs 5p 9 0>
quc=
Fhnacodg fckfg jg hotcragr, dcspcmhigs oucstrh aokû`oath,   g
   é
phshodg cj kgceakacotc hj gtrg jhdg dcj a`uhj y pucstg quc cstè    A
   A
   F
  «
iujtapjakhodg phshrè davacodg.
^chjazhigs oucstrh gpcrhkaûo gntcoacodg oucstrg rcsujthdg.  p 9  8>

Rrgnjcih >. Cj phpè dc Hjercdg kgiprû uoh khmh kgo >2 dgohs dastranuadhs co phquctcs. [c kgiaû ;
dgohs co cj khiaog y jjc`û kgo 80. [u ihiè hj vcrjhs, sc kgiaû gtrhs trcs. Hj jjc`hr h jh kgkaoh,
Hjercdg sûjg cokgotrû ; phquctcs y icdag. ·Kuèoths dgohs tacoc khdh phquctc7
Egrihigs oucstrh ckuhkaûo. [hncigs quc sgo trcs phquctcs y
;.3x + ; + ; 9 >2
icdag, ;.3
;.3xx iès trcs
trc s dgohs quc sc kg
kgiaû
iaû ccjj phpè y trc
trcss jh ihiè.
^chjaz
jazhigs jh suih dc jgs oýicrg
rgss ph
phrh rc
rcdu
duka
karj
rjhh dc csth egri
rihh ;.3x + 5 9 >>22

85>

 
 Kgotaouhigs dcspcmhodg jh praicrh khotadhd phsèodgjh hj gtrg
jhdg dcj a`uhj, rckgrdhodg quc kgig cstè suihodg phsh ;.3x 9 >2 —5
;.3* 9 84
rcsthodg, qucdhodg dc jh sa`uacotc ihocrh
Qh saipjaeakhdh oucstrh ckuhkaûo, jg sa`uacotc quc vhigs h ;.3x   9 84
rchjazhr, cs dcspcmhr oucstrh aokû`oath. ;.3 cstè iujtapjakhodg y 84
phsh davadacodg ;É
;É33
84
^chjazhigs oucstrh gpcrhkaûo cokgotrhodg oucstrg rcsujthdg V W ;_3
 x 9  4

Rrgnjcih ;. Jh jgo`atud
jgo`atud dc uo
uohh khokfh dc eýtngj rèpadg dc egrih rrcktho`ujhr
cktho`ujhr tatacoc
coc sca
scass ictrgs iè
ièss
quc su hokfg, y cj pcréictrg cs dc 64 i.
Dcnadg h quc jh khokfh dc eýtngj cs uoh ea`urh rc
Dcnadg rcktho`ujhr
ktho`ujhr y shncigs cj pcréictrg,
pcréic trg, fhrcigs oucstrh
gpcrhkaûo dc egrih quc pgdhigs sustatuar jgs vhjgrcs quc kgogkcigs y h jgs quc og, pgdcigs
hsa`ohrjcs jatcrhjcs.
Hsé tcocigs quc, jh eûriujh dcj pcréictrg dc uoh ea`urh rcktho`ujhr
cs=  >n + >f 9 R
Egrihigs oucstrh ckuhkaûo tcoacodg co kucoth quc kgothigs kgo
cj vhjgr dcj pcréictrg quc cs 64 y shncigs quc jh nhsc cs a`uhj h jh  >n + >f
 >n +  >f   9  p
 p  
hjturh iès 5. [ustatuaigs jgs vhjgrcs qucdèodgogs dc jh sa`uacotc  >(
 >(ff  + 5) + >f
+  >f 9  64
ihocrh=
[aipjaeakhigs oucstrh ckuhkaûo quathodg cj phráotcsas co cj praicr > (Ta + 5) + >f
+  >f 9  64
táriaog, dc jh sa`uacotc ihocrh=  >f +
 >f  + 8> + >f
+  >f   9 64
^chjazhigs uoh suih dc táriaogs scicmhotcs. >/a + 8> + >/a 9 64
4/8+8> 9 64
Dcspcmhigs 8> quc cstè suihodg y phsh rcsthodg, rchjazhodg h jh 4/a + 8> 9 64
vcz jh gpcrhkaûo kgrrcspgodacotc. 4/a 9 64 - 8>
4 f  9 0>
Dcspcmhigs "f" phshodg cj 4 hj gtrg jhdg dcj a`uhj, quc co cstc A  
khsg cstè iujtapjakhodg y phsh davadacodg y rchjazhigs oucstrh
▢ A  
gpcrhkaûo phrh gntcocr oucstrg rcsujthdg.
 >n + >f 9 R 
Jh hjturh dc csc khipg cs a`uhj h 86, phrh kgiprgnhrjg sustatuaigs >(86 + 5) + >(86) 9 64
vhjgrcs co jh gpcrhkaûo aoakahj. >(>4) + >(86) 9 64
46 + ;5 9 64
64 9 64

Rrgnjcih 4. Soh rcvasth tacoc cj trapjc dc pè`aohs quc gtrh, y jh suih dc hinhs rcvasths ogs dh 15 
pè`aohs.
[ûjg rcsth sustatuar vhjgrcs phrh kgiprgnhr.
^chjazhigs oucstrh ckuhkaûo kgo jgs vhjgrcs quc tcocigs,
V + ;V 915
91 5
dakacodg quc "x" iès cj trapjc dc "x" ogs dh 15.
V + ;x 9 15
[uihigs
[uihigs táriaogs scicmhotcs. _
4V 915

85
85;
;

 
 15
Dcspcmhigs oucstrh aokû`oath dc jh sa`uacotc ihocrh  x 9 ~T 
4 
^chjazhigs oucstrh gpcrhkaûo. Gntcoacodg cj rcsujthdg dc jh 15
aokû`oath. x 9 —
4
x 9 >4
Cokgotrhigs quc uoh rcvasth "V" kucoth kgo >4 pè`aohs. Q jh    A
   A       M
      O

gtrh, quc tacoc cj trapc dc pè`aohs quc jh praicrh cs dc 0>

pè`aohs.
Kgiprgnáigsjg.

 [astcih
 [astcih dc ckuh
ckuhkkagoc
agocss jaoch
jaochjc
jcss dc dgs ckuh
ckuhkkagoc
agocss kgo dgs aok
aokû
û` oaths
>.5. ^csgjukaûo d dcc sastcihs jaoch
jaochjcs
jcs dc dg dgss ckuhkagocs kgo dgs dgs  
aokû`oaths.
Fhy khsgs co jhs ckuhkagocs co dgodc cxastco satuhkagocs co jhs quc sc pjhotch uo sastcih dc dgs
ckuhkagocs kgo dgs vhra
vhrahnjcs
hnjcs quc kuipjco hj`uo
hj`uohs
hs kgodakagocs dctcriao
dctcriaohdhs.
hdhs. Hj`uohs vckcs jhs
rcjhkagocs
rcjhkag ocs dc prgpgrkagohjadhd sc prcscotho dc jh egrih y 9 i x  +  + n. 
n.  [c pucdc cskranar dc thj
ihocrh quc jh rcjhkaûo dc jhs vhrahnjcs sch jh iasih, pcrg cskrath dc uoh ihocrh daecrcotc, pgr
cmcipjg > x —4y 9 - 3 . H csth egrih dc cskranar jh ckuhkaûo
ckuhkaûo jc jjhihrcig
jjhihrcigss kgodakaûo.
kgodakaûo.   Rhrh dgs
vhrahnjcs sc pucdc csthnjckcr uoh kgodakaûo daecrcotc y cotgokcs sc egrih uo sastcih dc dgs

yckuhkagocs, hj quc
dgs vhrahnjcs
vhrahnjcs). jjhihigs
). Cmcip jg= sastcih dc ckuhkagocs g sastcih >>V>
Cmcipjg= V> (pucstg
 (pucstg quc tacoc dgs ckuhkagocs

 >x + 4y 9 8422

6x 4- 8>y 9 4542
Ckuhkaûo 8= cj dgnjc dc jh vhrahnjc aodcpcodacotc suihdg pgr 4 vckcs dc jh vhrahnjc dcpcodacotc,
cs cquavhjcotc h 8422.
Ckuhkaûo >= gkfg vckcs dc jh vhrahnjc aodcpcodacotc suihdh pgr dgkc vckcs dc jh vhrahnjc
dcpcodacotc, cs cquavhjcotc h 4542.
Khdh ckuhkaûo aodcpcodacotc pucdc tcocr uoh khotadhd aoeaoath dc vhjgrcs, pcrg sgjhicotc cxastc
uo phr dc vhjgrcs, uog phrh "V" y gtrg phrh "Q", quc kuipjc kgo jhs dgs kgodakagocs dctcriaohdhs.
Cstc phr dc vhjgrcs cs jh sgjukaûo dcj sastcih, phrh cokgotrhrjgs sc pucdco cipjchr hj`uogs
iátgdgs g prgkcdaiacotgs thjcs kgig sgo= suih y rcsth, rcdukkaûo, sustatukaûo c a`uhjhkaûo.
Khnc icokagohr quc dg dgss sastcihs dc ckuhkagocs sgo cquavhjco
cquavhjcotcs,
tcs, cs dckar, sa jgs vhjgrcs dc jh
jhss
vhrahnjcs quc jg aotc`rho sgo a`uhjcs, sus sgjukagocs sgo a`uhjcs.
Iátgdg pgr rcdukkaûo=
Ckuhkaûo
Ckuhkaûo 8= >8
>8xx + 5y 9 1;
[c pjhotcho oucstrhs ckuhkagocs.
Ckuhka
Ckuhkaûo
ûo >= 6x + 5y 9 34
Aoakahrcigs kgo jh praicrh ckuhkaûo= >8x + 5y 9 1;
Hpjakhodg jhs rc`jhs dc khokcjhkaûo dc táriaogs= cj >8x + 5y 9 1;
>8x pgsatavg phsh kgo sa`og oc`htavg. 5y 9 1; —>8x

854

 
 Dcspcmhigs "y"/ cj 5 quc csthnh iujtapjakhodg phsh 5y 9 1; —>8y
davadacodg dcmèodgogs co vhjgr dc "y", quc 1; - >8x
sustatuarcigs co jh ckuhkaûo > y9 5
6x + 5y 9 34
[ustatuaigs cj vhjgr dc "Q" co jh ckuhkaûo > 1; —>8x
6x + 5( ----- ) 9 34
----
5
1; —>8x
[c rcdukco jgs táriaogs= 6x + 5( ----- ) 9 34
----

Q cj
cj 5 davadc hj gtrg 5 y tcocigs cj dcogiaohdgr quc
6x + 8(1; - >8x) 9 34
cs uog, ástc sc iujtapjakh
iujtapjakh pgr 1; - >8x 6x + 1; —>8x 9 34
^cdukaigs igogiags kgiuocs suihodg 6x h ->8x
y kgig co suih dc sa`ogs daecrcotcs qucdh cj sa`og x + 1; —>8x 9 34
—8;x + 1; 9 34
dcj
dcj ihygr vhjgr ouiárakg,
ouiárakg, jh suih
suih ogs
ogs dh
dh -8
-8;x
Cj 1; pgsatavg phsh hj gtrg jhdg dcj a`uhj co oc`htavg —8;x + 1; 9 34
—8;x 9 34 —1;
y rchjazhigs jh gpcrhkaûo
—8;x 9 -;1
Dcspcmhigs jh "V" y phsh cj -8; dc jh "V" davadacodg —8;x 9 -;
-;1
hj -;1 y rchjazhodg jh gpcrhkaûo rckgrdhodg quc hj -;1
davadar sa`ogs ¡`uhjcs cj rcsujthdg cs pgsatavg, x 9 ——
-8;
qucdèodgogs cj vhjgr dc "x" x 9;
Hfgrh phrh dceaoar cj vhjgr dc "y"/ sustatuarcigs co >8x + 5y —1;
jh ckuhkaûo 8 cj vhjgr rchj dc "x" y rchjazhigs jh
gpcrhkaûo >8(;)
5; ++ 5y
5y 99 1;
1;

Cj 5; phsh hj gtrg jhdg dcj a`uhj kgo sa`og oc`htavg y 5; + 5y 9 1;

5y 9 1; -5 ;
rchjazhigs jh gpcrhkaûo.
5y 9 ;2
Dcspcmhigs y phshodg cj 5 quc cstè iujtapjakhodg 5y 9 ;2
;2
hj gtrg jhdg y phsh davadacodg y hj rchjazhr jh y 9T
gpcrhkaûo gntcocigs cj vhjgr rchj dc "y" 5y 9 3
Ckuhkaûo  8= >8x + 5y 9 1;
Ckuhkaûo
>8(;) + 5(3) 9 1;
5; + ;2 9 1;
Hfgrh kgiprgnhigs sustatuycodg jgs vhjgrcs rchjcs 1; 9 1;
gntcoadgs co oucstrhs ckuhkagocs
Ckuhkaûo  >=
Ckuhkaûo 6x + 5y 9 34
6(;) + 5(3) 9 34
>4 + ;2 9 34
34 9 34

>.0. ^csgjukaûo dc prgnjcihs kgo sastcihs

sastcih s dc dgs ckuhkagocs
ckuhkagoc s jaochjcs kgo
kgo 
dgs aokû`oaths.
Rrgnjcih 8. Co uoh tacodh dcphrthicothj uo cipjchdg vcodaû kuhtrg phothjjhs dc ;> puj`hdhs y
gkfg dc 42 puj`hdhs, co tgthj kgnrû $>6,222. Co cj sc`uodg déh vcodaû 85 dc ;> puj`hdhs y >4 dc
42 puj`hdhs y pgr cjjgs kgnrû $ 1>,622. ·Kuèotg kucsth khdh phothjjh7

