Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 101952

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Ain Shams Engineering Journal

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Integration of multi-photos and laser scanner data to form a complete 3d

model
Aser M. Eissa a,⇑, Ibrahim F. Shaker a, A.M. Abdel-Wahab b, Alaa AL Din I. Awad a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering and Renewable Energy Research Institute, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Nowadays, laser scanners are widely used to get three-dimensional modeling, but sometimes some
Received 22 January 2022 obstacles on the site or choosing the wrong scan width and the shadow areas due to different planes lead
Revised 16 August 2022 to the appearance of some gaps in the objective to be scanned. Mobile phone images (Conventional ter-
Accepted 17 August 2022
restrial photogrammetry technique) can be used to compensate for these missing data after transforming
Available online 16 September 2022
the image coordinates to ground coordinates. So, the main objective is to develop a technique to trans-
form image coordinates to ground ones through the Direct Linear Transformation model (DLT) depending
Keywords:
on a computer algorithm using the least-squares adjustment method. Four field experiments were made
Direct Linear Transformation (DLT)
Laser scanner
on AL-ASHRAFI QAITBAY. The obtained results showed that the putative technique can be applied to
3D models form a full 3D model with precision (11–22 mm) and it is compatible with the precision of a laser
Non-metric digital camera scanner.
MATLAB Ó 2022 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams Uni-
Documentation of monuments versity. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
Egypt is considered one of the richest countries with historical
monuments globally and the national Egyptian income depends
strongly on archeological tourism. Here, the importance of monu-
ment monitoring and documentation appears. The 3D model for-
mation is essential for various applications. It can be used in
monuments and façades documentation, maintenance of facilities,
and many other applications [1,2], and [3]. One of the easiest ways
to collect the 3D model data is using the laser scanner [4,5], and
[6]. However, using the laser scanner may result in some gaps
due to obstacles in front of the surveyed features, incorrect width
of the scan, and the presence of shadow areas due to different
planes [7,8], and [9]. Terrestrial Photogrammetry has been used
to assist with 3D information of the features. The full 3D coordi-
nates of the feature’s surface are obtained by overlapping images
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: aser.eissa@eng.asu.edu.eg (A. M. Eissa), ibrahim.shaker@eng.
asu.edu.eg (I. F. Shaker), alaa.ibrahim@eng.asu.edu.eg (Alaa AL Din I. Awad).
Peer review under responsibility of Ain Shams University.
Production and hosting by Elsevier
with known camera interior and exterior parameters [10]. The
collinearity equation can calculate the three-dimensional coordi-
nates of all points in the common intersection area between
images (overlapping image region) [11]. The conventional methods
for determining the 3D coordinates depending on the overlapping
images were recorded based on the stereographic principle, with
stereometric or single metric cameras [12]. These conventional
methods are substituted with modern methods in digital pho-
togrammetry where there are great improvements in electronics,
computers, and information technologies, such as digital cameras,
digital processing, and storage capacity [13]. Multi-digital images
can be used to collect 3D data by linking the data from multi-
photos with the ground data collected by a laser scanner or a total
station based on DLT which depends on the previously mentioned
collinearity condition [14], where the image coordinates can be
transformed to ground ones through this model. Digital cameras
are available and easy to use. Moreover, capturing photos mostly
needs no effort and no time. Therefore, data gathering using digital
photogrammetry is now the easiest [15] and [16]. From here, the
idea of integrating the data from a laser scanner and digital pho-
togrammetry to complete any missing data appeared, where this
integration depends mainly on the DLT algorithm to transform
the image coordinates to laser scanner-based point cloud data
coordinates. This study is concerned with the assessment of the

