Chapter 1

● Definitions
○ Nation-state: a sovereign state whose citizens or subjects are relatively homogeneous in factors such
as language or common descent.
○ International: between countries or nation-states. Nation states may co-operate with one other to
promote peace and security, trade, health, and human rights.
○ Patriotism: love of country and an interest in its well-being.
○ Ethnic: racial, cultural, or linguistic characteristics.
○ Self-determination: the power to control one’s own affairs.
○ Sovereignty: the political authority to control one’s own affairs.
○ Civic nation: a nation created by people of different ethnicities, cultures, and languages who agree to
live according to particular values and beliefs expressed as the rule of law.
○ Ethnic nationalism: nationalism that is founded on shared ethnicity, culture, and language.
● Questions
○ What are some concepts of nation?
-The concept of nation varies from person to person, everyone has different thoughts and
opinions about it. People become a nation when they begin to think of themselves and the others around
them as “us.” An example of a nation as “us” would be the Battle of Vimy Ridge. Winning that battle
was seen as an achievement by every Canadian since that was the first time Canadian Soldiers fought
under a Canadian Commander. The victory brought many Canadians close and gave them a sense that
they could do anything as long as they were united and together as one nation. A nation refers to a
shared state of mind and shared characteristics, it has nothing to do with governments or physical
borders. The concept of a nation can be based on collective identity. A sense of collective identity is
essential to a sense of nation. Thinking collectively allows people to come together as one and form a
nation, the people begin to identify as one.

○ What are some understandings of nation?

-People with similar worldviews can make up a nation and be identified as a collective group
with a collective identity. These collective ideas can develop from shared languages, ethnicities,
cultures, religions, spirituality, geographic locations, and political understandings. Having a common
language can create a sense of belonging together and acting as a nation. People who speak the same
language are easily able to relate to each other and are able to unite as one because of the
similarities. People with a common ethnicity can act as a collective group because they get a feeling
that due to them having a common ethnicity, their collective identity will be protected. A sense of
nation can also be inspired by shared ways of life. Having common cultural and religious beliefs can
also lead to a sense of nation because of the similarity between the people. An example of this would
be Punjabi’s living in Canada. They are a minority group in a different country, and their ethnic and
cultural similarities give them something to bond over and become a family/nation. Geographic
barriers can affect the development of nations since oceans, mountains, and deserts can lead to the
isolation of certain areas. Different geographic areas also have different resources to offer. An
example of this would be how Alberta is an oil-rich province while Saskatchewan has more grains
such as wheat to offer. Alberta and British Columbia have more mountains while Manitoba and
Saskatchewan have no mountains and are just all flat land. People's relationships are sometimes
bound up with spiritual connections. Spiritual/sacred sites can help bind people to the land and are
an important aspect of their spiritual identity.

○ How can a nation be understood as a civic concept?

-The Canadian Constitution of Rights and Freedoms expresses values and beliefs that Canadians
embrace and agree to follow as a condition of citizenship. When people of different ethnicities,
cultures, and languages agree to live according to particular values and beliefs expressed as laws,
 they create a civic nation. A civic nation gives people the opportunity to live together under laws that
reflect their shared values and beliefs and a similar worldview. Canada would be considered a civic
nation since Canadians don’t share religions, spiritual beliefs, languages, cultures, or ethnicities but
still live together according to some rules.

○ How do people express their identity through nation?

-The idea of a nation has the power to spark feelings of belonging to a much larger collective.
Language and religion can inspire a sense of collective and national identity. National identity is a
type of collective identity that is shared by a larger group of people. The relationship between
collective and national identity depends on the nation and how it evolves. A nation can either
develop because people feel strong shared bonds and wish to decide their own future. This causes
the feeling of collective identity to be there from the start which creates feelings of nationalism.
Another way a nation can develop would be when people who belong to diverse collectives decide
that they wish to live together in a nation-state. A new nation may or may not emerge from this.
National myths are shared stories, ideas, and beliefs that may or may not be accurate but are key to
creating a sense of nation. Myths often include truths about who people think they are and help
people connect their identity to a much larger group of people who form a nation.

Chapter 2
● Definitions
○ nationalism: an ideology that a person's nation is superior to all the others.
○ collective consciousness: an internal consciousness, or awareness, shared by many people.
○ rhetoric: The art of shaping language to influence the thoughts and actions of an audience.
○ bias: the act of supporting or opposing a particular person or thing in an unfair way.
○ elite: a select group that is superior in terms of ability or qualities to the rest of a group or society.
○ First Estate: the first of the traditional political estates; specifically the clergy.
○ Second Estate: the second of the traditional political classes, precisely the nobility.
○ Third Estate: the third of the traditional political orders; specifically the commons.
○ bourgeoisie: the growing middle class of France included some wealthy/educated.

● Questions
○ What are some factors that shape nationalism?
-Some factors that shape nationalism are historical, social, economic, geographical, and political
factors. These factors can not work alone and are reliant on one another. An example of them
overlapping and building upon one another to create a sense of nation would be in France during the
French Revolution. An example of a historical factor that shaped French nationalism would be the
storming of the Bastille. This event is considered the start of the French Revolution, it is what inspired
it. The Bastille was a prison where the King locked away people who went against him. On July 14,
1789, 600 angry civilians successfully attacked the prison and took control. This event encouraged
people to go against the king and nobility. The storming still inspires people today, as it reminds them
that the actions of civilians can start events that lead to change. An example of a social factor in the
French Revolution would be the class system. France was divided into social classes that were defined
by birth. The clergy consisted of the most power, as it was the king and nobility, then it was the
aristocrats, and lastly, it was the common people. The ruling elite, which was the clergy and aristocrats,
paid few taxes but accumulated great wealth by collecting taxes, rents, and other fees from the common
people. The bourgeoisie was a growing middle class, which included well-educated and well-travelled
people. They spread new ideas, such as about individual rights through the mass media. This changed
the way people thought of themselves and their relationships with other groups. Even though they had
great inspirational ideas, they couldn’t do much because they had no power. An example of an economic
factor would be war. The constant unsuccessful and costly wars eventually made the country bankrupt.
The King proposed the idea of increasing taxes for everyone but his plan was rejected by the estate
generals. The first(clergy) and second estate(aristocrats) always outpowered the third estate(common
people). Most members of the third estate were the bourgeoisie, who were determined to create a
constitution with equal rights for all men. They declared themselves as the National Assembly and stated
that they were the only group that represented the nation. This was what inspired the people to storm the
Bastille. An example of a geographic factor would be severe weather. The winter of 1788-89 was really
cold, piles of snow blocked roads making it impossible to trade or travel. When the snow began to melt
in the spring, it caused floods in many regions. In the summer, the country was hit with a drought, which
caused the destruction of grain crops and created a shortage. The price of flour rose and people couldn’t
afford bread, which was a staple in their diet. This caused riots in the countryside when people attacked
the wagons carrying grains to the market and seized the grains. An example of a political factor would
be the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the citizen. This led to the creation of a French nation
based on completely new principles and established France as a non-religious republic.