853
853

 
 [c pjhotcho oucstrhs ckuhkagocs. Dceaoaigs
Ckuhkaûo 8= 4 x + 6 y 
Ckuhkaûo  y  9
 9 >6,222
quc "V" cs jhjh tcjcva
tcjcvasaûo
saûo dc ;>"
;>",, y jh "Q" cs jh
Ck
Ckuh
uhka
kaûo
ûo > =8
=85x
5x + >4y 9 1>,622
gtrh tcjcvasaûo dc 42".
Aoakahrcigs kgo jh praicrh ckuhkaûo= 4 x +  6y 9 >6,222
Dcspcmhigs 6y, y yh quc 4x cstè suihodg y 4 x +  6y 9 >6,222
phsh rcsthodg, jh ckuhkaûo ogs qucdh= 6y 9 >6,222 —
—4x 
4x 
Dcspcmhigs "y", cj 6 cstè iujtapjakhodg y phsh
>6,222 —4x 
—4x   
davadacodg cj vhjgr dc >6222. Q gntcocigs cj
 y 9  6
vhjgr dc "y"= 85x + >4y 9 1>,622
Kgig sa`uacotc phsg, sustatuaigs cj vhjgr dc >6222 —4x
"Q" co jh ckuhkaûo >= 85x+ >4(------ —---- ) 9 1>622
[c rcdukco jgs táriaogs, cj 6 davadc hj >4 y
85* + ;(>6222 - 4x) 9 11>,6>,622
22
tcocigs cj dcogiaohdgr phrh iujtapjakhr
85x +  64
6422
2222 - 8 > * 9 1>
1>,6
,622
22
>6222 y4x
^chjazhigs jh gpcrhkaûo, cj ; iujtapjakh hj 85x + 
+  ;(
;(>62
>6222
22 - 4 x ) 9 1>,622
>6222 y h 4x, qucdhodg d dcc jh sa`uacotc ihocrh= 85x + 
+  64
6422
2222 - 8>
8>x 
x  9
  9 1>,622
^chjazhigs jh rcdukkaûo dc táriaogs
85x + 64222 - 8>x 9 1>1>,62
,6222
scicmhotcs, rcsthodg -8>x h 85x, qucdhodg jh
4 x  +
  + 64222 9 1>,622
sa`uacotc ckuhkaûo=
Kgig sa`uacotc phsg phshigs cj 64,222 quc 4x + 64222 9 1>,622
cstè suihodg y phsh rcsthodg< y rchjazhigs jh 4x 9 1>,622 - 64,22
64,2222
gpcrhkaûo
gpcrhk aûo kgrrcspgodacotc= 4x  9
4x  9 6,622
Dcspcmhigs "x" y cj kuhtrg dc jh "x" cstè 6622
iujtapjakhodg y phsh davadacodg y hj rchjazhr jh x 9 4/a
gpcrhkaûo gntcocigs cj vhjgr dc "x"  x 
 x  9
 9 >>22
Rhrh gntcocr cj vhjgr dc "y"/ sustatuarcigs cj 4 x  +
  + 6y 9 >6,222
vhjgr rchj dc "x" co jh ckuhkaûo 8 y sc fhkc jh 4(>,>22) + 6y 9 >6,222
gpcrhkaûo, qucdhodg dc jh sa`uacotc ihocrh= 6,622 + 6y 9 >6,222
Kgig sa`uacotc phsg cj 6,622 dc sa`og pgsatavg, 6,622 + 6y 9 >6,222
jg phshigs kgo sa`og kgotrhrag y rchjazhigs jh 6y 9 >6,222 - 6,62
6,6222
gpcrhkaûo. 6y 9 81,>22
Dcspcmhigs "y",
"y",   cj gkfg quc csthnh 6y 9 81,>22
iujtapjakhodg phsh davadacodg y rchjazhigs jh 81,>22
gpcrhkaûo phrh gntcocr cj vhjgr dc "y". y9 6
y 9 >422
Hfgrh kgiprgnhigs. Cj trhnhmhdgr vcodaû co
>2
>2 x 
 x  >>22
 >>22 9 44.222
tgthj >2 phothjjhs dc ;> puj`hdhs y ;> phothjjhs
;>x >4 22 9 0056
5622
22
dc 42 puj`hdhs.
[u vcoth tgthj euc= 44222 + 05622 9 8>2622
Jh praicrh vcoth euc dc $>6,222 y jh dcj
>6222 + 1>622 9 8>2622
sc`uodg déh euc dc $ 1>,622.

Rrgnjcih >. Co uoh `rhduhkaûo cxastco dgs tapgs dc ngjctgs, uogs sgo phrh jgs `rhduhdgs y gtrgs
phrh jgs ehiajahrcs. Jgrcoh vh h kgiprhr kuhtrg dc hjuiogs y gkfg phrh ehiajahrcs y sc `hsth
$8422. Fáktgr sc cokhr`hrè dc kgiprhr gkfg dc hjuiogs y dgkc phrh ehiajahrcs y sc `hsthrè $
4542. ·Kuèj cs cj vhjgr dc khdh tapg dc ngjctg7

85
855
5

 
 [c pjhotcho oucstrhs ckuhkagocsr Dceaoaigs quc "V"
Ckuhkaûo 8= >x + 4y 9 8422
cs pgr jgs
jgs ngjctgs dc hjuiog,
hjuiog, y jh "Q" cs pgr jgs
Ckuhkaûo > 6x + 8>y 9 4542
ngjctgs dc ehiajahrcs.
Aoakahrcigs kgo jh praicrh ckuhkaûo.  >x 
 > x   + 4y 9 8422
Rhrh kgicozhr kgo cj dcspcmc
dcspcm c dc ‚y",
‚y", phshigs
 phshigs jh "x"  > x +   4y 9 8422
kgo sa`og kgotrhrag y qucdh= 4y 9 8422 —>x
Dcspcmhigs jh "Q" y ásth phsh davadacodg. 4y 9 8422 —>x
Cj 4 phsh davadacodg cj vhjgr dc 8422. Q gntcocigs 8422
8422 - >x
cj vhjgr dc "y". y 89422
422 - 4>x
[ustatuaigs cj vhjgr dc "Q" co jh ckuhkaûo >. 6x + 8>(—— ----- ) 9 4542
4
[c rcdukco jgs táriaogs, cj 4 davadc hj 8> y tcocigs
cj dcogiaohdgr ; phrh iujtapjakhr 8422 y pgr >x, 6x + ;(84
;(8422
22 - >x) 9 454
45422
6x + 4>22 —5x 9 4542
qucdhodg jh ckuhkaûo dc csth ihocrh=
^cdukaigs táriaogs kgiuocs rcsthodg -5x h 6x. 6x + 4>22 —5x 9 4542
4>22 + >x 9 4542
Rhshigs cj 4>22 kgo sa`og oc`htavg y rchjazhigs jh >x 9 4 5 4 2 - 4>22
4>22
gpcrhkaûo. >x 9 442
Dcspcmhigs "x" y cj dgs quc csthnh iujtapjakhodg >x 9 442
442
phsh davadacodg, y rchjazhigs jh gpcrhkaûo phrh
>
gntcocr cj vhjgr dc "x". x 9 >>2
Hfgrh phrh dceaoar cj vhjgr dc "y"/ sustatuarcigs cj >x + 4y 9 8422
vhjgr rchj dc "x" co jh praicrh ckuhkaûo y rchjazhigs >(>>2) + 4y 9 8422
jh gpcrhkaûo. 442 + 4y 9 8422
Rhshigs 442 kgo sa`og kgotrhrag y rchjazhigs jh 442 + 4y 9 8422
4y 9 8422 —442
gpcrhkaûo.
4y 9 152
Dcspcmhigs h jh "y"# c' kuhtrg phsh davadacodg y 4y 9 152
152
rchjazhigs jh gpcrhkaûo y gntcocigs cj vhjgr dc
"y". y9 4
y 9 >42
Kgiprgnhigs sustatuycodg jgs vhjgrcs dc jgs >x + 4y 9 8422
>(>>2) + 4(>42) 9 8422
ngjctgs dc hjuiog
jh ckuhkaûo 8. (x9>>2) y dc ehiajahr (y9>42) co 442 + 152 9 8422
8422 9 8422
6x + 8>y 9 4542
Hfgrh kgiprgnhigs sustatuycodg jgs iasigs 6(>>2) + 8>(>42) 9 4542
vhjgrcs pcrg co jh ckuhkaûo >. 8052 + >662 9 4542
4542 9 4542

Ckuhkaa gocs dc
Ckuhk dc sc
sc`` uodg ` r hdg
hdg
>.6. Rrgduktgs ogthnjcs y ehktgrazhkaûo.
Rrgduktgs Ogthnjcs. Dcotrg dc jhs ihtciètakhs cxastco prgduktgs quc rcspgodco h uoh rc`jh kuyh
hpjakhkaûo saipjaeakh jh gntcokaûo dcj rcsujthdg. Cstgs prgduktgs rckanco cj oginrc dc prgduktgs 
prgduktgs 
ogthnjcs.

850

 
 [c jjhih prgduktg ogthnjc h "hqucj quc pucdc scr gntcoadg sao cecktuhr jh iujtapjakhkaûo táriaog h
táriaog". Cxastc uoh `rho vhracdhd cjc prgduktgs/agthnjcs, h kgotaouhkaûo cxpjakhigs cstc kgokcptg
kgo cj naogiag kuhdrhdg.
Naogiag kuhdrhdg. 
kuhdrhdg.  Jh rc`
rc`jh
jh dcj naogiag kuhdr
kuhdrhdg
hdg ogs dakc quc ccjj kuhdr
kuhdrhdg
hdg dc uo naogiag cs a`uhj
a`uhj
hj kuhdrhdg dcj praicr táriaog iès cj dgnjc dcj praicr táriaog pgr cj sc`uodg iès cj kuhdrhdg dcj
sc`uodg táriaog. [c cxprcsh hsé=
(h + ta)>
ta)> 9
 9 h> + j h n  + n > 
Dcshrrgjjhrcigs uo cmcipjg phrh su icmgr kgiprcosaûo=
Dcschigs gntcocr cj kuhdrhdg dc uo naogiag dc jh egrih h + n.
Stajazhigs jh eûriujh hotcs dcskrath phrh sustatuar co jh iasih,
jgs vhjgrcs dc oucstrg cmcipjg. (0x + ;
+ ; y ) >
(h + ta)>
ta)>   9 h> + j h n  + n >

^ckgrdcigs cj couokahdg quc dakc quc= cj kuhdrhdg dc uo  uo 

naogiag cs a`uhj hj kuhdrhdg dcj praicr táriaog, quc co (0x)>
oucstrg khsg cs 0x y quc cjcvhdg hj kuhdrhdg cs=
Iès cj dgnjc dcj praicr táriaog pgr cj sc`uodg, co cstc khsg
oucstrg praicr táriaog cs 0x, cj dgnjc dcj praicr táriaog scréh
>(0x) quc sc iujtapjakh pgr cj sc`uodg quc cs ;y y qucdh dc jh (0 x) > + >(0 x) (; y)
ihocrh sa`uacotc=
Iès cj kuhdrhdg dcj sc`uodg, qucdhodg jh ckuhkaûo dc csth (0x)> + (0x)> + >(0x)(;y) + (;y)>
ihocrh=
Hfgrh sa`uc rcsgjvcr jhs gpcrhkagocs quc shkhigs< cj praicr
táriaog cs (0x)>y kgig cj kuhdrhdg cs thotg phrh cj kgceakacotc 41x> +
(0), kgig phrh jh jatcrhj (x), qucdh dc jh sa`uacotc ihocrh=
Rhrh jh rcsgjukaûo dcj sc`uodg táriaog sc iujtapjakh cj ehktgr pgr
cj ehktgr dcj praicr táriaog c aoicdahthicotc pgr cj ehktgr dcj
tcrkcr tár
táriao
iaogg ( > x 0 x ; 9 4>), y sc hoc
hocxh
xhoo jh
jhss jatcrhj
jatcrhjcs(x
cs(x y), 41x> + 4>xy +
qucdhodg dc jh sa`uacotc ihocrh=
Rgr ýjtaig, cjcvhigs cj sc`uodg táriaog hj kuhdrhdg, qucdhodg
41 x> + 4>x y + 1y >
oucstrh ckuhkaûo dc jh sa`uacotc ihocrh=

Jh sgjukaûo quc gntcocigs dc cjcvhr hj kuhdrhdg cj naogiag, sc dcogiaoh traogiag kuhdrhdg 

kuhdrhdg 
 pcrecktg.
Ehktgrazhkaûo. Dcncigs hkjhrhr hj`uogs táriaogs hotcs dc cotrhr co ihtcrah, phrh jg`rhr uoh icmgr
kgiprcosaûo dc cstc puotg.
So ehktgr cs khdh uog dc jgs oýicrgs quc sc iujtapjakho phrh egrihr uo prgduktg. Dc csth ihocrh
tcocigs quc co jh cxprcsaûo 3 x > 9 82, jgs ehktgrcs dc 82 sgo 3 y >< co jh cxprcsaûo > x 4 x 3 9 42,
jgs ehktgrcs dc 42 sgo >,4 y 3.
Co jgs khsgs hotcragrcs, pgdcigs gnscrvhr quc cj oýicrg > hphrckc kgig ehktgr kgiýo dc 42 y dc
82, pucstg quc khdh uog dc cstgs oýicrgs cs suskcptanjc dc scr davadadg cotrc >.