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2022.101952
2090-4479/Ó 2022 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A. M. Eissa, I. F. Shaker, A.M. Abdel-Wahab et al.
accuracy of the above-mentioned integration and how much it can
be applied.
1.1. Contribution of this research
The idea of the research was deduced through the practical
experience of drawing landmarks through laser scanner data.
Sometimes it is found that the final model has some gap areas as
a result of obstacles covering the surveyed feature or choosing
wrong scan width or due to the presence of different planes. Rather
than using structure from motion (SFM), conventional terrestrial
photogrammetry is used for this research, where mobile phone
cameras are used as static positions and then the coordinates of
these images are converted to the same coordinates system of
the laser scanner and combined to provide a full 3D model.
2. The used mathematical model
2.1. Direct Linear Transformation (DLT)
DLT depends mainly on the collinearity condition, which is
achieved when a certain point, its projection on the image plane,
and the projection center are collinear [17] and [18] as shown in
Fig. 1.
DLT equations are as follows:
L1 X i þ L2 Y i þ L3 Z i þ L4
xi þ ¼0
L9 X i þ L10 Y i þ L11 Z i þ 1
L5 X i þ L6 Y i þ L7 Z i þ L8
yi þ ¼0
L9 X i þ L10 Y i þ L11 Z i þ 1
where:
xi and yi : The coordinates of any image point (i).
X i , Y i , Z i : The ground coordinates of the imaged point.
L1 to L11 : The eleven transformation parameters.
Fig. 1. The collinearity condition after [16].
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 101952
Therefore, there is a need for at least 6 common points in at
least two overlapping images having known ground and image
coordinates to get the mentioned transformation parameters.
2.2. Least-squares adjustment
Surveying measurements are usually accompanied by errors
during field observations. These errors require mathematical
adjustment. The least-squares method minimizes the sum of the
squares of differences between the observation and the estimated
values. This model has three forms which are parametric, condi-
tional, and combined. In this study, the parametric with its math-
ematical model will be used and the mathematical model of this
method is illustrated as follows [19]:
FðXÞ ¼ w ð3Þ
where the unknowns take terms of X. By applying Taylor series
expansion, the Jacobian matrix (A) can be calculated as follow:
@FðxÞ
A¼ ð4Þ
@X
In the end, the solution matrix is calculated from the following
equation:
1
X ¼ ðAT PAÞ ðAT PWÞ ð5Þ
ð1Þ 3. Developed algorithm for solving the DLT model
The algorithm is used to solve the Direct Linear Transformation
ð2Þ (DLT) model [17], where the function of this algorithm is to convert
the image coordinates that were obtained by the mobile phone
camera to cover the gap areas that may occur during the scan fea-
tures by using the laser scanner into 3D coordinates. The above
step is important to let all points, both cloud points, and trans-
formed image coordinates are in the same system and are compat-
2
A. M. Eissa, I. F. Shaker, A.M. Abdel-Wahab et al.
ible. So, one can use the developed program by the authors through
the MATLAB (2018-a) and named Laser Data Gap Compensation
Program (LDGCP) to do this task. This program depends on import-
ing the data for both (ground coordinates of the common points,
and the corresponding image coordinates of the required area).
Through a script, the eleven transformation parameters are calcu-
lated for each image. After that, the ground coordinates (laser
scanner-based point cloud data coordinates) are calculated from
the image coordinates by using the transformation parameters
using the sequence of these steps in Fig. 2 which shows the algo-
rithm used (LDGCP) to calculate the parameters and the ground
coordinates using multi-images and laser scanner data and Fig. 3
shows the Graphical User Interface (GUI) of the program and as
shown in the GUI the user enters the number of overlapped images
then imports the excel files of the laser scanner common points
coordinates, the images coordinates of the common points and
the image coordinates of the required points, where the output is
an XLS file of the ground coordinates of the required points.
Input Data.
- Ground coordinates (X, Y, Z) of the common points.