○ How have people responded to some factors that shape nationalism?

-Having pride in your fellow citizens inspires you to feel a greater sense of nationalism, which
means your feelings about nationalism have been internalized. Sharing memories is essential since it
is what holds a community/nation together, it allows people to create a collective consciousness. An
example would be how French people developed a collective consciousness during the French
Revolution. An example of the French and their collective consciousness would be the storming of
the Bastille. Even though only 600 participated in the event, it still became a powerful historical
symbol for people all over France. Events like these help people share a sense of belonging to a
nation. French citizens rejected absolute monarchy as their focus and based their nation on the
principles of liberty, equality, and brotherhood. This may have been true in the past, but many today
feel that not all French citizens are treated equally. French citizens from France’s former North
African colonies experienced racism. After the second world war, France had an open immigration
policy since they needed workers to rebuild, and many of these Muslim people were welcomed then.
After the energy crisis, the French economy slowed, making it harder for immigrants to find jobs. By
this time, the Muslim population had grown, and the members were visible. Many people believed
that this was threatening the French national identity. This is why the country passed strict laws on
who can and who can’t become a citizen in recent years. The story of the Boston Tea Party of 1773
was a defining moment in the national history of the United States. The British Parliament wanted to
raise taxes, but angered colonists didn’t allow this since they had no elected representatives. The
parliament decided to change the way tea was taxed because they believed that the colonists couldn’t
live without tea. Instead, the colonists dumped three ships worth of tea into the Boston harbour. This
caused British merchants a lot of money since tea was expensive, the British then closed off the port
in response. This initially triggered the start of the American Revolution.
 ○ How have people in Canada responded to some factors that shape nationalism?
-The building of the Canadian Pacific Railway was an event that was in the collective
consciousness of many Canadians. The railway was the idea of the first Canadian Prime Minister,
John A. Macdonald. He had this national dream that the entire country was united by an iron road.
Though this was a great historical event that united Canadians, there were many horrors behind this
event that were overlooked. The fact that 6000 Chinese labourers had been hired to work in the area
of the Rocky Mountains, where there were constant dangers such as avalanches and rock slides.
Though the Chinese workers worked in all this danger and got the job done, they still got paid less.
Whenever the railway is mentioned people think of how it was a national dream and don’t think
about the innocent lives lost in the process of making the national dream come true. Another
example would be the Inuit and how it prefers to be self-governed. They work together as a nation
and understand what they need to do for their best interests. They prefer this over some random
person controlling them and not knowing anything about their lifestyle or how they operate.
Self-governing was the only way they could make sure they got what was best for them and their
future.
Chapter 3
● Definitions
○ Contending loyalties: loyalties that compete.
○ Cultural Pluralism: a belief or doctrine that holds that collectives should be encouraged to affirm and
promote their unique cultural identity in a diverse society.
○ Reasonable Accommodation: a legal and constitutional concept that requires Canadian public
institutions to adapt to the religious and cultural practices of minorities as long as these practices do
not violate constitutional rights and freedoms.
○ Sovereignists: in Canada, people who support the idea of Québec’s becoming an independent
nation-state that can control its own destiny.
○ Federalists: people who support a federal system of government. In Canada, people who oppose
Québec sovereignty believe that Québec should remain a Canadian province.
○ Reconciliation: an act of resolving differences and repairing relationships that enables people to
come to terms with past injustices and coexist in peace.
○ Royal Commission: an independent public inquiry established by governments to examine
complicated issues, hear testimony from people involved, and recommend ways of achieving a
resolution.
● Questions
○ How do nationalist loyalties shape people’s choices?
-Commitment is the act of staying true to an idea. People either demonstrate their loyalty
publicly or keep it more secret. Choices based on loyalty can be easy decisions with no thinking
required or they can be difficult decisions with a lot of thought required. In some circumstances, it
may be harder to be loyal than in others, especially when showing loyalty conflicts with your
interests. Patriotism is one’s love towards a country or nation, and patriotism can depict loyalty.
Patriotism can inspire behaviours such as risking one’s life to protect their nation. Patriotism is an
emotion, and loyalty is a behaviour that can stem from patriotism. Nationalist loyalties are ones that
rarely require extreme sacrifice but can still affect people’s decisions. An example of this would be
an immigrant living in Canada but still constantly keeping up with everything happening back in
their own country. Contending loyalties are loyalties that compete and making a choice between
them can sometimes be extremely difficult. An example of this would be having a friend's birthday
party and a family member's birthday party on the same day. If you aren’t able to rearrange plans,
 you are forced to make a choice between your friend and family. Different people have different
loyalties, and as life changes people's loyalties and their relative importance also change.

○ What choices have people made to affirm nationalist loyalties?

-People affirm their nationalist loyalties by taking specific actions as an individual or in a group.
An example of you affirming your nationalist loyalties as an individual might be wearing a hoodie
that says Canada while travelling, an example in a group would be singing the national anthem at a
hockey game. First Nations people chose to affirm their status as nations in 1982 by restructuring
and reorganizing the National Indian Brotherhood and renaming it the Assembly of First Nations.
The assembly is declared as an association of the leaders of First Nation governments. The First
Nations insisted on maintaining their status as nations so that they can deal with the Canadian
government on a nation-to-nation basis. Names are a useful tool for affirming nationalist loyalties.
The South Baffin Place Names Project was started to record traditional Inuktitut place names.
Inuktitut names were often ignored by Europeans which is why they gave their own name to the
places in the North. An example of this would be how in the 16000s Iqaluit was changed to
Frobisher Bay, eventually, it was changed back to Iqaluit in 1987. Many Inuit are slowly starting to
use their Inuit names again. Traditionally Inuit only had a first name, in the late 1930s, the Canadian
government decided to assign the Inuit with their own personal numbers, which made it easier for
the government to keep track of them. This number system was finally abolished in 1969 and the
Inuit were told to choose a last name to add to their birth name. When immigrants first come to
Canada they may be scared about not fitting in. Over time they get more used to the environment
and feel comfortable about expressing their non-Canadian nationalist loyalties. An example would
be someone who recently moved from Australia cheering on the Australian team at the Olympics.
This action is one way of affirming nationalist loyalty within a Canadian context. A reasonable
accommodation is when Canadian public institutions adapt to the cultural and religious practices of
minorities as long as the practices don’t violate other rights and freedoms. An example of reasonable
accommodation would be when the RCMP uniform evolved to accommodate new symbols into the
uniform. Baltej Singh Dhillon was accepted into the RCMP’s training program. He was told to shave
his beard and remove his turban in order to wear a Stetson. Dhillon refused to do so since it went
against his faith and religious beliefs. In 1990, the federal government decided that Sikh RCMP
officers wearing a turban instead of a Stetson is a reasonable accommodation. The idea of reasonable
accommodation supports the shared sense of Canadian identity and belonging that is essential to
developing nationalist loyalties. Canadians adapt and relate to one another despite their differences
which encourages understanding. This makes Canadians resilient, they are able to accommodate
different points of view and see different ways to solve problems.