856

 
 Kuhodg uoh cxprcsaûo hj`cnrhakh cstè kgotcoadh cxhkthicotc co tgdgs y khdh uog dc jgs táriaogs
dc uo pgjaogiag sc dakc quc cs ehktgr kgiýo dc cjjgs.
Hsé tcocigs quc co cj khsg dc jgs igogiags, 4x cs ehktgr kgiýo dc 6x, 8>x, 85x, ctk.
Ehktgrazhr cs cj prgkcsg quc pcriatc dcskgipgocr uoh cxprcsaûo ihtciètakh co ehktgrcs. Cj
gnmctavg dc jh ehktgrazhkaûo cs saipjaeakhr uoh cxprcsaûo co táriaogs dc njgqucs euodhicothjcs
jjhihdgsehktgrcs.
jjhihdgs ehktgrcs. Co
 Co tgdh cxprcsaûo sc dcnc gntcocr jh ièxaih ehktgrazhkaûo pgsanjc.

Cxastco dastaotgs iátgdgs dc ehktgrazhkaûo y dc cjjgs cxpjakhrcigs cj dc ehktgr kgiýo.

Ehktgr
Ehkt gr Kgiýo.
Kgiýo. Co
 Co cj khsg dc uo naogiag, sc dcsch cokgotrhr cj ehktgr kgiýo y hsé saipjaeakhr dakfg
igogiag. Kgig co cj sa`uacotc cmcipjg=
Tcocigs uo naogiag dcj quc dcschigs
gntcocr cj ehktgr
eh ktgr kgiýo. 5x + 5 y
Rgdcigs gnscrvhr quc cj oýicrg 5 cs cj ehktgr
kgiýo quc sc rcpatc co khdh uog dc jgs
5x + 5 
5 y 9 5 (
igogiags y prgkcdcigs h a`uhjhr jh ckuhkaûo
phshodg cj 5 quc cs cj ehktgr kgiýo.
Hnraigs uo phráotcsas phrh aodakhr
iujtapjakhkaûo y sa h 5x jc quathigs cj ehktgr
kgiýo, qucdh sûjg
dcj phráotcsas jh "x" hjquciasig
phshodg pgocigs dcotrg
tacipg cj 5x  +
 + 5y 9 5(x +
sa`og dc jh gpcrhkaûo.
Rhshigs dcotrg dcj phráotcsas jh "y" quc cs cj
táriaog quc qucdh dcspuás dc quathrjc cj
5x + 5 y 9 5 (x + y
 y))
ehktgr kgiýo y kcrrhigs cj phráotcsas,
gntcoacodg hsé cj rcsujthdg eaohj.

Cxastco khsgs co jgs quc phrh cokgotrhr cj ehktgr kgiýo scrè ockcshrag rckurrar h gntcocr cj ièxaig
kgiýo davasgr dc dgs oýicrgs phrh pgdcr saipjaeakhr jh cxprcsaûo, kgig co cj khsg sa`uacotc=
Tcocigs uo naogiag dcj quc dcschigs gntcocr cj ehktgr kgiýo. 1o —>0i
Co cstc khsg h saipjc vasth og hphrckc uo ehktgr kgiýo, sao  I K D (  1 ,>0) 9
cinhr`g, dcncigs rcvashr sa jgs kgceakacotcs 1 y >0 sgo suskcptanjcs
dc gntcocr cj ehktgr kgiýo, gntcoacodg dc cjjgs cj ièxaig kgiýo 1 >0 8  ;
davasgr dc jh ihocrh sa`uacotc. Dcncigs nuskhr uo oýicrg quc
davadh thotg h uo oýicrg kgig h gtrg y co cstc khsg cs cj ;.
Tcocigs quc ; cs cj oýicrg quc davadc h hings oýicrgs y  I K D {  1 ,>0) 9 ; 
shkhigs tcrkcrh h khdh uog dc cjjgs, co dgodc tcrkcrh dc 1 cs ; y jg
cskranaigs dcnhmg dcj 1, co cj khsg dc >0, jh tcrkcrh cs 1 y jg 1 >0 / ;
cskranaigs dcnhmg dcj iasig. ; cs cj Iéoaig Kgiýo Davasgr  (IKI)
 (IKI)
dc 1 y >0, pgr thotg, ; cs cj ehktgr kgiýo. ; 1 / 
Hfgrh tgkh cxprcshrjg co cj naogiag dc jh iasih egrih quc jg

yfakaigs
sc hnrccophráotcsas.
cj khsg hotcragr, sc pgoc cj ; dcspuás dcj sa`og dc ~a`uhj 1o —>0i
—>0i 9  ; (

851
851

 
 Kgig gntuvaigs cj IKI dc jgs d
Kgig dgs
gs kgceaka
kgceakacotcs,
cotcs, hotcs dc pgocrjgs,
fhy quc davadar cj kgceakacotc cotrc cj IKI, hsé tcocigs quc co cj
1o —>0i  9 ;(;o
;(; o  —
praicr khsg 1 cotrc ; phsh kgig ; kgo su jatcrhj y cj sa`og dc jh
gpcrhkaûo, cs dckar ;o -.
Kgo cj sc`uodg táriaog, fhkcigs jh iasih gpcrhkaûo, kcrrhigs
1o —>0
—>0ii 9 ;(;rt —1oé)
—1oé)
phráotcsas y eaohjicotc gntcoci
gntcocigs
gs cj rcsujthdg.
rcsujthdg.

>.1. ^csgjukaûo dc ckuhkagoc

ckuhkagocss dc sc`uodg `rhd
`rhdg.
g.
Jhs ckuhkagocs dc sc`uodg `rhdg, g thinaáo dcogiaohdhs kuhdrètakhs kgo uoh aokû`oath, nuskho
cokgotrhr cj vhjgr rchj dc jh iasih. Jhs ckuhkagocs sgo dc jh egrih sa`uacotc=
hx > + nx  +
 + k   9 2

[c rcsucjvco kgo dastaotgs iátgdgs sao cinhr`g, pgr prhktakadhd, sûjg dcshrrgjjhrcigs uog quc cs
icdahotc jh eûriujh `cocrhj=
—n   + U · > —4 hk 

Khnc rckhjkhr quc cj sa`og "+" kgotcoadg dcotrg dc jh gpcrhkaûo, aodakh quc gntcodrcigs dgs

rcsujthdgs=
sa`og-, kgiguogh kgotaouhkaûo
hpjakhodg jh eûriujh kgo cj sa`og + y gtrg hpjakhodg jh iasih eûriujh pcrg kgo cj
sc iucstrh=

—n   + y¡n> — 4 hk —n — U · > —4hk 

x   9   --------- ------------   x   9   --------- -—   ------
>h >h 
H kgotaouhkaûo, dcshrrgjjhrcigs kgo uo cmcipjg jh eûriujh, phrh su icmgr cotcodaiacotg=
Tcocigs uoh ckuhkaûo dc jh
egrih 5x> —6x +>92
n x + k 9   2
hx > + nx
5x> — 6
6x
x + > 9 2 
hx> + nx + k 9  2
Uhjgr dc h 9 5
[ustatuaigs jgs vhjgrcs dc jh Uhjgrdcn 9 6
iasih, co oucstrh eûriujh Uhjgr dc k 9 >
`cocrhj, pgoacodg phráotcsas co
khdh oýicrg quc sustatuaigs, —· + U · > —4hk
Egriujh `cocrhj= x 9   —   ---- ----------
phrh rchjazhr hdckuhdhicotc jhs
gpcrhkagocs
gpcrhkago cs kgrrcspgodacot
kgrrcspgodacotcs
cs
. . . . . - (- 6 ) + U(6)>-(4)(5)(>)
..................... .  (>)5

—( —6) ¸ (6
(6)) > —(4
—(4)) (5 ) (>
(>))
Xuathigs phráotcsas rchjazhodg * (>)5

jhs gpcrhkagocs pcrtaocotcs 6 + U54 - 46

VW 88>>
802

 
 6¸Uj5
VW 8>
6¸4
V W 8>
8>
6+4
 Vg
 Vg  9 ' -
> 8>
Jjc`hdgs h cstc puotg tgkh 6+4
rchjazhr jhs dgs gpcrhkagocs Vj9 8>
aodakhdhs, uoh suih y uoh rcsth.
Kgicozhrcigs pgr jh suih phrh 8>
gntcocr cj vhjgr dc Va Vj9j>
 x 8 9 8

6+4
V > ‚ 8>
  g
   8
  k

V>‚ 8>
Hfgrh fhrcigs jh rcsth phrh
gntcocr cj vhjgr dcx> 4
V>9j>
8
 x   >
> 9  0 
> ;=  

*a 9 j
Uhjgr dc x 8
V> 9 ;

[ûjg rcsth kgiprgnhr, *a 9 j  Vo]  9 ‚;

sustatuycodg
sustatuyco dg jgs dgs vhjgrcs
vhjgr cs dc x 5 x > —6* + > 9 2
co jh ckuhkaûo. 5( 8)> - 6 (8) + >  9 2 5 x > —6x + > 9 2
5 - 6 +> 9 2
6-6 9 2 54 )>~ 64 ) + > 9   g
2  9 2 > 6
------ + >  9 2
; ;
> - 6  + 5
92
;
6-6
92
2  9 2

808
808

 
 >.82. ^cjhkagocs dc prgpgrkagoh
prgpgrkagohjadhd
jadhd darckth.
@cocrhjicotc, kuhodg co Ihtciètakhs utajazhigs jhs phjhnrhs "co euokaûo dc" ogs rcecraigs h
rcjhkagocs quc sc csthnjckco cotr
cotrcc davcrsgs ecoûicogs g satuhkag
satuhkagocs.
ocs. Kgosthotcicot
Kgosthotcicotcc oogs
gs
coercothigs h davcrshs satuhkagocs co jhs quc uoh vhrahnjc dcpcodc dc uoh g iès vhrahnjcs. Rgr
cmcipjg, jh vcjgkadhd dc uo gnmctg dcpcodc dc jh dasthokah quc rckgrrc y cj tacipg quc jc tgih co
fhkcr cj rckgrradg.
Rgr supucstg, pgdcigs cokgotrhr satuhkagocs dc cstc tapg co gtrhs daskapjaohs kacotéeakhs, pgr
cmcipjg, co ckgogiéh cj prckag dcj naco g scrvakag dcpcodc praokaphjicotc dc su dcihodh< co
nagjg`éh, cj dcshrrgjjg dc uo ectg dcpcodc dc jgs icscs dc `csthkaûo< co quéiakh, jh ihsh dc uo
ètgig dcpcodc dcj tgthj dc jgs ocutrgocs y prgtgocs quc sc cokucotrho co su oýkjcg< ctk.
[c dakc quc dgs ih`oatudcs sgo darckthicotc prgpgrkagohjcs kuhodg, hj iujtapjakhr g davadar uoh dc
cjjhs pgr uo oýicrg kuhjquacrh, jh gtrh qucdh iujtapjakhdh g davadadh pgr cj iasig oýicrg. Co gtrhs
phjhnrhs h iès kgrrcspgodc h iès y h icogs kgrrcspgodc h icogs.
Rgr cmcipjg, cj prckag dc uoh khiash cs dc 822 pcsgs, cj prckag quc sc dcnc ph`hr pgr jhs khiashs

cs darckthicotc
khiashs cj prckagprgpgrkagohj
huicoth. [a hjkgiprhigs
oýicrg dc8khiashs quc vhigs 822,
khiash ph`hrcigs h kgiprhr, h ihygrdgs
sa kgiprhigs oýicrg dc
khiashs
ph`hrcigs >22 y hsé sukcsavhicotc. Cj huicotg dc uoh dc jhs vhrahnjcs, huicoth hutgiètakhicotc
jh gtrh.
>.88. ^cjhkagocs dc prgpgrkagohjadh
prgpgrkagohjadhdd co cj pjhog khrtcsahog.
Cj pjhog khrtcsahog cs uo sastcih dc rcecrcokah quc sc egrih sgnrc uo pjhog kgo dgs rckths
pcrpcodakujhrcs quc sc aotcrscktho co uo puotg y tacoc kgig eaohjadhd dcskranar jh pgsakaûo dc
puotgs kgig kggrdcohdhs.
Jhs rcjhkagocs dc prgpgrkagohjadhd sc pucdco `rheakhr co uo pjhog khrtcsahog. Co áj sc cipjch uo
sastcih dc kggrdcohdhs. Cj cmc fgrazgothj sc dcsa`oh cj cmc V g cj cmc dc jhs hnskashs, cj cmc vcrtakhj
sc dcogiaoh cmc Q dc jhs grdcohdhs. Cj puotg dgodc sc kruzho hings cmcs sc jc jjhih gra`co, gra`co, phrh
 phrh
rcprcsco
rcpr cscothr
thr uoh phrcmh dc vhjgr
vhjgrcs.cs. Cj praicr vhjg
vhjgrr sc jc hs
hsa`oh
a`oh hj cmc V, y cj sc
sc`uodg
`uodg vhjg
vhjgrr sc jc hhsa`oh
sa`oh
hj cmc Q. Co cj cmc V (fgra
(fgrazgothj
zgothj),), kuhodg cs pgsatavg ccjj vhjgr, arè co jh phrtc dc jh dcrckfh dcj puotg
dc gra`co, y vakcvcrsh, sacodg oc`htavg arè co jh phrtc dc jh azquacrdh dcj puotg dc gra`co. Dc a`uhj
ihocrh kgo rcspcktg hj cmc Q (vcrtakhj). Cj pgsatavg arè co jh phrtc supcragr y cj oc`htavg co jh phrtc
aoecragr kgo rcspcktg hj puotg dc gra`co.
Cstc sastcih pcriatc unakhr jh pgsakaûo dc uo puotg icdahotc dgs kggrdcohdhs. H khdh puotg jc
kgrrcspgodc uo phr ýoakg dc kggrdcohdhs.
Jh rcjhkaûo dc prgpgrkagohjadhd og saciprc cs darckth, thinaáo pucdc scr aovcrsh. Hinhs kjhscs dc
prgpgrkagohjadhd sc pucdco rcprcscothr co `rèeakh kgig co thnjhs. Ogrihjicotc praicrg sc rchjazh
jh thnjh y h phrtar dc jgs vhjgrcs grdcohdgs quc sc prcscotho co cjjh sc rchjazh jh `rèeakh.
Co cj pjhog khrtcsahog sc iucstrho jgs sa`ogs quc sc jgkhjazho co khdh kuhdrhotc.