- Image coordinates (x, y) in pixel units of the common and the
required points.
Output Results.
- The ground coordinates (X, Y, Z) of the required points (for
gaps areas only not for all object).
Methodology.
Fig. 2. Laser Data Gap Compensation Program LDGCP steps.
Fig. 3. GUI of LDGCP.
3
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 101952
Assessment of the integration of digital photogrammetry coor-
dinates for gap areas and laser scanner cloud points data was made
by comparing known laser scanner-based point cloud data coordi-
nates with ground coordinates after being transformed by the sug-
gested technique from the image coordinates, this procedure is
very useful when there are gaps in a 3D model created by the laser
scanner only so whether the digital photogrammetry can be used
to compensate for these missing data. This was achieved through
two main stages as shown in Fig. 4 for iPhone 12 Pro Max and
the same steps were repeated for iPhone 6 s evaluating two differ-
ent cameras’ accuracies. The first stage was scanning a façade of
the (AL-ZAHIR ABU SAEED QANSUH AL-ASHRAFI QAITBAY)
dome, Cairo, Egypt (See Fig. 5) using a Trimble Tx5 laser scanner
with an accuracy of approximately 2 cm [6], [20] and [21], the laser
scanner specifications are shown in Table 2. In this stage, a 3D
model was created and the coordinates of the chosen points for
comparison were identified. The second stage was capturing the
same façade using non-metric digital cameras for both two differ-
ent accuracies (iPhone 12 Pro Max and iPhone 6 s cameras). Each
camera was used to capture the façade, where the conditions of
capturing were changed to test their effect on the accuracy. These
conditions are the number of images, the number of common
points, and the distance between the façade and the camera. In this
stage, the image coordinates of the chosen points were identified,
where there are two types of points, the common points, and the
checkpoints. The common points are the points used to calculate
A. M. Eissa, I. F. Shaker, A.M. Abdel-Wahab et al.
Fig. 4. Flow chart illustrating the followed methodology for both iPhone 12 Pro Max and iPhone 6s.
the DLT transformation parameters between the image coordinates
system and the laser scanner point cloud data coordinates, where
this technique depends on the coordinates transformation from
image coordinates system to the ground coordinates system of
the laser scanner and not on 3D models generated by photogram-
metry techniques. The checkpoints are the points used to compare
the transformed coordinates with the laser scanner ones. LDGCP
was used to calculate the transformation parameters and then
the transformed coordinates of the checkpoints from their image
coordinates. These two main stages were accomplished through
four field experiments illustrated in the following section. 20
well-defined points (sharp points) were chosen as shown in
Fig. 5, where points from 1 to 12 played the role of common points
Fig. 5. The tested façade.
4
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 101952
used to calculate the DLT parameters, and points from 13 to 20 are
checkpoints to evaluate the accuracy of using digital photogram-
metry to complete any gap resulting from using the laser scanner.
The number of common points was chosen to be 12 points to test
the change in accuracy with changing the number of common
points from 6 points (0 redundancy) to 12 points (100 % redun-
dancy) with one point increment since 6 common points are the
minimum needed number of common points to solve DLT model.
Therefore, there was no need to increase the number of common
points to be more than 12. For the check points, 8 check points
were enough according to the number of common points used to
achieve 95 % confidence level in the results. A façade without
any problems as shown in Figs. 5 and 6 can be used as a reference
without any defect to compare there some of its areas which can be
compensated by other areas that come from the images. This
allowed anyone to assess the data extracted from image coordi-
nates to examine when there are gaps in the scans on other fea-
Fig. 6. 3D model of the dome formed by the laser scanner.
A. M. Eissa, I. F. Shaker, A.M. Abdel-Wahab et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 101952