○ How can nationalist loyalties create conflict?

-When peoples’ choices enable them to include more than one nationalist loyalty in their identity,
these loyalties are compatible, they can coexist without conflict. Canadians celebrate Canada Day in
different ways. Some celebrations are serious and patriotic while others are wild and wacky. Canada
Day is an official day of mourning in Newfoundland, July 1 is considered the anniversary of the
bloodiest day in Newfoundland’s history. This was referred to as the Battle of Beaumont-Hamel,
which occurred in 1916. Newfoundland was self-governing under British domination which wasn’t a
part of Canada yet. The Newfoundland Regiment was nearly wiped out in this battle and is symbolic
for Newfoundlanders. Contending nationalist loyalties can create conflict between people. When
 people aren’t able to reconcile their conflicting loyalties by diplomatic means, they may result to
violence. An example of this would be Jewish Israelis and Palestinians wishing to control the same
territory since both groups have historical, religious, spiritual, cultural, and geographic ties to it. An
example of contending loyalties in Quebec would be when Quebecois were forced to choose
between their loyalty to Quebec and their loyalty to Canada in 1995 due to a referendum on
separating from Canada. The results from the votes revealed that the voters were nearly equally
divided over how to reconcile these contending loyalties. Quebecois who support the idea of
Quebec’s becoming an independent nation-state is sovereignists. Quebecois who oppose Quebec
sovereignty are known as federalists.

○ How have people reconciled contending nationalist loyalties?

-Reconciliation is to resolve differences and bring people together. When people/nations
disagree, or when their nationalist loyalties lead them to pursue contending goals, reconciliation can
bring them together and allow them to coexist peacefully. The inability to resolve the differences
may lead to damaging political struggles or even war. Canadian governments tried to force First
Nations, Inuit, and Metis to abandon their culture and traditions to assimilate into mainstream
society. Over time the policies changed and allowed Aboriginal and treaty rights. Though they had
rights, the First Nations, Inuit, and Metis continue to face struggles to control their own destiny. The
Oka standoff was when a group of Mohawks wanted to stop the expansion of a golf course onto land
the Mohawks claimed as their own and considered sacred. Protestors set up barricades, and the
government refused to talk to them with the roadblock but the protesters refused to remove them.
The standoff lasted for 4 months. As the crisis deepened, the military got involved and they cut off
the protestor’s communication with the outside world which eventually ended the protest. Many
protestors were faced with criminal charges but nearly all were found not guilty. The federal
government bought the land but then transferred the ownership to the Mohawks. The Oka crisis was
a wake-up call for the federal government, which led them to start the Royal Commission. The
Royal Commission consisted of four Aboriginal and three non-Aboriginal commissioners. After
listening to more than 2000 people and doing a lot of research the commissioners stated that First
Nations were treated wrong and that they should be viewed as nations that have the right to govern
themselves. The findings of the Royal Commission led the federal government to issue a Statement
of Reconciliation in 1998. The document expressed regret for Canada’s history of suppressing
Aboriginal culture and values and weakening the identity of Aboriginal peoples. The Royal
Commission urged the government to change its approach to Aboriginal land claims. The settling of
land claims always had a super long procedure. The James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement of
1975 was the first modern comprehensive land-claim settlement in Canada.
Chapter 4
● Definitions
○ Non-nationalist Loyalty: a loyalty that is not embedded in the idea of a nation. People may be loyal
to and identify
with family, friends, a region, an idea, a collective or a group, a way of life, and a culture.
○ Inflation: a rise in prices accompanied by a drop in the purchasing power of money. Increases in the
price of goods and services can threaten the economic security and interests of people in a region or
country.
 ○ Alienation: the experience of feeling left out or being on the outside. People who choose one strong
loyalty over another risk alienation from an important part of their identity and from sharing in the
collective consciousness of their group.
○ Segregation: the forced separation of racial groups. Extreme loyalty to one racial group can lead to
separate schools and living areas for racial minorities and eventually to ultranationalism and
persecution of those minorities.
● Questions
○ What are non-nationalist loyalties?
-Non-nationalist loyalties are loyalties that are not embedded in the idea of a nation. Some
examples of non-nationalist loyalties would be class loyalty, religious loyalty, regional loyalty,
ideological loyalty, cultural loyalty, and racial/ethnic loyalty. Class loyalty is loyalty to people of a
particular social sector, an example would be business entrepreneurs. Religious loyalty is loyalty to a
religious organization and its belief and values, an example would be the Catholic Church. Regional
loyalty is loyalty to a certain region and the interests of the people living there, such as the West.
Ideological loyalty is loyalty to shared ideas about how a society should work, animal rights would be an
example of this. Cultural loyalty is loyalty to a certain way of life, such as Alberta ranchers.
Racial/ethnic loyalty is loyalty to people of the same racial/ethnic background, an example would be
Punjabis.

○ How can nationalist and non-nationalist loyalties compete?

-Nationalist loyalties are loyalties that relate to a nation or its well-being, and non-nationalist
loyalties are loyalties that don’t relate to a nation. Nationalist and non-nationalist loyalties can compete
when both loyalties lead people toward different goals. Class would be a factor that can lead to
competition between nationalist and non-nationalist loyalties. Wealth, status, education level, career
choice, and ethnicity can be some aspects that can lead to divisions within a society. Disputing these
divisions can lead to conflict among people, an example of such conflict would be the French
Revolution. During the French Revolution, the common people of the third estate went against the
aristocrats and clergy for their rights and equality among all men. Another factor leading to competition
between both loyalties would be religion. When people of various religious loyalties can’t respect one
another’s beliefs and coexist peacefully conflict can occur. The Shiites and Sunnis of Iraq would be an
example. The two main groups of Iraqis disagree over how to interpret the Quran, this disagreement
affected their national loyalties and sparked violent conflict. Another major factor that can affect both
loyalties would be region. People often express their regional loyalty by promoting the interests of their
region but this can sometimes lead to a conflict between regional and national loyalties. An example of
such competition would be Alberta in 1980 when the National Energy Program was introduced. Prime
Minister Pierre Trudeau initiated the National Energy Program in response to inflation. The NEP was
designed to reduce foreign ownership of oil and gas companies operating in Canada, set a Canadian oil
price lower than the world price, and make Canada self-efficient for energy. This angered many
Albertans since Alberta produced about 86% of Canada’s oil. The NEP prevented Alberta from
benefitting from high world prices and would harm the Canadian oil and gas industry. The NEP led to
Alberta’s economy dropping, it cost the province 50,000 jobs and around $100 billion in revenue.