80>

 
  Q + , ?

5
( --,, + ) (+?+)
' "3 ' 

4
/
=;

▢▢ >

▢▢"▢"''▢A

-0  < -5 < -3= " -4 •; r> -a 2 ' a  '▢

>W▢ ;. 4 < ,s 5 0
 V -
-8 x+

->
▢
-;

-4
= ,
-3
I *5
‑ •
-0

= r   .  M

^ckucrdh= phrh jgkhjazhr uo puotg co cj pjhog khrtcsahog sc unakh cj praicr oýicrg co cj cmc dc jhs
hnskashs (V) y dcspuás cj sc`uodg oýicrg co cj cmc dc jhs grdcohdhs (y).

;. Ihocmg d
dcc jh aoegrihkaûo csthdéstakh
;.8. Hoèjasas dc jh aoegrihkaûo
aoegrihkaûo csthdéstakh= éodakcs.
éodakcs.

Rhrh kgicozhr kgo cj dcshrrgjjg dc cstc tcih, ogs phrckc kgovcoacotc praicrg dceaoar cj kgokcptg
dc Csthdéstakh quc tgihrcigs kgig "jh rhih dc jhs ihtciètakhs quc utajazh `rhodcs kgomuotgs dc
dhtgs ouiárakgs phrh gntcocr aoecrcokahs nhshdhs co cj kèjkujg dc prgnhnajadhdcs". Hsé, jh
csthdéstakh cs uoh fcrrhiacoth euodhicothj co cstudag y gr`hoazhkaûo dc jgs dhtgs quc khrhktcrazho
h uoh sgkacdhd, h uo `rupg dc pcrsgohs, h uo kgomuotg dc nacocs, ctk. y sarvco phrh hohjazhr jh
ihocrh co quc ástgs sc dcshrrgjjho, fhkcr kgiphrhkagocs, fhkcr prcvasagocs, krchr igdcjgs, ctk.
Cxastco fcrrhiacoths dcshrrgjjhdhs phrh jg`rhr cj gnmctavg dc jh csthdéstakh. Sog dc cjjgs cs cj éodakc
quc dceaoarcigs kgig "jh cxprcsaûo ouiárakh dc jh rcjhkaûo cotrc dgs khotadhdcs". Iès
cspckéeakhicotc cj éodakc cs uoh fcrrhiacoth csthdéstakh dascøhdh phrh pgocr dc rcjacvc khinags
co uoh vhrahnjc g co
co uo `rupg dc
dc vhrahnjcs rcjhkagohdhs kgo cj tacipg, satuhkaûo `cg`rèeakh, ao`rcsgs
g kuhjquacr gtrh khrhktcréstakh.
Jh hpjakhkaûo dc jgs éodakcs cs iuy davcrsh pucstg quc sûjg sc rcquacrc quc cxasth uoh vhrahnjc y sc
hpjakh kgiýoicotc co cstudags dc pgnjhkaûo, eaohozhs, sgkagjg`éh, ctk.

80;

 
 ;.>. @rèeakh
@rèeakhss dc nhrrhs y karkujhrcs
karkujhrcs..
Jhs `rèeakhs, sgo rcprcscothkagocs dc dhtgs ouiárakgs pgr icdag dc uoh g vhrahs jéochs quc fhkco
vasanjc jh rcjhkaûo quc csgs dhtgs `uhrdho cotrc sé. [go uoh fcrrhiacoth aipgrthotc phrh jh
csthdéstakh, yh quc iucstrho dc ihocrh dcskraptavh y vasuhj, uo dhtg g kgomuotg dc dhtgs phrh su
hoèjasas, cstudag, kgiphrhkaûo, ctk. H kgotaouhkaûo hohjazhrcigs dgs dc sus vhrahotcs=

@rèeakhs dc
`rèeakh dc dhtgs
nhrrhs. ouiárakgs,
Cs uoh rcprcscothkaûo
co jh kuhj Tujh Iuoakapag Fhn>a5t4ho4tcs
dakfgs dhtgs, sc rcprcscotho kgo nhrrhs Hktgpho 82;4
unakhdhs co dgs cmcs, uog fgrazgothj y uoh [ho Ia`ucj ^c`jh ;382
vcrtakhj quc sc kgotrhstho cotrc sé. Cxastc Tcphtatjèo ;810
uoh scphrhkaûo cotrc khdh nhrrh y cj
kgotrhstc cotrc jgs dgs vhjgrcs, cs jg quc
dctcriaoh jh egrih dc jh nhrrh.

@rèeakhs karkujhrcs. Jh `rèeakh karkujhr, sc utajazh phrh rcprcscothr uo kgomuotg dc dhtgs, co egrih dc
pgrkcothmc, sacodg cj kérkujg kgipjctg (;52²) cj 822%, cs dckar, jh tgthjadhd dc jgs dhtgs y dc ástgs
sc eamh uo pgrkcothmc quc sc rcprcscoth co jh iasih `rèeakh.

Rgnjhkaûo @áocrg Rgrkcothmc

Tgthj dc Tujh
Rgnjhkaûo dc Tujh. Rgrkcothmc dc
iumcrcs y fginrcs
8483 Iumcrcs 3;.3%

45.3
>544 3;.3

8>11 Fginrcs 45.3%

Fginrcs ▢Iumcrcs

;.;. Thnjhs dc erckucokah hnsgjuth y rcjhtavh.

Rhrh kgiprcodcr icmgr cj dcshrrgjjg dc cstc tcih dcncigs praicrg dceaoar jgs kgokcptgs dc
pgnjhkaûo y dc iucstrh.
Rgnjhkaûo. [c pucdc dceaoar kgig uo kgomuotg dc tgdgs jgs cjcicotgs quc sgo gnmctgs dc cstudag y
dc jgs kuhjcs sc aotcoth shkhr uoh kgokjusaûo. Cstgs cjcicotgs prcscotho uoh khrhktcréstakh kgiýo.
Iuc strh.
Iucstr h. Jh iucstrh cs uuoh
oh rcprcscothkaûo
rcprcs cothkaûo sa`oa
sa`oaeakhtavh
eakhtavh dc jh
jhss khrhk
khrhktcré
tcréstakhs
stakhs dc jh
jh pgn
pgnjhkaûo,
jhkaûo, nhmg
jh adch dc hsuiar uo crrgr (pgr jg `cocrhj og ihygr hj 3%), cstudahigs jhs khrhktcréstakhs dc uo
kgomuotg dc jh pgnjhkaûo iukfg icogr quc jh pgnjhkaûo `jgnhj.

804

 
 Jh pgnjhkaûo cs uo tgdg y jh iucstrh cs uo sc`icotg g erhkkaûo dc csc tgdg. [arvc phrh dasiaouar cj
khipg dc hoèjasas, gntcoacodg rcsujthdgs ceakhkcs.
Hfgrh naco, uoh thnjh dc dastranukaûo dc erckucokahs dcnc prcscothr jh aoegrihkaûo dc egrih kjhrh,
dc thj ihocrh quc kuhjquacr pcrsgoh pucdh aotcrprcthrjh. Co uo cstudag csthdéstakg, jg praicrg quc
sc fhkc cs jh thnujhkaûo dc rcsujthdgs, cs dckar, sc rcsuic jh aoegrihkaûo co uoh thnjh. H khdh
vhrahnjc sc jc hsgkah cj oýicrg dc vckcs quc fh hphrckadg, cstc oýicrg cs jh erckucokah dc jh
vhrahnjc, y ásth pucdc scr hnsgjuth y rcjhtavh.

Erckucokah Hnsgjuth. Jh erckucokah hnsgjuth dc uoh vhrahnjc cs cj oýicrg dc vckcs co quc cj vhjgr
dc jh vhrahnjc hphrckc co jh iucstrh. Jh erckucokah hnsgjuth dcpcodc dcj thihøg dc jh iucstrh y
ogs cs ýtaj phrh kgiphrhr dhtgs cotrc vhrahnjcs.
Erckucokah ^cjhtavh. Jh erckucokah rcjhtavh aodakh cj pgrkcothmc dc jh vhrahnjc rcspcktg dc jh iucstrh
y sc khjkujh dc csth ihocrh=
. ‟ . . Erckucokah hnsgjuth
Er
Erck
ckuc
ucok
okah
ah ^cjh
^cjhta
tavh
vh 9 — -----
------—
-— — ------------
------------
Thihøg dc jh iucstrh

[ckuodhrahs co Erckucokah Erckucokah [ckuodhrahs ccoo Erckucokah Erckucokah

Hzkhpgtzhjkg hnsgjuth rcjhtavh Hzkhpgtzhjkg hnsgjuth rcjhtavh
Tákoakhs 32 2.>5> Tákoakhs 32 >5.>
Daurohs ;> 2.850 Daurohs ;> 85.0
Geakahjcs 02 2.;55 Geakahjcs 02 ;5.5
Rravhdhs ;1 2.>23 Rravhdhs ;1 >2.3
Tgthj 818 8 Tgthj 818 822%

Jh erckucokah rcjhtavh sc pucdc rcprcscothr co egrih dc erhkkaûo, co egrih dc dckaihj g dc

pgrkcothmc. Rhrh jhs dgs praicrhs, cj vhjgr saciprc dcnc csthr co 2 y 8< kuhodg sc prcscoth co egrih
dc pgrkcothmc, cj vhjgr dcnc csthr cotrc cj 2% y cj 822%.
;.4. Icdadhs dc tcodcokah kcotrhj.

Rgdcigsdc
kgomuotg dceaoar
dhtgsjhsgrdcohdgs
icdadhs dc tcodcokah
sc`ýo kcotrhj kgig
su ih`oatud". "jgsjgs
Sogs dc vhjgrcs quc sc unakho
iès aipgrthotcs sgo=hj kcotrg dc uo
Jh icdahoh. Cs cj vhjgr quc cstè co cj kcotrg dc uo kgomuotg dc dhtgs. [a grdcohigs uo kgomuotg
dc dhtgs dc icogr h ihygr, jh icdahoh scrè cj vhjgr quc sc cokucotrc co icdag dc cjjgs.
Jh icdah. Cs cj rcsujthdg quc sc gntacoc hj suihr tgdgs jgs dhtgs y davadar cj rcsujthdg cotrc cj
oýicrg tgthj dc jgs iasigs. Jh icdah hratiátakh ogs dh uo vhjgr prgicdag dc tgdgs jgs rckhnhdgs
co jh iucstrh.
Jh igdh. Cs cj vhjgr dc uo kgomuotg dc dhtgs quc hphrckc kgo ihygr erckucokah.

803

 
 ;.3. Ogkagocs dc prgnhnajadhd y iucstrcg.
Dceaoarcigs jh prgnhnajadhd kgig "jh pgsanajadhd quc cxastc dc quc uoh kgodakaûo g uo fckfg sc
prgduzkho dc cotrc vhrahs gpkagocs". Jh prgnhnajadhd iadc jh erckucokah kgo jh kuhj sc gntacoc uo
rcsujthdg.
Hj dcshrrgjjhr iukfgs coshygs dc uo ecoûicog hjchtgrag y sc khjkujh jh erckucokah rcjhtavh dc dgs g
iès rcsujthdgs, sc pucdc hvcra`uhr kuèj dc cjjgs cs iès pgsanjc quc shj`h, eamèodgsc co cj quc tacoc
ihygr erckucokah rcjhtavh.
Dcotrg dc cstc kgotcxtg, tcocigs jh eûriujh dc jh prgnhnajadhd tcûrakh, h jh rhzûo quc sc gntacoc
dc davadar jgs rcsujthdgs ehvgrhnjcs dc uo cvcotg, cotrc cj oýicrg tgthj dc rcsujthdgs pgsanjcs. [c
cxprcsh dc csth ihocrh=
........   ^csujthdgs ehvgrhnjcs
Rrgnhnaj adhd 9 ------------------
----------------------------------
--------------------------
----------
Oýicrg dc rcsujthdgs pgsanjcs

Cj iucstrcg= cs uo cxpcraicotg hjchtgrag, y sc jc jjhih hsé hj kgomuotg dc tgdgs jgs rcsujthdgs

pgsanjcs.
So cvcotg cs kuhjquacr kgomuotg dc rcsujthdgs pgsanjcs. Co cj khsg dc jgs cvcotgs, jgs rcsujthdgs
pgsanjcs quc jg kgoegriho sc jjhiho rcsujth
rcsujthdgs
dgs ehvgrhnjcs.
So cvcotg aipgsanjc cs hqucj quc og tacoc rcsujthdgs ehvgrhnjcs y su prgnhnajadhd cs 2 dc 822%.
So cvcotg sc`urg cs hqucj quc sc kgipgoc dc tgdgs jgs rcsujthdgs pgsanjcs, su prgnhnajadhd cs 8 g
822 %.

Jh prgnhnajadhd dc kuhjquacr cvcotg co uo cxpcraicotg hjchtgrag cstè cotrc 2 y 8 g cotrc 2% y

822 %.