Table 1 n: Number of points.

Comparison between the two used cameras after [22]. Table 3 and Fig. 7 show the results of the first field experiment.
iPhone 12 Pro Max iPhone 6s For table 3 the first column shows the number of used images and
Pro 12 MP Camera System (Telephoto, Wide, Single 12MP Wide Camera the other columns show the RMS between the coordinates of the
and Ultra-Wide) (Wide) checkpoints from laser scanner data and those from the trans-
Telephoto: f/2.2 aperture Wide: f/2.2 aperture formed coordinates corresponding to the number of common
Wide: f/1.6 aperture points used (from 6 to 12 points). For Fig. 7 the x-axis represents
Ultra-Wide: f/2.4 aperture
2.5x optical zoom in, 2X optical zoom Digital zoom up to 5x
the number of images used and the y-axis represents the RMS,
Out; 5x optical zoom range where each number of common points used is represented by a
Digital zoom up to 12x different color as shown in the figure.
True Tone flash with slow Sync True Tone flash
Smart HDR 3 for photo HDR for photo
3.3. The second field experiment

iPhone 12 Pro Max camera was used to monitor the façade at

tures and whether it is suitable to use the proposed integration
various distances (5 m, 10 m, 15 m, and 20 m). Depending on the
technique or not.
optimum conditions from the first field experiment 8 common
The difference between the two used cameras (iPhone 6s and
points and 3 overlapped digital images were used.
iPhone 12 Pro Max cameras) is illustrated in Table 1 [22].
Table 4 and Fig. 8 show the results of the second field experi-
ment. In table 4 the first column shows the distance between the
3.1. The field experiments and their results
façade and the camera and the other column shows the RMS
between the coordinates of the check points from laser scanner
To achieve the optimum conditions for the integration of digital
data and those from the transformed coordinates. For Fig. 8 the
photogrammetry and laser scanner data four field experiments
x-axis represents the distance between the façade and the camera
were made. In experiments 1 and 2 the, efficiency of the integra-
and the y-axis represents the RMS.
tion was tested by capturing the façade with an iPhone 12 Pro
Max camera and changing the number of images and common
points, and after that the distance between the camera and the 3.4. The third and fourth field experiments
façade. Experiments 3 and 4 have the same conditions as the pre-
vious experiments except that the camera used was an iPhone 6s Repeating the previous experiments exactly with the same con-
camera to observe the effect of changing the camera quality of ditions except that the camera used was an iPhone 6 s camera. The
the results. primary distance was 10 m as at 5 m the façade was not covered as
there is no widening option available in the iPhone 12 Pro Max
camera.
3.2. The first field experiment
Table 5 and Fig. 9 show the results of the third field experiment
as explained in the first field experiment.
The laser scanner and iPhone 12 Pro Max camera were used to
Table 6 and Fig. 10 show the results of the fourth field experi-
capture the tested façade. The image coordinates of 20 points were
ment as explained in the second field experiment.
measured using 5 images. The ground coordinates of the same
points were determined using the laser scanner. Fig. 6 shows the
3D model obtained from the laser scanner. The distance between 4. Analysis of the results
the digital camera and the façade was 10 m.
After collecting the data, LDGCP was used to calculate the 11 After presenting the previous experiments and their results, we
transformation parameters for each image, then the coordinates can conclude the proposed method to compensate for any gaps
of the checkpoints. The accuracy of using multi-photos is tested that may appear in the data extracted from the lidar scanner has
by calculating the discrepancies between the ground coordinates become an effective way to compensate for those spaces using
from laser scanner data and those from LDGCP depending on the an available and easy-to-use method such as mobile phone
Root Mean Square Error (RMS). cameras.
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
DP ¼ ðX L  X P Þ2 þ ðY L  Y P Þ2 þ ðZ L  Z P Þ2 ð6Þ 4.1. For iPhone 12 pro Max camera
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P From the above results, one can be noted that: -.
ðDPÞ2
RMS ¼ ð7Þ For the first experiment, using 8 common points between the
n
laser scanner scans and the overlapped images because it gives a
DP: discrepancy between the position of points from the laser reasonable and enough accuracy of less than 2 cm, to integrated
scanner and photogrammetric data. with laser scanner accuracy, and with increasing the number of

Table 2
Trimble Tx5 Laser Scanner specifications after [23].

TLS Specification High-speed 3D laser scanner can measure at speeds of up to 976,000 pts/sec and up to range of 120 m
Includes an integrated color camera featuring an automatic 70 megapixels parallax-free color overlay.
Provides automated sensors (electronic compass-Altimeter).
Field of view (vertical/horizontal) 300°/360°. Ambient temperature 5 °C to 40 °C.
size 240 mm  200 mm  100 mm.
Max. vertical scan speed 5,820 rpm.
Wave length 905 nm. Beam diameter at exit 3.0 mm.
Ranging error 2 mm at 10 m and 25 m. Levels each scan with an accuracy of 0.015 and a range of ± 5°.

5
A. M. Eissa, I. F. Shaker, A.M. Abdel-Wahab et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 101952

Table 3
RMS of the first field experiment at a distance of 10 m with different no. of images and common points.