○ How have people reconciled contending nationalist and non-nationalist loyalties?

-When people’s nationalist and non-nationalist loyalties become contending loyalties they
reconcile them. Reconciliation of these loyalties can be living with the contending loyalties, choosing
one loyalty over the other, or accommodating both. Ignoring their contending loyalties means people
don’t want to deal with it. They remain uninvolved with their contending loyalties and don’t want to
express their opinions. Choosing one loyalty over another can lead to people risking an important factor
of their identity. An example would be when one is forced to pick between their nation and faith. If they
pick faith then they lose part of their nationalist identity and if they pick nation then they lose part of
their faith. Another way to reconcile loyalties is to accommodate both of them and allow them to coexist
peacefully. An example of this would be Baltej Singh Dhillon and the RCMP. He was told to shave his
 beard and get rid of his turban in order to wear a Stetson. He stood his ground and refused to do so since
it went against his faith. Eventually, the RCMP accommodated the uniform and allowed Sikh RCMP
officers to wear a turban instead of a Stetson.

Chapter 5
● Definitions
○ National Interest: the interests of the people of a nation. National interests may include economic
prosperity, security and safety, and beliefs and values.
○ Peacekeepers: armed forces who maintain peace by keeping enemies apart until a crisis can be
resolved through diplomacy and negotiation
○ Peacemaking: allowing armed forces that were originally sent to maintain peace in a region of
conflict to use force for reasons other than self-defence.
○ Policy: a plan of action that has been deliberately chosen to guide or influence future decisions.
○ Domestic Policy: a plan of action that guides a government’s decisions about what to do within a
country. in Canada, domestic policy decisions may include changing federal laws, settling
Aboriginal land claims, and spending tax revenues.
○ Foreign Policy: a plan of action that guides a government’s decisions about its official relations with
other countries. Also called foreign affairs or external
○ relations.
○ Gross Domestic Product: the value of all goods and services produced in a country in a year
● Questions
○ How are nationalism and national interest related?
-Nationalism is an ideology that promotes the interest of a particular nation. National interest is
the interests of the people of a nation. When a person's nationalism is based on either a shared
ethnicity and culture or shared beliefs and values, they want certain benefits for themselves and their
communities, these benefits are their national interests. National interests are based on the aspects of
economic prosperity, security and safety, and beliefs and values. Economic prosperity includes stable
employment and a decent standard of living, for example, the government provides these economic
benefits through laws and treaties. Security and safety are measures needed to maintain national
security and physical protection through laws that protect citizens within the country and secure the
border against intruders. For example, the governments make sure to ensure the safety of citizens,
peacefully resolve any differences with other nations, and control who enters their country. Beliefs
and values include the affirming and promoting of citizens’ values, beliefs, and culture. For example,
governments try to safeguard and respect the shared worldview, ways of life, traditions, and
languages of their citizens. People’s opinions on what is considered to be their national interest can
vary just as people’s understanding of nationalism differs. People’s opinions on national interest can
change due to events inside or outside the country. For example, an event inside a country may be a
catastrophic event while an event outside a country might be a sudden flare of conflict with
neighbouring countries. People decide what's. in their national interest based on their personal
understanding of the nation and national identity. An example would be how Canadians view
peacemaking vs peacekeeping. Many people take pride in Canada’s reputation as a nation of
peacekeepers, meaning armed forces only use force for self-defence. On the other hand, many
people believe that Canada's peacekeeping role should shift to peacemaking, allowing soldiers to use
force for other reasons than defence. An example of this would be the role of Canadian armed forces
in Afghanistan, their peacekeepers role eventually shifted to the role of peacemakers. National
interest often involves claiming sovereignty over a territory, such an example would be the Arctic
sovereignty. Canada, the United States, Russia, Norway, and Denmark all claim sovereignty to the
 islands and seabed of the Arctic. According to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, countries
have sovereignty over 22.2 km of the sea beyond their coastline and can control resources in and
under the seabed for 370 km. Proving that the seabed is an extension of a country’s continental shelf
can allow the country rights to harvest resources in a larger area. Russia claimed part of the 1800 km
Lomonosov Ridge in 2007. The Russian government claimed that the ridge was a part of the Russian
continental shelf; they planted a flag in the ocean as a symbolic claim to the natural resources that
may be buried there. Claiming sovereignty in the Arctic is important to the five countries due to
climate change. The warming temperatures are causing the Arctic ice to melt which can lead to the
possibility of the Northwest Passage being open all year long. If the water route that connects the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans is open to year-round commercial navigation, it can lead to shortening
the distance ships have to travel between Asia and Europe. The Northwest passage is claimed by
Canada but other countries claim it to be international.

○ How has national interest shaped foreign policy?