4. Egrihs `cgiátrakhs
4.8. ^ckths y èo`ujgs.
Kgicozhrcigs pgr csthnjckcr jh dceaoakaûo dc rckth dakacodg quc cs "uoh sukcsaûo kgotaouh c
aodceaoadh dc puotgs quc sc cxtacodc co uoh iasih darckkaûo". Rgr jg `cocrhj jg quc rcprcscothigs
sgo sc`icotgs dc rckth, pucstg quc jh rckth cs aodceaoadh. Thinaáo sc dceaoc kgig jh dasthokah iès
kgrth cotrc dgs puotgs.
Tcoacodg jh dceaoakaûo hotcragr kgotaouhrcigs pgr dceaoar èo`ujg, dakacodg quc cs "uoh ea`urh
`cgiátrakh egrihdh co uoh supcreakac pgr dgs jéochs quc phrtco dc uo iasig puotg".
^ckths co uo iasig pjhog. Kuhod
Kuhodg
g cxastco dgs jéochs rckt
rckths
hs kgotcoa
kgotcoadhs
dhs co cj iasig pjhog, pucdco
gkurrar trcs khsgs=
Xuc jh aotcrsckkaûo dc jhs dgs rckths sch co cj kgomuotg vhkég= jh praicrh rckth cs phrhjcjh h
jh sc`uodh rckth. [c dakc quc dgs rckths sgo phrhjcjhs kuhodg og tacoco oao`ýo puotg co
kgiýo.
Xuc jh aotcrsckkaûo
aotcrsckk aûo dc dgs rckths sch uo kgomuotg egrihdg pgr uo sgjg puotg. Co thj khsg sc
egriho èo`ujgs.

805

 
 Xuc jh aotcrsckkaûo dc jhs rckths sch uo kgomuotg egrihdg pgr aoeaoatgs puotgs y sc kgovacrth
co uoh sgjh rckth, co thj khsg sc dakc quc jhs rckths sgo kgaokadcotcs.
Èo`ujgs egrihd
Èo`ujgs egrihdgs
gs pgr d dgs
gs rckths hj sc
scrr kgrthdhs pgr uo
uohh tcrk
tcrkcrh.
crh. [cho dgs rckths, (i, o) kgrthdhs
pgr uoh tcrkcrh (r), jjhihdh trhosvcrshj g sckhotc. Uhigs h scphrhr h kgotaouhkaûo jgs gkfg èo`ujgs
quc sc egriho co vhrags `rupgs=
Kuhodg uo phr dc rckths phrhjcjhs sgo kgrthdhs pgr uoh trhosvcrshj sc egriho gkfg èo`ujgs, y
hj`uohs phrcmhs dc cstgs èo`ujgs rckanco oginrcs phrtaku
phrtakujhrcs.
jhrcs.

Èo`ujgs gpucstgs pgr cj vártakc= jgs quc tacoco cj

iasig várt
vártakc
akc co kgi
kgiýo
ýo y sc gp
gpgoco
goco uog hj gtrg.
r

Èo`ujgs hjtcrogs cxtcrogs= èo`ujgs cxtcragrcs quc

sc cokucotrho co uog y gtrg jhdg dc jh trhosvcrshj.

Èo`ujgs hjtcrogs aotcrogs= hqucjjgs èo`ujgs

aotcragrcs
aotcr agrcs quc sc jgkhjazho co uog y gtrg jhdg dc
jh trhosvcrshj.

Èo`ujgs cxtcragrcs g cxtcrogs= jgs quc sc

cokucotrho eucrh dc jhs dgs jéochs phrhjcjhs.

Èo`ujgs aotcr
aotcragrcs
agrcs g aotcr
aotcrogs=
ogs= hqucjjgs quc sc
cokucotrho cotrc jhs dg
dgss rckths phrhjcjhs cotrc sé. o

Èo`ujgs kgrrcs
kgrrcspgodac
pgodacotcs=
otcs= hqucjjgs quc sc
jgkhjazho dc uo iasig jhdg dc jh trhosvcrshj,
egrihodg phrcmhs, uo aotcrog kgo uo cxtcrog.

800

 
 4.>. Ea`urhs pjhohs.
Dcotrg dcj cstudag dc jh `cgictréh cxastc uo hphrthdg jjhihdg ea`urhs pjhohs quc sgo hqucjjhs
ea`urhs co dgs daicosagocs, kgo jhs quc pgdcigs dceaoar icdadhs cspckéeakhs. [c davadco co dgs
tapgs `cocrhjcs, jgs pgjé`gogs y cj kérkujg.
Rgjé`gog. Cstè egrihdg pgr dgs vgkcs dc gra`co `rac`g= pgjys (iukfg) y `gih (èo`ujg). Jgs
cjcicotgs quc kgoegriho uo pgjé`gog sgo=
Jgs èo`ujgs. 
èo`ujgs.  Egrihdgs pgr sus jhdgs co jh aotcrsckkaûo dc sus jéochs kgig fcigs dceaoadg co cj
puotg hotcragr.
Uártakcs.  [go jgs vártakcs dc sus jhdgs, dceaoacodg vártakc kgig cj puotg co cj quc kgokurrco jgs dgs
Uártakcs. [go
jhdgs dc uo èo`ujg.
Dah`gohj. Cs jh rckth quc uoc dgs vártakcs og kgosckutavgs. Xuc vho dcsdc traèo`ujg9 trcs jhdgs, trcs
Dah`gohj. Cs
èo`ujgs< kuhdrhdg9 kuhtrg jhdgs, kuhtrg èo`ujgs< fhsth aoeaoatg.
Kérkujg. Cs jh
jh ea`urh pjhoh dcjaiathdh pgr jjhh karkuoecrc
karkuo ecrcokah<
okah< pgr jg quc h jgs cecktgs `cgiátrakgs
cquavhjc h uo pgjé`gog rc`ujhr kgo aoeaoatgs jhdgs.

 [ci
 [cicmh
cmhoz
ozh
h
4.;. [cicmhozh dc traèo`ujgs.

Cj traèo`ujg cs cj pgjé`gog iès scokajjg, y hj iasig tacipg cs cj quc tacoc ihygr oýicrg dc
prgpacdhdcs. Tacoc thoth utajadhd co cj dcshrrgjjg dc jhs kucstagocs `cgiátrakhs quc cs jh nhsc dc
kgipjcmhs kgostrukkagocs ihtciètakhs.
Jh scicmhozh co `cgictréh cs jh vhrahkaûo co thihøg cotrc dgs gnmctgs g kucrpgs pcrg sus egrihs
sgo adáotakhs.
Co cj khsg dc jgs traèo`ujgs, dctcriaohigs quc sgo kgo`rucotcs g scicmhotcs, dc hkuárdg h jgs
kra
kratcrag
tcragss dc kgo`rucokah g a`uhjdhd. Cstgs krat
kratcrag
cragss kgosadcrho jh rcjhkaûo cotrc trcs cj
cjcicotgs
cicotgs dc
dc
dgs traèo`ujgs. Hsé tcodrcigs quc dgs traèo`ujgs sgo scicmhotcs=
K^ATC^AG JJJ (jhdg-jhdg-jhdg). [a jgs trcs jhdgs dc uo traèo`ujg sgo kgo`rucotcs kgo jgs trcs jhdgs
dcj gtrg.
K^ATC^AG JHJ (jhdg-èo`ujg-jhdg). [a dgs jhdgs y cj èo`ujg, kgiprcodadg cotrc cjjgs, dc uo traèo`ujg
sgo kgo`rucotcs rcspcktavhicotc kgo dgs jhdgs y cj èo`ujg, kgiprcodadg cotrc cjjgs, dc gtrg
traèo`ujg.

806

 
 K^ATC^AG HJH (èo`ujg-jhdg-èo`ujg). [a dgs èo`ujgs y cj jhdg, kgiprcodadg cotrc cjjgs, dc uo
traèo`ujg sgo kgo`rucotcs rcspcktavhicotc
rcspckta vhicotc kgo dgs èo`ujgs
èo`ujgs y cj jhdg, kgiprcodadg cotrc cjjgs, dc
gtrg traèo`ujg.
Uchigs jh sa`uacotc ea`urh=

Dc jh ea`urh hotcragr sc dcsprcodc quc cj traèo`ujg HNF cs scicmhotc hj traèo`ujg HNK pgrquc=

Jgs dgs traèo`ujgs kgiphrtco cj èo`ujg HN<

Hings tacoco uo èo`ujg
Hings èo`ujg rcktg<
Jgs traèo`ujgs tacoco dgs èo`ujgs a`uhjcs, pgr jg quc sc kuipjc cj kratcrag quc hearih quc sa
dgs èo`ujgs dc uog sgo a`uhjcs h dgs èo`ujgs dc gtrg, jgs traèo`ujgs sgo scicmhotcs.
Cotgokcs tcocigs quc cj traèo`ujg HFK cs scicmhotc hj traho`ujg HNK. Rgr cj kratcrag HJH
èo`ujg/jhdg/èo`ujg, sa dgs èo`ujgs y cj jhdg, kgiprcodadg cotrc cjjgs, dc uo traèo`ujg sgo
kgo`rucotcs rcspcktavhicotc kgo dgs èo`ujgs y cj jhdg kgiprcodadg cotrc cjjgs dc gtrg traho`ujg.
4.4. Tcgrcih dc Ratè`grhs.
Ratè`grhs.
Cj tcgrcih dc Ratè`grhs cxpgoc
cxpgoc quc= "[a uo traèo`ujg
traèo`ujg cs rcktèo`ujg,
r cktèo`ujg, cotgokcs sc kuipjc jg sa`uacotc=
jh suih dcj kuhdrhdg dc jgs khtctgs cs a`uhj hj kuhdrhdg dc jh fapgtcoush".
Co gtrhs phjhnrhs, co uo traèo`ujg kgo uo èo`ujg rcktg, sa kgogkcigs jh icdadh dc jgs dgs jhdgs
(khtctg gpucstg y khtctg hdyhkcotc) quc egriho dakfg èo`ujg, pgdcigs gntcocr jh icdadh dcj
tcrkcr jhdg (fapgtcoush) kgo jh eûriujh sa`uacotc=

801
801

 
 (KG)> + (KH)> 9

4.3. ^hzgocs tra`gogiátrakhs.

Dceaoaigs tra`gogictréh, kgig jh phrtc dc jhs ihtciètakhs quc trhtho dcj kèjkujg dc jgs cjcicotgs
dc jgs traèo`ujgs.
Soh rhzûo tra`gogiátrakh cs jh rcjhkaûo cotrc jgs jhdgs dc uo traèo`ujg rcktèo`ujg. Jhs iès
aipgrthotcs sgo= cj scog, kgscog y jh tho`cotc.

[cog. Cs cj kgkacotc dc davadar cj khtctg gpucstg  khtc

 kh tctg
tg gp
gpuc
//a Z r ucst
stgg
cotrc jh fapgtcoush.  sco
 sc o (1 ) 9  ——--------
---- --------
-------
---
 fapg
 fa pgtc
tcou
oushsh
Kgscog. Cs cj kgkacotc dc davadar cj khtctg  kht
 k htct
ctgg h dy
dyhk
hkco
co tc
hdyhkcotc cotrc jh fapgtcoush. cgs  (2 ) 9
 fapg
 fa pgtc
tcou sh  
oush
Tho`cotc. Cs cj kgkacotc dc davadar cj khtctg  kh tctg
 khtc tg gp
gpuc
ucst
stgg
gpucstg cotr
cotrcc cj kht
htcctg hdy
dyhk
hkco
cotc
tc.. —
• fr
fr i
,
( X Z  —
,
 kht
 k htct
ctgg h dy
dyhk
hkco
co tc
Khdh uoh dc ásths tc pcriatc khjkujhr uo tcrkcr dhtg h phrtar dc dgs< pgr cmcipjg, sa kgogkcs jh
fapgtcoush y ccjj èo`ujg, kg
kgoo jh eûriujh hdckuhdh pucdcs khjkujhr
khjk ujhr cj khtctg hdyhkcotc y cj gpucstg.

Kucrpgs `cgiátrakgs
4.5. Kèjkujg dc pcréictrgs.
Jh phjhnrh vacoc dcj `rac`g pcra (hjrcdcdgr) y ictrg (icdadh). Cj táriaog pucdc scr utajazhdg thotg
phrh jh dasthokah g jgo`atud, kgig phrh jh jgo`atud dcj kgotgrog dc uoh egrih. Cj pcréictrg dc uo
kérkujg sc jjhih jgo`atud dc jh karkuoecrco
karkuoecrcokah.
kah.
So pgjé`gog rc`ujhr pucdc scr dceaoadg pgr cj oýicrg dc sus jhdgs y pgr su rhdag, cs dckar, jh
dasthokah kgosthotc co
cotrc
trc su kcotrg y khdh uog dc sus vár
vártakc
takcs.
s. Cj pcréictrg dc uo pgjé`gog sc khjkujh
suihodg jhs jgo`atudcs dc tgdgs sus jhdgs. Cxastco dastaoths eûriujhs quc ogs pcriatco khjkujhr cj
pcréictrg dc davcrshs ea`urhs
ea`urhs pjhohs, cotrc cjjhs sc cokucotrho=
cokucotr ho=

862

 
 Jh eûriujh phrh khjkujhr cj pcréictrg dc uo
traèo`ujg cs=
R9h+n+k
Dgodc h, n y k sgo jhs jgo`atudcs dc khdh jhdg.

Jh eûriujh phrh khjkujhr cj pcréictrg dc uo

kuhdrhdg cs=
R9h+n+k+d
Dgodc h, n, k y d sgo jgo`atudcs dc khdh jhdg
dcj kuhdrhdg.