Number of used images Number of used common points

6 pts RMS (mm) 7 pts RMS (mm) 8 pts RMS (mm) 9 pts RMS (mm) 10 pts RMS (mm) 11 pts RMS (mm) 12 pts RMS (mm)
2 22 18 15 15 15 13 12
3 17 17 15 15 15 13 11
4 16 15 14 16 16 13 12
5 16 14 14 16 16 12 12

Fig. 7. RMS of the first field experiment.

Table 4 From the second experiment, it is obvious that by increasing the

RMS of the second field experiment. distance between the camera and the surveyed feature the accu-
racy decreases where the accuracy is acceptable to a distance up
Distance from façade (m) RMS (mm)
to 15 m.
5 13
10 15
15 14 4.2. For iPhone 6s camera
20 17

common points the accuracy gets better but increase, the time and
cost too without the need for that.
As for the number of images, the accuracy improved clearly
when using three images.
No need to use more than four images as the model will be sat-
urated with enough redundancy.
From the third and fourth experiments, we can deduce that the
properties of the camera have a great effect on the resulting accu-
racy for the iPhone 6 in the same condition for the iPhone 12 the
RMS in this case of the iPhone 6 becomes approximately twice.
The optimum number of common points between the laser
scanner scans and the overlapped images is 9 and the optimum
number of the overlapped images is 4 related to the camera
accuracy.

Fig. 8. RMS of the second field experiment.

6
A. M. Eissa, I. F. Shaker, A.M. Abdel-Wahab et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 101952

Table 5
RMS of the third field experiment at a distance of 10 m with different No. of images and common points.

Number of used images Number of used common points

6 pts RMS (mm) 7 pts RMS (mm) 8 pts RMS (mm) 9 pts RMS (mm) 10 pts RMS (mm) 11 pts RMS (mm) 12 pts RMS (mm)
2 45 38 35 35 35 32 31
3 32 28 28 28 25 23 22
4 26 21 20 18 18 16 16

Fig. 9. RMS of the third field experiment.

Table 6 scanner data. This integration depends on the DLT model using
RMS of the fourth field experiment. least squares adjustment through increasing redundancy by
Distance from façade (m) RMS (mm) increasing the number of common points and the number of over-
10 28
lapped images. The developed algorithm (LDGCP) is highly recom-
15 32 mended to calculate positions from the image coordinates and use
20 39 them to compensate for any gaps resulting from the laser scanner
to form a complete 3D model of the surveyed feature. The quality
of the camera has a great input in the resulting accuracy. The num-
The optimum distance between the camera and the surveyed ber of common points and images used depends on the required
feature is 10 m, if the camera used is low resolution the distance accuracy, but there is no doubt that with the increase in redun-
must be reduced between the camera and the objective (minimum dancy, the accuracy improves. Using eight common points and
distance not less than 5 m). three images gets a suitable accuracy related to resolution less
Finally, when using a less efficient camera, there is a need to than 2 cm (laser scanner accuracy), so for saving time and cost of
increase the number of common points and the number of used fixing points this number of points can serve the purpose, while
images to get higher accuracy through the high redundancy of increasing the number of common points improves the accuracy
data. but increases the time and cost too. Moreover, the distance
between the camera and the surveyed feature (the pixel size) plays
an important role in the accuracy, where as the distance decreases,
5. Conclusion
the accuracy increases and vice versa.

One of the main problems facing the creation of 3D models by

the terrestrial laser scanner is the resulting gaps from any obsta-
cles in front of the surveyed feature, incorrectly chosen width of
the scans, and the presence of shadow areas due to the existence
of different planes. This problem can be solved through the inte-
gration of photogrammetric data using multi-photos and laser
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.

Fig. 10. RMS of the fourth field experiment.

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A. M. Eissa, I. F. Shaker, A.M. Abdel-Wahab et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 101952

Ibrahim F. Shaker, Professor of Surveying and Pho-

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Aser M. Eissa, Teaching Assistant, Public Works

Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams
University, Egypt. E-mail: aser.eissa@eng.asu.edu.eg