-A country’s government is responsible for developing the country’s domestic and foreign policy.
Domestic policy guides decisions about what to do within the country. Foreign policy guides
decisions about official relations with other countries, foreign policy is also known as external
relations or foreign affairs. Foreign policy can have relatively short-term effects on a limited number
of people or long-term effects on millions of people. For example, many people believe that the
turmoil in Middle Eastern countries relates directly to the foreign policy decisions of the United
States and European countries as they pursued their national interests at the end of World War I.
Many people believed that nationalism and people's beliefs about their national interests were
important causes of WWI. For example, European governments believed that it was in their national
interest to expand their territory in Europe. This belief was the foundation of their foreign policy,
which led them to form alliances with other European countries. Their alliance consisted of them
agreeing to help one another when one country was threatened. This system was one factor that
brought so many countries into the war so quickly. Most people who were affected by WWI had no
say in the decision to go to war, their national interests weren’t considered. The purpose of WWI
was to fight over sovereignty and territory, economic interests and security, and nationalism and
national interests. These same issues dominated the discussions at the peace talks that took place in
Paris. The victorious Allies wanted to punish Germany by imposing harsh conditions. The most
powerful Allied countries were Britain, France and the United States, which is why they made many
of the treaty decisions that had far-reaching effects. The Treaty of Versailles required Germany to
reduce its military strength, give up territory and colonies in Europe, pay war compensations of $30
billion, and accept responsibility “for causing all the loss and damage” that had affected the Allies.
Once WWI ended the countries were more focused on domestic issues rather than foreign policy
issues. The war caused an industrial boom. Belgium and France began to focus on their rebuilding
and Britain was more focused on its power struggle in India. Overall the unity among the Allies
disappeared. Before WWI, Arabs in the Ottoman Empire suffered from political, cultural, and
linguistic persecution at the hands of the Turks. During WWI Arab nationalism grew, and their goal
was self-government. This is why they helped the Allies fight against the Turks and Germany in the
Middle East, they were promised an independent homeland in return. Prince Emir Faysal led the
Arab fighters and helped Britain gain control of Palestine in 1917. He was helping the Allies for the
independence of his homeland but what he didn’t know was that the French and British had secretly
agreed to divide and control the Middle East amongst themselves. After WWI France gained control
 of Syria and Lebanon while Britain gained control over Cyprus, Iraq, and Palestine. Though the
United States wasn’t directly involved it still supported Britain and France. None of the presidents
paid attention to the promises made earlier or the national interest of the Middle East. The Allies
were only concerned with their national interest. France and Britain believed that controlling the
Middle East would promote their nationalist interest by securing trade with a region that is rich in
oil. Arab nationalists were outraged when they found out about the Balfour Declaration. The British
enacted the Balfour Declaration, which promised to set up a “national home for Jewish people” in
Palestine. Most Arabs viewed this as a betrayal of the promises that were made to them. A republic
was set up in Turkey after the war, the new government refused to accept the European peace treaty
and won independence from Turkey in 1923. Turkey and Iraq both got admitted into the League of
Nations in 1932, which was six years after Germany got in.

○ How has foreign policy shaped national interest?

-Though national interest usually shapes foreign policy, foreign policy can also shape national
interest. An example would be how government policies can affect its citizens’ safety and security,
their economic future, and their values and culture. A country’s foreign policy affects everyone in
the country, while some may benefit from it others may be negatively impacted. The Peruvian
government decided to auction land in the Amazon rainforest to foreign-owned oil companies for
development in 2007. They believed this was in their national interest since the profit from the oil
exploration and extraction would help the Peruvians. The land they were trying to auction was part
of the traditional territory of the Mashco Piro. The Mashco Piro are a group of Indigenous people
who shun contact with outsiders, they don’t want to move to another part of the forest or become
part of the outside world. Peruvian law states that if Indigenous people live in a region the land must
be kept for their use. This law can be overlooked if the land is used in a way that contributes to the
country’s national interest. Later on, the Peruvian government signed the United Nations Declaration
on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples as a part of its foreign policy. The declaration states that
Indigenous peoples have the right not only to territories and resources they have traditionally owned,
occupied, and used, but also to own, use, develop, and control territories and resources that they
possess by reason of traditional ownership or other traditional occupation or use. After the 9/11
attacks in the United States, it was believed that the Taliban rulers of Afghanistan were hiding and
protecting Osama bin Laden and other members of al-Qaeda, which claimed responsibility for the
attacks. As a result, the United Nations agreed that the United States and its allies were entitled to
invade Afghanistan to destroy the Taliban and track down bin Laden. The UN believed that the
attacks threatened international peace and security which is why the United States had “the inherent
right of individual or collective self-defence as recognized by the Charter of the United Nations.”
This mission led to the UN authorizing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 2001. The
treaty that created NATO stated that an attack on one member would be considered an attack on all.
This is why forces from Canada, the United States, Britain, and other countries went to Afghanistan
under the NATO banner. Canadian forces helped keep the peace while a new government was
organized after the Taliban government fell. In 2003 many American troops in Afghanistan were
reassigned to Iraq because the United States had invaded Iraq. This reduced the size of NATO forces
in Afghanistan, which forced the other countries including Canada, to increase the size of their force
and expand their role to include active combat. As the fighting in Afghanistan dragged on, Canada
and its NATO allies realized that they must place greater emphasis on creating a democratic,
self-sufficient society in that country. To make the country more secure, they had to help the
 Afghans rebuild their economy, political processes, medical facilities, armed forces and police.
These goals weren’t easy to accomplish since the Taliban and al-Qaeda fighters were using guerrilla
tactics to disrupt the lives of the Afghan people and battle NATO forces. Over a span of seven years,
81 Canadian soldiers and one diplomat had been killed, the death toll is on the rise even after this.
The continuing conflict in the country created a debate in Canada over whether and how long
Canadian troops should remain in Afghanistan.
Chapter 6
● Definitions
○ Ultranationalism: an extreme form of nationalism. Ultranationalists are often fanatically loyal to
their own nation and hostile and racist toward other nations
○ Propaganda: information and ideas that are spread to achieve a specific goal. Extreme nationalists
may use misleading and dishonest information to create fear and insecurity and to persuade people to
behave in certain ways
○ appeasement: giving in to demands
○ conscription: compulsory military service.
○ League of Nations: the first worldwide intergovernmental organization whose main goal was to
maintain world peace.
○ charismatic: exercising a compelling charm which inspires devotion in others.
○ internment: the state of being confined as a prisoner, especially for political or military reasons.
● Questions
○ What is ultranationalism?
-Ultranationalism is an extreme form of nationalism. Ultranationalists usually move from valuing
their nation and its interests to hostility towards other nations, this hostility can disrupt international
peace. Ultranationalism includes elements of racism and fanaticism which can often lead to
conflicts. Ultranationalism can also be associated with a fanatical belief in the rights of one’s own
group and fear and loathing of anyone who challenges these beliefs. Drastic social or economic
changes which result in poverty and unemployment can spark extreme nationalism. People’s interest
in personal security, economic security, and the values of their own people become important. An
example would be when the Soviet Union disintegrated in 1991 and Russia and 14 other independent
republics emerged. The transition was difficult as it led to insecurities about the future emerging,
which bred hatred of people who were different. Such an example would be in 2006, when many
Russians supported the idea that Russia was for Russians, meaning ethnic Russians and not Russian
citizens. Russia was an absolute monarchy at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1928, ten years
after the royal family’s assassination, Joseph Stalin, a communist, emerged as the country’s leader.
His first act was to confiscate land owned by farmers and create collective farms owned by the state.
Anyone who objected was executed and around 5 million people were deported to forced-labour
camps in Serbia or Central Asia. Stalin wanted to replace the loyalties of 100 distinct national groups
with Soviet nationalism. Any group that objected was persecuted as a “criminal nation.” Stalin
confiscated the crops of Ukrainian farmers that refused to give up their farms which led to 10 million
Ukrainians dying of starvation. He also outlawed the use of the Ukrainian language in public.
Ukrainians were the largest group of prisoners in the forced-labour camps. Stalin got rid of the
Communist Party of anyone who was accused of being an “enemy of the people.” Propaganda is
when information is spread to achieve a specific goal, it is mostly dishonest and misleading
information. Propaganda is used to manipulate strong emotions of fear or insecurities to persuade
 people to behave a certain way. Propagandists often call their opponents degrading names, such as
terrorists. They play down their failures or use words that hide their true intentions, such as calling a
war holy. They are able to use respected symbols to appeal to people’s values and beliefs, such as
using religious symbols or national flags. Propagandists are also able to appeal to people’s fear when
trying to persuade them to support their particular actions, an example would be claiming a strict law
is the only way to save a nation and ensure its peace.