Jh eûriujh phrh khjkujhr cj pcréictrg dc uo

kérkujg cs=
R 9(d)(o)
Dgodc cj daèictrg cs jh jéoch quc davadc hj
kérkujg pgr jh iathd y o cs jh kgosthotc
ihtciètakh
ihtciètakh kgo vhjgr ;.84..
;.84....

4.0. Kèjkujg dc èrchs.

Cj èrch sc pucdc dceaoar kgig jh supcreakac kgiprcodadh dcotrg dc uo pcréictrg. Cs uoh ih`oatud
cxprcshdh co uoadhdcs dcdc i
icdadh
cdadh dcogiaohdhs uoadhdcs dc supcreakac.
Cj èrch dc jhs ea`urhs sc khjkujh kgo cj usg dc eûriu
eûriujhs
jhs prcd
prcdctcriaohd
ctcriaohdhs
hs quc h kgotaouhkaûo vcrcigs.
Rgjé`gogs arrc`ujhrcs. Rhrh cj kèjkujg dcj èrch dc uo pgjé`gog arrc`ujhr kuhjquacrh tcodrcigs quc
dcskgipgocrjg g davadarjg co pgjé`gogs rc`ujhrcs, cs dckar, ogs nhshrcigs co iátgdgs aodarcktgs=
traho`ujèodgjg (oghj`uogs
kuhdrakujhdh g, co sc traho`ujh hrnatrhrahicotc, cjfhy
khsgs, dcskgipgoacodg quc sastcihtazhrjg),
pgjé`gog co kuhdrajètcrgsushodg uoh trhih
kgogkadgs.
Rgjé`gogs rc`ujhrcs. Dc egrih iès `cocrhj, khjkujhrcigs jh supcreakac dc kuhjquacr pgjé`gog
rc`ujhr, aodcpcodacotcicotc dcj oýicrg dc jhdgs. Hj a`uhj quc phshnh kgo cj pcotè`gog y cj
fcxè`gog, cj èrch cs cj prgduktg dc hpgtcih y pcréictrg cotrc dgs. [a ushigs rcjhkagocs
tra`gogiátrakhs pgdrcigs khjkujhr jh hpgtcih h phrtar dcj jhdg y, pucstg quc cj pcréictrg dc jh
ea`urh cs ýoakhicotc euokaûo dcj jhdg, pgdrcigs tcocr jh eûriujh, phrh cstc khsg, dcpcodacodg
ýoakhicotc dcj oýicrg dc jhdgs y cj vhjgr dc ástc.

86
868
8

 
  Rcré
 Rc réic
ictrtrgg x hpg
hp g tc ih  
tcih
 Hrch
 Hr ch   9   ------------- --------------

Traèo`ujg= [ch kuèj sch cj tapg dc traèo`ujg quc tco`higs (cquajètcrg, asûskcjcs g rcktèo`ujg), jh
eûriujh phrh khjkujhr cj èrch dc uo traèo`ujg cs saciprc jh iasih= cj èrch sc gntacoc saciprc
iujtapjakhodg jh nhsc pgr jh hjturh y davadacodg cj rcsujthdg cotrc dgs.

 nhsc
 nh sc x hjt
h jtur
urhh
 Èrch
 Èr ch 9

Cj èrch dc uo kérkujg, g jh dcjaiathdh pgr uoh karkuoecrcokah, sc khjkujh iujtapjakhodg rt pgr kuhdrhdg
dcj rhdag.

 Èrch
 Èr ch   9  o x  e >

Cj kuhdrhdg cs cj pgjé`gog rc`ujhr dc kuhtrg jhdgs< cs h jh vcz uo rcktèo`ujg y uo rging, pgr jg quc
su èrch pucdc scr khjkujhdh dc jh iasih ihocrh quc jh dc cstgs dgs. Co phrtakujhr, dhdg quc sus
jhdgs sgo a`uhjcs, sc ush jh eûriujh=

Jhdg
 Èrch
 Èr ch   9  Jhdg x Jhdg

Jhdg

86>

 
 4.6. Kèjkujg dc vgjýicocs.
vgjýicocs.
Cj vgjuico dc uo kucrpg cs cj oýicrg dc uoadhdcs kýnakhs quc pucdc kgotcocr. Co gtrhs phjhnrhs,
cj vgjuico dc uo kucrpg cs jh khotadhd dc csphkag quc gkuph. Kuhodg sc fhnjh dc icdar cj vgjuico,
sc cotacodc quc sc fhkc uoh kgiphrhkaûo dcj csphkag quc gkuph cj kucrpg rcspcktg h uo csphkag
kgogkadg, cs dckar, sc khjkujh cj oýicrg dc uoadhdcs kýnakhs quc khnco co su aotcragr. Jh uoadhd dc
icdadh dc vgjuico cs cj kcotéictrg, ictrg, ctk., kýnakg (ki;, i;, ctk.).
Cxastco eûriujhs phrh khjkujhr cj vgjuico dc uo kucrpg. H kgotaouhkaûo hohjazhrcigs hj`uohs dc
cjjhs=
Rrasih ^cktho`ujhr. Cj vgjuico (U) dc uo prasih rcktho`ujhr sc khjkujh iujtapjakhodg cj èrch dc jh
nhsc (H) pgr jh hjturh (F) dcj prasih=

U g j u i c o 9 È r c h d c j h nh s c x h j t u r h

Èrch dp jh Nhsc
Rrasih rcktg. So prasih rcktg cs uo sûjadg kgo dgs nhscs phrhjcjhs dcj iasig thihøg y egrih<
pucdc scr kuhjquacr pgjé`gog.

A
AA
Hjturh
U g j u i c o   9  È r c h d c j h n h s c x h j t u r h
A
8
A
t

Èrch dc jh Nhsc

86;

 
 Rarèiadc. Cj vgjuico dc tgdh parèiadc sc khjkujh kgo cj kgkacotc dcj prgduktg dcj èrch dc su nhsc
pgr jh hjturh cotrc trcs.

 Èrch dc jh nhsc

Kajaodrg. Cj prasih kajaodrakg cs uoh ea`urh dc jh kuhj sc pucdc gntcocr cj vgjuico, dc hkucrdg kgo
jh sa`uacotc eûriujh.

U g ju
j u i c o — È r c h d c jh
j h nh
nh s c x h j tu
tu r h Hjturh

Èrch dc jh nhsc

864

 
 KACOKAH[ AAA (XSÉIAKH)
8. Jhs khrhktcréstak
khrhktcréstakhs
hs dc jgs ihtcrahjcs
8.8. Khrhktcrésta
Khrhktcréstakhs
khs dcj kgogkaiacotg kacotéeakg= ccjj khsg dc jh Xuéiakh.
Kgicozhrcigs
Kgicozhrci gs cj dcshrrgjjg dc cstc tcih dceaoacodg kgogkaiaco
kgogkaiacotg
tg kacotéeakg= cs cj shncr rcsujthotc
dc uo prgkcsg ictgdgjû`akg, sastciètakg y ra`urgsg, quc tacoc vhjadcz phrh uo dctcriaohdg
igicotg y csphkag, y cs utajazhdg phrh rcsgjvcr jgs prgnjcihs dc jh rchjadhd co jh quc sc vavc. Cstc
kgokcptg rcjhkagoh darckthicotc jh gntcokaûo dcj kgogkaiacotg h trhvás dcj iátgdg kacotéeakg.
Dcncigs fhkcr cspckahj áoehsas co jhs khrhktcréstakhs quc tacoc cj kgogkaiacotg kacotéeakg co cj khsg
dc jh quéiakh, y csths sgo= quc sus adchs saciprc cstèo sumcths h khinag< cj kgogkaiacotg sûjg cs
pcrdurhnjc kuhodg cstè naco euodhicothdg< og sc pucdco dhr rcspucsths kgipjcths h tgdhs jhs
prc`uoths sgnrc jh ihtcrah< phrh quc uoh rcspucsth sch hkcpthdh pgr tgdgs dcnco igstrhrsc
cvadcokahs, cs dckar, dhtgs kgoeahnjcs h phrtar dc icdakagocs prckashs, jgs kuhjcs dcnco tcocr jh
khphkadhd dc pgdcrsc rcprgdukar co gtrhs phrtcs dcj iuodg< phrh csthnjckcr rcjhkagocs sc ockcsath
dc jû`akh y dc aih`aohkaûo< sc cxpjakho y prcdakco fckfgs y ecoûicogs dc ihocrh gnmctavh.
8.>. Rrgpacdhdcs dc jgs ihtcrahjcs.
Jgs ihtcrahjcs sgo tgdgs jgs cjcicotgs quc ushigs co jh vadh kgtadahoh. Soh dc jhs praokaphjcs
gkuphkagocs dc jh quéiakh cs jh kjhsaeakhkaûo dc cstgs cjcicotgs dc hkucrdg h jhs prgpacdhdcs g
khrhktcréstakhs quc tacoco. Csth kjhsaeakhkaû
kjhsaeakhkaûoo cs aaipgrthotc,
ipgrthotc, pgrquc pcriatc adcotaeakhr khdh ihtcrahj
kgo cj quc sc trhnhmh. Csths prgpacdhdcs sgo=
Rrgpacdhdcs kuhjathtavhs= kgjgr, egrih, gjgr y csthdg dc h`rc`hkaûo< csths sgo pcrkanadhs pgr
oucstrgs scotadgs, sgo hqucjjhs quc dctcriaoho kgig cs hj`g sao ockcsadhd dc uoadhdcs dc icdadh.
Rr gpacdhdcs
gpacdhdcs a otcosa vhs=  csths og dcpcodco dc jh khotadhd dc ihtcrah y sgo= tcipcrhturh dc eusaûo
otcosavhs=
y dc cnujjakaûo, vaskgsadhd, dcosadhd
dcosadhd,, kgokcotrhkaûo y sgjunajadhd
sgjunajadhd..
Tcipcrhturh dc eusaûo= Cs cj vhjgr quc dctcriaoh h quá tcipcrhturh uo ihtcrahj ihotacoc cj
cquajanrag cotrc su csthdg sûjadg y jéquadg.
Tcipcrhturh dc cnujjakaûo= Cs jh tcipcrhturh co jh quc uo ihtcrahj phsh dc csthdg jéquadg h
`hscgsg.
Dcosadhd= Ih`oatud quc cxprcsh jh rcjhkaûo cotrc jh ihsh y cj vgjuico dc uo kucrpg.
Kgokcotrhkaûo= Ih`oatud quc cxprcsh jh khotadhd dc uoh susthokah pgr uoadhd dc vgjuico.
[gjunajadhd= Cs jh icdadh dc khphkadhd dc dasgjvcrsc dc uoh susthokah (sgjutg) co uo dctcriaohdg
icdag (dasgjvcotc).
Rr gpacdhdcs
gpacdhdcs cxtcosa vhs=  dcpcodco dc jh khotadhd dc ihtcrah quc sc kgosadcrc= ihsh y vgjuico.
cxtcosavhs=

Ihsh= Ih`oatud eésakh quc cxprcsh jh khotadhd dc ihtcrah quc kgotacoc uo kucrpg.
Ugjuico= Ih`oatud eésakh quc cxprcsh jh cxtcosaûo dc uo kucrpg co trcs daicosagocs= jhr`g, hokfg
y prgeuodadhd.

863

 
 8.;. Khinags eésakgs y quéiakgs.
Rgdcigs dceaoar jgs khinags quéiakgs, kgig hqucjjgs khinags quc suerc jh ihtcrah co su egrih, co
su vgjuico g co su csthdg, sao hjtc
hjtcrhr
rhr su kgipgsakaûo
kgipgsakaûo g ohturhjcz
ohturhjczh.
h. Rgr cmcipjg, sa khjcot
khjcothigs
higs uo
njgquc dc facjg h dctcriaohdh tcipcrhturh, cstc sc jakýh, cs dckar, phsh dcj csthdg sûjadg hj jéquadg
igdaeakhodg su egrih y vgjuico pcrg kgoscrvhodg su ohturhjczh, pucs hotcs dcj khinag sc tcoéh
h`uh sûjadh y dcspuás dcj khinag sc tacoc h`uh jéquadh< pcrg sa sc kgotaouh cj khjcothiacotg,
eaohjicotc sc hjkhozhrè jh tcipcrhturh dc cnujjakaûo y cj h`uh phshrè hj csthdg dc vhpgr

kgoscrvèodgsc aohjtcrhnjc. Co tgdgs jgs khsgs, jh kgipgsakaûo dc ásth.

Rgr gtrh phrtc, jgs khinags quéiakgs kgojjcvho uoh vhrahkaûo co jh kgipgsakaûo dc jh ohturhjczh dc
jh ihtcrah, cs dckar, h phrtar dc uoh pgrkaûo dc ihtcrahj jjhihdh "^chktavg", sc gntacoc uo ihtcrahj
dastaotg dcogiaohdg Rrgduktg, pgr icdag dc uoh rchkkaûo dc uoh rchkkaûo quéiakh y co jh kuhj
pucdco aoejuar davcrsgs ehktgrcs thjcs kgig jh juz, prcsaûo, u gtrhs susthokahs rchktavhs. Kgig
cmcipjg, tcocigs quc jh egrihkaûo dcj ûxadg dc facrrg sgnrc uoh jèiaoh dc icthj kgostatuyc uo
khsg dc khinag quéiakg, pucstg quc cj ûxadg dc facrrg (prgduktg) og cs jg iasig quc cj facrrg purg
(rchktavg).
8.4. Rrgpacdhdcs eésakhs y khrhktcrazhkaûo dc jhs susthokahs.
Dcotrg dc jhs prgpacdhdcs `cocrhjcs, cxastco aoouicrhnjcs prgpacdhdcs khrhktcréstakhs thjcs kgig
sgo= kgjgr, shngr,
dc cnujjakaûo, durczh, dcosadhd,
sgjunajadhd, ctk. nrajjg, kgoduktavadhd táriakh y cjáktrakh, puotg dc eusaûo, puotg
Cxastco khrhktcréstakhs quc ogs pcriatco daecrcokahr jgs dastaotgs tapgs dc ihtcrah y quc rckanco cj
oginrc dc Rrgpacdhdcs khrhktcréstakhs, yh quc ogs hyudho h khrhktcrazhr g adcotaeakhr jhs dastaoths
susthokahs. Csths prgpacdhdcs, tacoco co quéiakh phrtakujhr aipgrthokah, pucs cjjhs pcriatco
rckgogkcr uoh susthokah y daecrcokahrjhs dc jhs dciès.
Csths prgpacdhdcs sc jcs jjhiho h icoudg Kgosthotcs eésakhs, sacodg su utajadhd co cj trhnhmg dcj
quéiakg ogthnjc, yh quc sus vhjgrcs sgo hjthicotc kgoeahnjcs og sûjg phrh adcotaeakhr uoh susthokah
saog thinaáo phrh dctcriaohr su `rhdg dc purczh. Rhrh adcotaeakhr uoh susthokah og ogs nhsthrè kgo
kgogkcr uoh dc sus prgpacdhdcs khrhktcréstakhs, saog quc fhnrcigs dc adcotaeakhr vhrahs dc cjjhs, jhs
iès aipgrthotcs, y jhs iès eèkajcs dc dctcriaohr sgo= jh dcosadhd, jgs puotgs dc eusaûo y cnujjakaûo,
rcjhkagohdgs kgo jh tcipcrhturh, y jh sgjunajadhd, quc thinaáo tacoc quc vcr, dc gtrh egrih, kgo jh
tcipcrhturh.
Jhs prgpacdhdcs khrhktcréstakhs sc dctcriaoho h trhvás dc hoèjasas, cstgs hoèjasas sgo= hoèjasas
kuhjathtavg y hoèjasas kuhotathtavg. Co jgs hoèjasas kuhotathtavgs sc cokucotrho jhs prgpacdhdcs
khrhktcréstakhs
khrhktcréstak hs icdanjcs< y co cj hoèjasas kuhjathtavg sc cokucotrho jhs prgpac
prgpacdhdcs
dhdcs khrhktcréstakhs og
icdanjcs.
Jhs prgpacdhdcs khrhktcréstakhs icdanjcs sgo=
Dcosadhd= ihsh dc uo kucrpg pgr uoadhd dc vgjuico.
Ruotg dc eusaûo= tcipcrhturh h jh quc cj csthdg sûjadg y cj csthdg jéquadg dc uoh susthokah sc
cokucotrho co cquajanrag.

Ruotg dc cnujjakaûo= tcipcrhturh h jh quc jh prcsaûo dc vhpgr dc uo jéquadg sc a`uhjh h jh prcsaûo

htigseárakh cxastcotc sgnrc dakfg jéquadg.

865

 
 [gjunajadhd= Jh sgjunajadhd cs uoh icdadh dc jh khphkadhd dc uoh dctcriaohdh susthokah phrh
dasgjvcrsc co gtrh.
Jhs prgpacdhdcs khrhktcréstakhs og icdanjcs sgo=
Gjgr= cs uoh prgpacdhd aotréosckh dc jh ihtcrah y sc dceaoc kgig jh scoshkaûo rcsujthotc dc jh
rckcpkaûo dc uo cstéiujg pgr cj [astcih [cosgrahj Gjehtavg.
[hngr= cs jh aiprcsaûo quc ogs khush uo hjaicotg u gtrh susthokah, y cstè dctcriaoh praokaphjicotc
pgr scoshkagocs, dctckthdh pgr cj `ustg.
Tcxturh= cs jh prgpacdhd quc tacoco jhs supcreakacs cxtcrohs dc jgs gnmctgs, hsé kgig jhs scoshkagocs
quc khusho, quc sgo khpthdhs pgr cj scotadg dcj thktg.
Nrajjg= cs cj rcsujthotc dc jh rcejcxaûo y jh rcerhkkaûo dc jh juz co jh supcreakac dc uo iaocrhj.
8.3. Jh kgoscrvhkaûo dc jh ihsh co jgs
jgs khinags eésakgs y quéiakgs.
Jh quéiakh cstudah jhs daecrcotcs susthokahs, dc jg quc cstèo fckfhs, dc su cstrukturh y sus
prgpacdhdcs. Cstudah thinaáo jhs trhosegrihkagocs dc jhs susthokahs kuhodg aotcrhktýho uohs kgo
gtrhs. Huoquc sc egrico kgipucstgs oucvgs, og cxastc párdadh dc jh ihtcrah.
Hotgaoc Jhurcot Jhvgascr euc uo kacotéeakg nrajjhotc, kuyhs icdakagocs kuadhdgshs durhotc jhs
rchkkagocs quéiakhs quc cstudahnh fakacrgo quc pudacrh csthnjckcr egrihjicotc jh adch dc quc co
jhs trhosegrihkagocs dc ihtcrah, og sc pcrdéh ihsh. [u ehigsh jcy csthnjckc quc "jh ihtcrah og sc
krch oa sc dcstruyc, sûjg sc trhosegrih".
Jg hotcragr aipjakh quc, huoquc hphrcotcicotc sc pacrdc ihtcrah co cj khinag quéiakg dc uo
ihtcrahj, co rchjadhd og cs hsé. Rgr cmcipjg, co jh cnujjakaûo dcj h`uh.
8.5. Jh davcrsadhd dc jhs susthokahs y jgs iátgdgs dc scphrhkaûo.
Cxastc uo `rho oýicrg dc susthokahs co oucstrg cotgrog, y h su vcz, khdh uoh dc cshs susthokahs,
cstèo kgipucsths dc dgs g iès ihtcrahjcs quc sc pucdco scphrhr. Cxastco iátgdgs quéiakgs
icdahotc jgs kuhjcs jgs ihtcrahjcs sc pucdco scphrhr, y cstgs sgo=
Cvhpgrhkaûo y dcstajhkaûo= jh dcstajhkaûo cs uo iátgdg dc scphrhkaûo iuy hota`ug, co cj quc sc
hprgvckfh jh cvhpgrhkaûo dc susthokahs jéquadhs phrh scphrhrjhs dc gtrhs susthokahs prcscotcs co
jhs iczkjhs, hprgvckfhodg phrh cstg quc jhs susthokahs tacoco uo daecrcotc puotg dc cnujjakaûo.
Eajt rhkaûo=
Eajtrhka ûo= cs uo iátgdg
iátgdg quc sc ush
ush phrh scphrhr iczkjhs fctcrg`áochs sûjadg - jéquadg, y kgosastc
co fhkcr phshr uoh iczkjh pgr uo ihtcrahj pgrgsg quc dctacoc jhs phrtékujhs `rhodcs dc sûjadg y
dcmh phshr hj jéquadg.
Ih`octazhkaûo= co cstc prgkcsg sc hprgvckfh jh prgpacdhd dcj ih`octasig quc tacoco hj`uogs
icthjcs kgig cj facrrg. [arvc phrtakujhricotc phrh scphrhr iczkjhs dc sûjadgs, dgodc uog dc jgs
kgipgocotcs pucdc scr htrhédg pgr uo aièo.
Dckhothkaûo= csth tákoakh sc nhsh co jh aoiaskanajadhd dc hj`uohs susthokahs co gtrhs. Cj ecoûicog
sukcdc dcnadg h quc cxastco daecrcokahs iuy ogthnjcs co jh cstrukturh dc jhs susthokahs.

860

 
 Krasthjazhkaûo= Cs uo prgkcsg pgr cj kuhj h phrtar dc uo `hs, uo jéquadg g uoh dasgjukaûo,
jgs agocs, ètgigs g igjákujhs csthnjckco cojhkcs fhsth egrihr uoh rcd krasthjaoh, jh uoadhd nèsakh
dc uo krasthj. Jh krasthjazhkaûo sc cipjch kgo nhsthotc erckucokah co Xuéiakh phrh puraeakhr
uoh susthokah sûjadh.
[unjaihkaûo= cs uoh tákoakh icdahotc jh kuhj uoh pcqucøh khotadhd dc sûjadgs pucdco phshr, pgr
khjcothiacotg, hj csthdg `hscgsg sao phshr pgr cj csthdg jéquadg.
Krgihtg`rheéh= csth tákoakh cs uoh dc jhs iès utajazhdhs co quéiakh phrh scphrhr iczkjhs c
adcotaeakhr kgipgocotcs, yh quc sc hpjakh co jh scphrhkaûo dc iczkjhs fgig`áochs y fctcrg`áochs,
yh scho jéquadhs g `hscgshs. [c nhsh co uo ecoûicog eésakg kgogkadg kgig hnsgrkaûo, quc gkurrc
kuhodg jhs phrtékujhs dc uo sûjadg, uo jéquadg g uo `hs, sc hnsgrnco h jh supcreakac dc uo sûjadg pgr
cj cecktg dc jh pgjhradhd.

>. Cstrukturh y pcragdakadhd

pcragdakadhd dc jgs cjcicotgs
>.8. Khrhktcrés
Khrhktcréstakhs
takhs dc jgs prgtgocs, cjcktrg
cjcktrgocs
ocs y ocutrgocs.

Co cj cstudag dc jh quéiakh cs aipgrthotc dctcriaohr jgs kgokcptgs nèsakgs kgo jgs quc sc trhnhmh.
Sog dc csgs kgokcptgs cs cj dc ètgig.
Rgdcigs dceaoar áj ètgig kgig jh khotadhd icogr dc cjcicotg quéiakg quc tacoc cxastco
cxastcokah
kah prgp
prgpah
ah
yogscsckgosadcrh aodavasanjc.
pucdc davadar Kuhodg
sao pcrdcr fhnjhigs dc quc
jhs khrhktcréstakhs sc kgosadcrh
cscokahjcs aodavasanjc,
dcj iasig fhy quc rcihrkhr quc
cjcicotg.
Cj ètgig cstè kgipucstg pgr cj oýkjcg kgo prgtgocs y ocutrgocs y dc uo oýicrg khrhktcréstakg dc
cjcktrgocs grnathjcs, daecrcotc co khdh cjcicotg.
Rrgtgocs.  Cs uo
Rrgtgocs.  uohh phrtékujh sunhtûiakh kgo kkhr`h
hr`h cjáktrakh pgsatavh, quc kgostatu
kgostatuyc
yc cj oýkjcg dc jgs
ètgigs, muotg kgo jgs ocutrgocs, y kuyg oýicrg, dcogiaohdg oýicrg htûiakg, dctcriaoh jhs
prgpacdhdcs quéiakhs dcj ètgig.
Ocutrgocs. Cs uoh phrtékujh sunhtûiakh quc egrih phrtc dcj oýkjcg muotg kgo jgs cjcktrgocs, kuyh
Ocutrgocs. Cs
phrtakujhradhd kgosastc co khrckcr dc khr`h cjáktrakh.
Cjcktrgocs. Cs uoh phrtékujh cjcicothj iès ja`crh quc egrih phrtc dc jgs ètgigs y quc kgotacoc jh
Cjcktrgocs. Cs
iéoaih khr`h pgsanjc dc cjcktrakadhd oc`htavh.
>.>. Oýicrg htûiakg y oýicrg dc ihsh.

Oýicrg htûiakg= cj oýicrg htûiakg cs a`uhj hj oýicrg dc prgtgocs (khr`h pgsatavh), prcscotcs co
cj oýkjcg dcj ètgig. Co jh thnjh, jgs cjcicotgs sc hkgigdho co grdco krckacotc dc oýicrg htûiakg.
Ihsh htûiakh= hj a`uhj quc cj oýicrg htûiakg, jh ihsh htûiakh thinaáo sc pucdc kgosujthr dc
ihocrh rèpadh co jh thnjh, yh quc huicoth `rhduhjicotc dcsdc cj cjcicotg iès ja`crg fhsth jgs
iès pcshdgs. Jh ihsh htûiakh cstè dctcriaohdh pgr jh suih dc prgtgocs y ocutrgocs prcscotcs co
cj oýkjcg dc jgs ètgigs dc uo cjcicotg. H daecrcokah dcj oýicrg htûiakg, quc saciprc cs a`uhj
phrh uo cjcicotg, jh ihsh htûiakh pucdc vhrahr, dc ihocrh quc sc tacoco asgtgpgs dc uo iasig
cjcicotg.

866

 
 >.;. Agocs, igjákujhs y ètgigs.
Agocs = ètgig g hh`ruphkaûo
Agocs= `ruphkaûo dc ètgi
ètgigs
gs quc pgr párdadh g `hohokah
`hohokah dc uog g i
iès
ès cjcktr
cjcktrgocs
gocs hdqua
hdquacrc
crc
khr`hh ccjáktrakh.
khr` jáktrakh.
Igjákujhs= iéoaih pgrkaûo rcprcscothnjc dc uo kgipucstg. Jhs igjákujhs cstèo egrihdhs pgr
ètgigs quc sc uoco icdahotc daecrcotcs tapgs dc cojhkcs quéiakgs.
Ètgigs= iéoaih pgrkaûo quc pucdc cxastar dc uo cjcicotg. Cstèo kgostatuadgs pgr oýkjcg y

cjcktrgocspgr
egrihdgs y, hquhrls.
su vcz co cj oýkjcg sc cokucotrho jgs prgtgocs y jgs ocutrgocs, y cstgs cstèo

>.4. Cstrukturh dc Jcwas.