○ How does ultranationalism develop?

-Social and economic crises, the emergence of a charismatic leader, and national traditions and
myths that promote feelings of superiority are what can transform nationalism into ultranationalism.
The Great Depression served as fertile ground for the growth of nationalism. People suffered
economic losses which offered pursuits of national interest. In October of 1929, share prices on the
New York Stock Exchange dropped, this sudden crash caused turmoil in many countries.
Governments had a hard time taking care of the needs of citizens who had no work or money.
Germany became a republic after the first world war, which led to both men and women getting the
right to vote. During the 1920s, no political party had won to run a successful government. The
Great Depression hit Germany hard since the country was already struggling to recover from the
war. They were paying war reparations and were greatly in debt to the United States because they
had lent the government money to rebuild the country. In the early 1920s, Germany was suffering
from extreme inflation. This led to German money becoming almost worthless while the prices
continued to rise. The prosperity of Germany depended on trade with other countries. Many
countries stopped their trade with Germany during the Great Depression to protect their own
industries. The standard of living of many Germans was destroyed as people faced homelessness and
starvation. At this point, the people of Germany were desperate for a strong leader as the economic
conditions of the country kept on getting worse. After numerous attempts, Adolf Hitler and his
National Socialist German Workers’ Party were elected to lead in 1933. Hitler dissolved the
parliament and declared the start of his empire and announced himself as the dictator. The state ruled
in all matters including all economic, social, political, and cultural aspects. The freedom of the press
and assembly were suspended, and postal, telegraph and telephone communications weren’t private.
The Great Depression had similar effects in Japan as well. During WWI, Japan supported the Allies
which led to an increase in their exports to Europe and the United States. The Great Depression
forced trading partners to limit their imports and focus on their own industries, which caused many
Japanese to lose their jobs. In 1932, a massive rice failure led to famine throughout the entire
country. Japanese ultranationalists blamed the country’s politicians for the economic crisis. Many
Japanese were also outraged by the fact that Canada, the United States, and Australia began to shut
out Japanese immigrants. In 1931, Japan invaded China in hopes to obtain raw materials and markets
for Japanese products. In 1937, the military controlled the Japanese government and was at war with
China. The military leaders brought back obedience to the emperor and the state and created a cult
around the emperor, Hirohito. Ultranationalist dictators emerged in the Soviet Union, Italy, Germany,
and Japan. These certain leaders inspired enthusiasm and devotion in followers and fear in anyone
who questioned their leadership or policies. An example of such a leader in Germany would be
Hitler. He promised to make Germany the leading nation on Earth. He claimed to do this by refusing
to recognize the Treaty of Versailles, promising to rebuild armed forces and reclaim lost territory,
and restore the superiority of the “Aryan race.” Nazi propagandists used radios, movies, public
service announcements, and posters to keep Hitler’s image and message before the public. Tojo
 Hideki and emperor Hirohito would be examples of charismatic leaders in Japan. Ultranationalists
worked to get rid of democracy and make the country a one-party ruled by the military. Emperor
Hirohito wasn’t involved with politics, leaving the commanders of Japan’s armed forces to make
decisions on the country’s national interests. In 1941, General Tojo Hideki became Prime Minister
and transformed Japan into a military dictatorship. Dictatorships promoted extreme nationalist
values. Foreign and domestic policies fostered these values and military/police forces were
strengthened to protect them. German ultranationalist propaganda mostly focused on the glories and
nationalist values of the past. Nazi leaders stated that Germany had to get rid of anyone who was
considered inferior or challenged the state’s perspective, this included socialists, Jews, Roma,
homosexuals, and people with disabilities. Students were taught Nazi values and were shielded from
ideas that challenged these values, history books were also rewritten to glorify Germany’s past. On
the days of November 9 and 10 in 1938, Nazi thugs destroyed Jews’ homes and businesses in
Germany and Hungary, they beat up Jewish people, broke windows, and destroyed cemeteries.
Hitler’s government passed laws taking away the basic rights of the Jewish. Jewish people couldn’t
own properties/businesses, Jewish children were expelled from schools and universities, they
couldn’t be doctors, lawyers, or university professors, and they weren’t allowed to own automobiles
or have a driver’s license.

○ How have people responded to ultranationalism?

-Ultranationalism infects all aspects of a country’s life including, social, economic, political,
cultural, and spiritual aspects. Ultranationalists prey on people’s fears and use propaganda to spread
hatred. Countries believed that avoiding one another was one of their most important national
interests. Countries hoped that appeasement was the best policy when Hitler began to expand
Germany’s territory in Europe. Germany had been expanding its territory since 1935. In 1938,
British, Italian, and French Prime Ministers met with Hitler to discuss Germany’s recent takeover of
Sudetenland. Germany had ruled this region before WWI but had to give it up due to the Treaty of
Versailles. The three prime ministers allowed the takeover to go unchallenged in return for Hitler’s
promise claiming not to expand any further. Winston Churchill, a member of the British parliament,
claimed that appeasement wouldn’t work. Churchill was proven right when the appeasement had
failed and Hitler took over the rest of Czechoslovakia. By 1934, 58 countries were members of the
League of Nations. League members agreed to help one another and take action to maintain peace. If
one country invaded another, League members could order the aggressor to leave the opponent’s
territory, impose trade sanctions on the aggressor, and use military force against the aggressor.
Member countries weren’t required to provide troops to stop aggression and the idea of joint military
action soon became an empty threat. After WWI, Italy suffered similarly to Germany. Benito
Mussolini, an extreme nationalist claimed himself as dictator after being elected in 1922. He
promised to restore Italy’s power and prestige by suppressing all opposition, instilling absolute
loyalty, and conquering other territories. Italy fought with the Allies in WWI and was disappointed
when the Treaty of Versailles failed to reward the country with control of Ethiopia or territory
claimed in Europe. In October 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia. The Ethiopian emperor went to the
League of Nations headquarters to plead for help since both Italy and Ethiopia were members of the
League of Nations. Ethiopia ended up receiving no international support since none of the other
member countries enforced the trade sanctions against Italy that were called by the League of
Nations. In 1939, when Hitler invaded Poland, Britain and France realized that appeasement was
going to work. On September 3, both countries declared war on Germany, this was later known as
 World War II. On September 10, it was announced that Canada, too, was at war. Canada’s national
interest was now focused on the war effort. Due to Canada’s engagement in the war, the tone used to
describe the country’s involvement in international affairs changed. Germany was implied as the evil
enemy by the government and Canadians were told that they were fighting for “the freedom of
mankind.” By the end of September, more than 58,000 Canadians had enlisted in the armed forces.
Propaganda campaigns were launched to recruit people and persuade them to invest in war bonds,
which helped finance the war. Official censorship was introduced to ensure that no essential
information fell into the hands of the enemies. Countries like Germany, Japan, Italy, and the Soviet
Union believed that conscription was in their national interest. They strongly believed that a strong
military was essential for their national defence and their expansion plans. Conscription wasn’t only
limited to dictatorships, during WWI, the Canadian government also introduced conscription. This
new rule led to division in the country, as some people supported it and some opposed it. An
example of opposition would be from farmers, they were worried about what would happen to their
farms if they were forced to enlist. The United Nations was created in response to all the destruction
caused by WWII. At first, UN missions involved only observation, but the crisis over the Suez Canal
needed a different approach. The canal that links the Red and Mediterranean seas, was owned by a
British and French company that had built the waterway in the 19th century. The canal allowed
goods to move between Asia and Europe more quickly and cheaply. The fees paid by the ships using
the canal and the profit went to the company’s shareholders. In 1956, the Egyptian government
seized the canal; they believed it was in the country’s national interest for the Egyptian people to
benefit from the canal and not the company. In response, Israeli, British, and French forces invaded
the canal zone. The Soviet Union supported Egypt and threatened to attack Britain and France. The
escalating situation put the world in danger of another war. To prevent this from happening,
Canada’s minister of external affairs, Lester B. Pearson suggested the UN send an emergency force
to keep peace in the canal zone. Within days the UN had assembled a force with soldiers from
various countries and sent them to the canal. A peaceful solution was found as the hostile countries
withdrew. This marked the start of international peacekeeping. Pearson was awarded the Nobel Prize
in 1957 for this. The peacekeeping responsibilities today range from nation-building to
peacekeeping. This helps countries in desperate need of help transition to more democratic forms of
government. The Canadian government believes that a peaceful world is in Canada’s national
interest, which is why participating in peacekeeping nations is important for the country’s foreign
policy.

Chapter 7
● Definitions
○ genocide: the killing of members of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group; causing serious
bodily or mental harm to members of the group; and deliberately inflicting on the group conditions
of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction.
○ crimes against humanity: Widespread or systematic attacks against a civilian population, including
murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, imprisonment, torture, rape or sexual slavery,
enforced disappearance of persons, and the crime of apartheid.
○ war crimes: wilful killing, torture, or inhuman treatment; wilfully causing great suffering; and
○ intentionally directing attacks against a civilian population or against those who are involved in a
humanitarian or peacekeeping mission.
 ○ Holocaust: the English term used to describe the genocide of about six million Jews by the Nazis
during World War II.
○ Ethnic cleansing: a term that is used to make more socially acceptable the murder or expulsion of an
ethnic nation from a territory
○ ICC: an international court that can both try and judge people accused of “the most serious crimes
of international concern.”
○ euphemism: a mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or
blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing.

● Questions
○ What are crimes against humanity?
-Passionate nationalism and strong leaders can also lead to the excess of ultranationalism when
one group of people commits crimes against the other. An example would be in 1937 when Japanese
soldiers invaded Nanjing on orders from the highest rank of the military. The Japanese murdered
300,00 civilians, which included men, women, and children. An example would be when the United
States dropped two atomic bombs on Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki near the end of
WWII. The massacre in Nanjing sparked many countries in the United Nations to agree on the
definitions of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. These definitions were written by
the International Criminal Court(ICC), the ICC can both try and judge people accused of “the most
serious crimes of international concern.” A racist who treats a particular group of people with
contempt may have taken the first step toward treating members of the entire group inhumanely.
Ultranationalists may often start by segregating the people they despise, by excluding them from
certain areas, forcing them to live in ghettos and denying their rights as citizens. The victims may be
pushed to the margins of society and blamed for things that go wrong in a country. Their culture is
destroyed as they may be deported or murdered. Laws allow actions like these to be carried out as
official government policy in an ultranationalist state. In an ultranationalist state, genocide and
crimes against humanity are state-sponsored acts of murder. The murderers believe that these acts
promote their national interests. Although the laws exclude ethnic groups or condemn them to death
may be state policy, the crimes are carried out by individuals and the victims are individuals.

○ How has ultranationalism caused crimes against humanity?

-Ultranationalist sentiments and beliefs have caused people to commit crimes against humanity,
some nation-states approved of these crimes and created policies that encouraged them. As a result,
some ethnic nations have nearly disappeared. When Turkey emerged as a country in 1922, it was still
a part of the Ottoman Empire. The official religion was Islam although there were some Armenians.
Most Armenians were Christians, they maintained their national identity, language, and culture even
though they lived under the Ottoman for thousands of years. Armenians suffered from discrimination
for choosing to affirm their identity. In the late 1800s, Armenian nationalists began fighting for
self-determination, and they eventually lost the fights and thousands were killed by the Turks. In
1914, the Young Turks, an ultranationalist political party that controlled the Ottoman-Turkish
government, issued orders calling for the massacre of Armenians, it was called the “Ten
Commandments.” This included applying measures to exterminate all males under 50, priests, and
teachers; leaving girls and children to be Islamized, cutting off families with their native places and
carrying away the families of all who succeed in escaping, and killing off all Armenians in the army
in an appropriate way. Soldiers began carrying out these orders on April 24, 1915. Armenian
 community leaders were arrested, thousands of Armenians were murdered, and the army began
forced deportation, or they were forced to regions toward Syria. Fewer than 100,00 of the country’s
2 million Armenians survived the slaughter. Today, many people label this massacre of Armenians as
a genocide. The Turkish government admits that many Armenians died in 1915 and 1916 but denies
that the deaths were planned. Turkish officials say that the Armenians' deaths were due to
inter-ethnic violence and the war. Another example would be the Ukrainian famine. Before the
Russian Revolution, much of Ukraine was ruled by Russia for nearly 150 years. This led to
Ukrainian nationalism being on the rise, after the revolution, Ukraine tried unsuccessfully to declare
independence. Large areas of Ukraine were ideal for growing wheat, and prosperous farmers who
owned land and livestock, known as the Kulaks, were the strongest supporters of the independence.
Joseph Stalin claimed all farmland as the state’s and that people had to work at collective farms.
Many Kulaks resisted this by burning their crops and killing their livestock. Stalin responded to this
by shipping Ukrainian wheat to Russia and seizing crops and grains from Ukrainian farms. Anyone
who didn’t comply with these rules was sent to forced labour camps. By the end of 1933, Soviet
granaries were full of Ukrainian wheat while 3-7 million Ukrainians died of starvation or were killed
by Soviet authorities. Rumours about this disaster were censored by Soviet authorities. Stalin always
denied that he had deliberately starved the Ukrainian people. In 1006, the Ukrainian government
considered this famine as an act of genocide against Ukrainians, but Russia didn’t accept this
judgement. Many people believed that the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was in the United
State’s national interest. Military experts estimated the death of around 250, 000 American soldiers
during an invasion of Japan. These same experts were the ones who warned that ultranationalist
warrior values would prevent Japanese soldiers and civilians from surrendering and that the
bombings would save American and Japanese lives. United States president, Harry Truman made the
final decision to drop the bombs. He believed that it was important to use every weapon at his
disposal to end the war and save as many lives as possible. Some scientists asked Truman to warn
Japan about what was coming their way by demonstrating the destructive forces of the bomb in
Tokyo Bay. This way the Japanese leaders could realize the weapon’s full potential. Truman didn’t
listen to this advice and ordered to drop the bombs anyway.