@ajncrt O. Jcwas (8603-8145) euc cj quéiakg csthdguoadcosc quc aovcotû uo iátgdg ao`coagsg phrh
cxpjakhr jh uoaûo dc jgs cjcicotgs quéiakgs phrh egrihr kgipucstgs. Euc uog dc jgs praicrgs
quéiakgs quc kgosadcrû jh aipgrthokah quc tcoéh cj igdcjg dc Ngfr phrh cxpjakhr jh egrihkaûo dc
kgipucstgs. Euc áj quaco jjhiû cjcktrgocs dc "vhjcokah" h jgs cjcktrgocs cxtcrogs.
Jh vhjcokah cs cj oýicrg quc cxprcsh jh khphkadhd dc kginaohkaûo dc uo ètgig g rhdakhj kgo gtrgs
phrh egrihr uo kgipucstg.
Rhrh rcprcscothr jgs cjcktrgocs dc vhjcokah co khdh cjcicotg, Jcwas dascøû uo scokajjg igdcjg=
hsa`ohr h khdh uog uo puotg. Rhrh shncr dc quá sc trhth, sc cskranc cj séingjg dcj cjcicotg quéiakg
y h su hjrcdcdgr sc danumho jgs puotgs.
>.3. Cstrukturh y gr`hoazhk
gr`hoazhkaûo
aûo dc jgs cjcic
cjcicotgs
otgs co jh thnjh pcraûdakh.
Jh thnjh pcraûdakh cs jh rcprcscothkaûo `rèeakh grdcohdh dc jgs cjcicotgs quéiakgs sc`ýo su
oýicrg htûiakg< y sc cokucotrho daspucstgs dc egrih quc rcsujtco h`ruphdgs jgs quc pgscco
prgpacdhdcs quéiakhs hohjû`akhs.
Dcotrg dc jhs khrhktcréstakhs quc dctcriaoho jh cstrukturh dc jh thnjh pcraûdakh cokgotrhigs=

IH[H HTÛIAKH
HTÛIAKH ^CJHTAUH
^CJHT AUH  
Oýicrg htûiakg= Cs cj oýicrg dc prgtgocs co
cj oýkjcg dcj ètgig. @^SR
@^SRG
G AS
ASRH
RHK
K 8 U AH — @^SR
@^SRG
G KH[
Ihsh htûiakh= cs jh suih dc prgtgocs y OÝIC^GHTÛIAKG
ocutrgocs prcscotcs co cj oýkjcg dc uo [ÉINGJG
cjcicotg.
OGIN^C DCJ CJCICOTG

@rupg g ehiajah= sgo jgs cjcicotgs quc egriho uoh kgjuioh co jh thnjh pcraûdakh. Cstgs cjcicotgs
cstèo h`ruphdgs pgr sus prgpacdhdcs quéiakhs saiajhrcs.
Rcrégdgs= sgo jgs cjcicotgs quc egriho jgs rco`jgocs g eajhs dc jh thnjh pcraûdakh.
Uhjcokah y su rcjhkaûo kgo jgs `rupgs g ehiajahs. Jh kjhsaeakhkaûo dc jgs cjcicotgs sc davadc co dgs

`rhodcs
rco`jgocs`rupgs=
g eajhs.jgsCo`rupgs
`cocrhj,g ehiajahs, rcprcscothdgs
co uo `rupg sc tacococojgsjhscjcicotgs
kgjuiohs,quc
y jgs pcragdgs yquc
rchkkagoho sgo
tacoco

861

 
 prgpacdhdcs saiajhrcs (sgo ehiajahs) y co jgs pcragdgs, jh vhrahkaûo sc dh iès co táriaogs dc
huicotg dc oýicrg y ihsh htûiakh, sao quc fhyh thoth kgrrcjhkaûo dc rchktavadhd cotrc jgs
cjcicotgs dc jgs jhdgs. Jh vhjcokah kgrrcspgodc hj oýicrg dc cjcktrgocs co jh khph iès cxtcroh dc
uo ètgig, cs dckar, co jh ýjtaih ûrnath< y dctcriaoh su pgdcr dc kginaohkaûo.

THNJH RC^AÛDAKH DC JG[ CJCICOTG[

IH[H HTÛIAKH
HTÛIAKH ^CJHTAUH
^CJHTA UH {éi i
. ¡RmICTHJC[
¡RmICTHJC[ `[ CIAICTHJC[ ``m OG ICT
CTHJC[
HJC[
8 AH @^SRG ASRHK 8 Z AH----@^S
@^SRG
RG KH[ " `|jF¼S
`|jF¼S-I
-IjI
jIjjOG
jjOG..

JHOTÈOADG[

>.5. Cojhkc quéiakg.

So cojhkc quéiakg cs jh aotcrhkkaûo eésakh (eucrzh) quc ihotacoc uoadgs h dgs g iès ètgigs co uoh
igjákujh g kgipucstg rctakujhr.
Dc hkucrdg kgo jhs daecrcokahs co jhs prgpacdhdcs dc jhs susthokahs, y kgo nhsc co cj igdcjg
htûiakg, fgy co déh sc rckgogkco trcs egrihs dastaoths dc aotcrhkkaûo cjcktrûoakh g cojhkc co jhs
susthokahs= cj cojhkc kgvhjcotc, aûoak
aûoakg
g y ictèjakg
ictèjakg..
Cojhkc kgvhjcotc= Cs uo cojhkc quc tacoc ju`hr
cotrc ètgigs hj kgiphrtar phrcs dc cjcktrgocs.
Cojhkc aûoakg= Cstc cojhkc tacoc ju`hr cotrc
ètgigs quc kgiphrtco uo sgjg phr dc
cjcktrgocs.
Cojhkc ictèjakg= Cs uo cojhkc cotrc icthjcs
dcnadg h quc cstgs cjcicotgs sc khrhktcrazho
pgr tcocr pgk
jaujSaaac pgkgs
pu gs cai
uo cjcktrgocs
uoca i au
auaL
aLaaudc
c vhjcokah.
aauc CO
COJH
JHKC
KC KG
KGU
UHJC
JCO
OTC

812

 
 ;. Jh rchkkaûo
rchkkaû o quéiakh
;.8. Cj khinag quéiakg.
Tgdg cj tacipg gkurrco khinags quéiakgs h tu hjrcdcdgr. Rgsanjcicotc og jgs pucdcs dctckthr
pgrquc sukcdco dc ihocrh iuy rèpadh g iuy jcoth, gtrgs pgrquc og sc vcra h saipjc vasth y sgo
iuy sajcokagsgs g pgrquc og tc dho cvadcokahs kjhrhs
kj hrhs dc quc
quc cstèo sukcdacodg, jh kgkkaûo
kgkkaûo dc uo
phstcj, jh jaipaczh dc uo aogdgrg y fhsth jh prgpah rcsparhkaûo, sgo cmcipjg dc jgs iasigs. [a og
cxastacrho rchkkagocs quéiakhs, thipgkg ogsgtrgs csthréhigs hqué y jh vadh, kgig jh kgogkcigs, og
scréh pgsanjc. Rhrh hsc`urhrogs dc quc cs uo khinag quéiakg y og uo eésakg, hj táriaog dcj prgkcsg
tacoco quc fhncr susthokahs quc og fhnéh
fhnéh hj praokapag. Gkurrc uoh rchkkaûo quéiakh
quéiakh kuhodg hj`uohs
hj`uohs
susthokahs aoakahjcs (rchktavgs) sc trhosegriho co gtrhs (prgduktgs) kgo daecrcotcs prgpacdhdcs
eésakhs y quéiakhs.
quéiakhs.
;.>. Jh ckuhkaûo quéiakh= su aotcrprcthkaûo.
Jh ckuhkaûo quéiakh cs uoh cxprcsaûo sainûjakh dc uoh rchkkaûo quéiakh quc aodakh jhs khotadhdcs
rcjhtavhs dc rchkthotcs y prgduktgs.
[a khdh rchkkaûo quéiakh quc gkurrc co cj iuodg tuvacrh quc dcskranarsc pgr icdag dc ehscs
kgipjcths, og fhnréh uo sgjg janrg dc quéiakh quc tuvacrh icogs dc 322 pè`aohs. Hegrtuohdhicotc,
co
phrhquéiakh cxastc uoh
khdh cjcicotg, pgrogicokjhturh hnrcvahdh
icdag dc jctrhs, pgr jg quc
thotgpcriatc utajazhrquéiakh
uoh rchkkaûo rcprcscothkagocs sainûjakhs
rchj sc prcscoth pgr
icdag dc uoh ckuhkaûo quéiakh, jh kuhj ogs prgpgrkagoh iukfh aoegrihkaûo hkcrkh dc jh rchkkaûo,
huoquc sgjhicotc sch uoh rcprcscothkaûo dc jh iasih.
;.; Cj igj kgig uoadhd dc icdadh.
Cj igj cs jh uoadhd dc icdadh quc dctcriaoh jh khotadhd dc susthokah dcj [astcih Aotcrohkagohj dc
Soadhdcs.
Rgdcigs dceaoar hj igj kgig jh uoadhd kgo jh quc sc iadc jh khotadhd dc susthokah dc uo sastcih.
[c tacoc uo igj dc phrtékujhs kuhodg csths sgo a`uhjcs h jhs quc fhy co 2.28> l` dc 8>K, susthokah
quc sc cskg`aû kgig phtrûo kgiphrhtavg.
Cj táriaog phrtékujh sc cipjch thotg phrh ètgigs, kgig phrh igjákujhs, agocs, eûriujhs ctk. Dc
csth egrih, uoh vcz dceaoadg cj tapg dc phrtékujh hj quc ogs rcecraigs, uo igj dc dakfh susthokah
kgrrcspgodcréh
kgrrcspg odcréh h uoh iucstrh kgo jh prgpacdhd dc kgotcocr
kgotc ocr cj iasig oýicrg dc kuhjquacrh dc cshs
phrtékujhs. Rgr cmcipjg= cj quc cxastc dc ètgigs dc khrngog co 8> `rhigs dc uoh iucstrh purh dcj
asgtgpg Khrngog-8>.
;.4. Èkadgs y nhscs aipgrthotcs co oucstrh vadh kgtadahoh.
So èkadg cs uoh susthokah quc co dasgjukaûo huicoth jh kgokcotrhkaûo dc agocs dc fadrû`cog y sc
kginaoh kgo jhs nhscs phrh egrihr jhs shjcs.
Jgs èkadgs sgo susthokahs quc co dasgjukaûo hkugsh jancrho prgtgocs dc fadrû`cog, iukfgs

hjaicotgs
dcj scotadgquc
dcjkgosuiaigs dahrahicotc
`ustg. Hj`uogs tacoco
cmcipjgs sgo susthokahs
cj mu`g dcèkadhs
jaiûo,quc pgdcigs
ohrhomh pcrkanar pgrthinaáo
g ihodhraoh< icdag

818

 
 pgdcigs cokgotrhrjgs co shjshs pakhotcs g vaoh`rc. [ao cinhr`g, cxastco hj`uogs èkadgs dc usg
kgiýo quc pucdco pgocr co racs`g oucstrh shjud, kgig cj èkadg iuraètakg quc sc utajazh kgig
jaipahdgr, cj èkadg sujeýrakg quc sc utajazh co dastaotgs prgkcsgs aodustrahjcs, cotrc gtrgs.
Soh nhsc cs uoh susthokah quc co dasgjukaûo huicoth jh kgokcotrhkaûo dc agocs dc fadrgxajg y sc
kginaoh kgo jgs èkadgs phrh egrihr shjcs. Jhs nhscs sc kgotrhrahs h jgs èkadgs, utajazhigs jhs nhscs
co oucstrg fg`hr
fg`hr yh quc sc cokucotrho
cokucot rho praokaphjicotc
praoka phjicotc co prgduktgs dc jaipaczh y dctcr`cotcs phrh
rgph.

;.3. Jhs rchkkagocs rcdgx.

rcdgx.
Hj`uohs dc jhs rchkkagocs quéiakhs quc gkurrco h oucstrg hjrcdcdgr, sc prgdukco pgr aotcrkhinag
dc cjcktrgocs cotrc jgs ètgigs dc jhs susthokahs quc phrtakapho co cjjh. Cstc tapg dc rchkkagocs sgo
jjhihdhs "^chkkagocs rcdgx". Hj`uogs cmcipjgs kgtadahogs dc csths sgo jh egtgséotcsas, jh
rcsparhkaûo kcjujhr, jh kginustaûo
kginustaûo,, cotrc gtrhs.
Jhs rchkkagocs rcdgx aovgjukrho dgs prgkcsgs= jh gxadhkaûo y jh rcdukkaûo. Jh gxadhkaûo sc rceacrc h
jh párdadh dc cjcktrgocs y jh rcdukkaûo, h jh `hohokah dc cjcktrgocs.
Dceaoakaûo iès hota`uh= uo cjcicotg `hoh gxé`cog, sc gxadh, sc kgovacrtc co uoh cspckac gxadhdh,
iacotrhs quc cj gxé`cog g h`cotc gxadhotc, cs jh cspckac quc sc rcdukc.

Dceaoakaûo rckacotc= kuhodg kacrtgs ihtcrahjcs `hoho g pacrdco cjcktrgocs, cstgs sc trhoseacrco dc
uoh cspckac h gtrh y sc jjcvh h khng cj prgkcsg ûxadg- rcdukkaûo.

81
81>
>

 
@SÉH ^C[SCJTH RH^H AO@^C[H^ H JH CDSKHKAÛO ICDAH [SRC^AG^.
Cdathdh pgr Cdatgrahj Aecoaui.
Eucc aiprcsh co jg
Eu jgs thjjcrcs dc Aiprcsgrh @rèeakh
@rè eakh dcj Kcotrg [.H. dc K.U.
K.U.  
Hjjcodc Og. ;; Kcotrg, Iáxakg D.E. K.R. 25282.