○ What are some contemporary consequences of ultranationalism?

-Many countries have tried to find ways to eliminate the extreme forms of nationalism that lead
to crimes against humanity and genocide since the end of WWII. They realize that it is in all
countries’ national interest to eliminate these crimes because they threaten the peace, security, and
well-being of everyone in these countries. After the League of Nations failed to prevent WWII,
world leaders wanted to create an international organization that would preserve world peace. In
1948, a committee to work toward creating an international criminal court was created by the UN. In
2002, the statute creating the International Criminal Court was signed by 60 countries. After six
years, another 45 countries signed on. The ICC operates independently from the UN, even though it
is sponsored by the UN. The court will not act if those accused of genocide, crimes against
humanity, and war crimes are tried fairly in a national court. Various nations in the Balkans area
were merged into a single country called Yugoslavia at the Paris Peace Conference. These nations
had a history of fighting with one another but were able to coexist till the early 1990s. Yugoslavia
was a controlled communist state, and when the Soviet Union was starting to collapse, nationalist
and ultranationalist sentiments were rising to the surface. This led to most nations making up
Yugoslavia declaring independence. Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia under the leadership of a Serbian ultranationalist, Slobodan Milosevic. Slobodan
Milosevic that everyone should be expelled from Serbian territory as the Serbs formed an ethnic
nation. He called this expulsion process ethnic cleansing, where Serbs were killing any and all
non-Serbs. He also sent forces to help drive non-Serbs out of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Here
non-Serbs were harassed, they were not allowed to meet in public places, move to another town
without permission, or travel by car. The capital city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo, was the
home of Orthodox Serbs, Catholic Croats, and Bosnian Muslims. Serbian ultranationalist forces
besieged the city soon after Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence. During the siege,
citizens faced constant bombardments and sniper attacks, and internationally renowned centres of
Muslim culture were destroyed. The UN’s Security Council warned Serbian forces to stop attacking
Sarajevo or they would face military action. The killing continued to happen even after UN
peacekeepers were sent to the country. The UN forces were ordered to remain neutral so that they
could get food to the besieged city, they tried to establish safe areas where people would be
protected. Many believe that the UN did not do enough to stop the massacre of the citizens of
Sarajevo. At the end of the siege, the death toll was at 11, 000. The International Criminal Tribunal
was established by the UN in 1993 for the Former Yugoslavia. Milosevic was put on trial for crimes
against humanity and genocide in 2002 but died before his trial ended. The general that commanded
Bosnian Serb forces to besiege Sarajevo was found guilty by the tribunal. He was sentenced to 33
years in prison, he was found guilty of five counts of murder, inflicting terror, and committing
inhumane acts. Rwanda is home to two ethnic groups, Hutus and Tutsis. Hutus form the majority
while Tutsis held most of the political power since they were favoured by the Belgians, who
controlled the country while it was a colony. After Rwanda gained independence in 1962, the
majority of the Hutus gained control of the country. The most popular mass communication was the
radio since many Rwandans couldn’t read or write, this led to Hutu ultranationalists using the radio
to wage propaganda against Tutsis. They urged killing all Tutsis, and specific people were
sometimes labelled enemies of the nation and singled out as targets of death squads. Once these
enemies were killed, the killers were congratulated on air. The UN sent a small force of 2600
soldiers to keep peace in Rwanda in 1993. In April of 1994, President Juvenal Habyarimana’s plane
was shot down. The people responsible for this were never identified, but Hutus blamed Tutsi
extremists. This led to slaughter, by the time the slaughter ended 800, 000 people had been
murdered, this was ten percent of the Rwandan population. More than 90% of that who were
murdered were Tutsis. The UN peacekeepers were powerless to stop the slaughter, the general in
charge repeatedly asked for help but was rejected. The UN members believed that the peacekeepers
were supposed to prevent conflict between countries rather than interfere in internal conflicts. The
genocide in Rwanda raised fundamental questions about the role of the UN and how far it should go
to prevent genocide. This genocide helped generate support for a permanent international criminal
court. Oskar Schindler, Feng Shan Ho, and Paul Rusesabagina are examples of people who stood up
for good during crimes against humanity and genocides. Oskar Schindler was a businessperson who
hoped to benefit from the Nazi invasion of Poland. He became a member of the Nazi Party and a
Nazi Spy. He employed more than 1200 Jews as slave labourers in his factory. Once he found out
that the Jews were getting sent to death camps, he did everything he could to protect those who
worked in his factory. He lied and spent his own fortune to save Jews from being sent to death
camps. He managed to save 1000 people who were already sent to death camps. At the end of the
war, he was broke but had saved many Jewish lives. Feng Shan Ho issued visas to Shanghai for any
Jews who asked for them; he wanted to help the Jews escape danger. Though visas weren’t required
to enter Shanghai he issued them because the Nazi authorities required and accepted them. He
helped 18, 000 Jews escape even though it cost him his job. Paul Rusesabagina was the manager of
Hotel des Mille Collines, which is where many Hutus and moderate Hutus took shelter during the
Rwandan genocide. He managed to get the Hutu military to withdraw twice when they had
surrounded the hotel. Rusesabagina was protecting 1200 people in the hotel and none of them were
harmed by the time the killings stopped.