International Journal of Food Properties

ISSN: 1094-2912 (Print) 1532-2386 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ljfp20

Effect of Fermentation, Blanching, and Drying

Temperature on the Fuctional and Chemical
Properties of Cassava Flour

E.A. Udensi , A.U.C. Ukozor & F.C. Ekwu

To cite this article: E.A. Udensi , A.U.C. Ukozor & F.C. Ekwu (2005) Effect of Fermentation,
Blanching, and Drying Temperature on the Fuctional and Chemical Properties of Cassava Flour,
International Journal of Food Properties, 8:1, 171-177, DOI: 10.1081/JFP-200048151

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1081/JFP-200048151

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International Journal of Food Properties, 8: 171–177, 2005
Copyright & Taylor & Francis Inc.
ISSN: 1094-2912 print/1532-2386 online
DOI: 10.1081/JFP-200048151

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± EFFECT OF FERMENTATION, BLANCHING, AND DRYING
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± TEMPERATURE ON THE FUCTIONAL AND CHEMICAL
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± PROPERTIES OF CASSAVA FLOUR
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± E.A. Udensi and A.U.C. Ukozor
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± Department of Food Science and Technology, Abia State University, Uturu,
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± Abia State, Nigeria
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±± F.C. Ekwu
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± Department of Food Science and Technology, Ebonyi State University,
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± Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
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± Cassava (Manihot esculenta crantz) was processed into flour by fermentation, blanching,
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± and drying. Portions of the tuber were naturally fermented for 2, 3, and 4 days, and each
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± was oven dried at temperatures of 60, 80, and 90
C and then milled to obtain naturally
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fermented cassava flours. Other portions were blanched for 3, 6, 9, and 12 min, and each
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± similarly dried at 60, 70, 80, and 90
C and milled to produce blanched cassava flour. The
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± last portion, which formed the control, was simply sun-dried. The bulk density, gelation
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capacity, water absorption, swelling index, and viscosity were investigated. Blanching was
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± found to improve the functional properties of the flour. Residual cyanide was more com-
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± monly found in blanched samples than in both the fermented and control groups. Increasing
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± the fermentation period was found to reduce both viscosity and residual cyanide, whereas
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increasing the drying temperature led to more residual cyanide in the fermentation and
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± blanched samples. Fermented samples had lower pH (higher total titrable acidity) than
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± both control and blanched samples. The blanched samples had lower moisture content than
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control and fermented samples.
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INTRODUCTION
Cassava is a staple food in the developing world.[1] It is the most productive
root in the tropics in terms of yield per dry matter per acre.[2] Cassava is processed in
many forms[3] aimed primarily to convert the highly perishable food crop into dry,
storable form as well as to reduce its toxicity.[4] Some of the processing methods
include crushing, grating, soaking or fermentation, drying, and cooking. IITA[5]
reported that cassava flour could be used in biscuit- and bread-baking either alone or
in a composite flour.[6] The absence of fibre in cassava starch accounts for its good
baking quality. Cassava starch also has good gelling property.

Received 28 March 2003; accepted 4 August 2004.

Address correspondence to E.A. Udensi, Department of Food Science and Technology,
Abia State University, Uturu, Abia State, Nigeria; E-mail: emeobika@ yahoo.com

171
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172 UDENSI, UKOZOR AND EKWU

The food uses of cassava flour are limited by its low protein content, low
energy, and its potential toxic effect from the naturally occurring cyanide-yielding
compounds, Linamarin and Lotaustraline.[7] Rosling[8] suggested that the low
protein and energy derived from cassava can be improved by enriching it with
protein and energy rich food. Its toxic substance, according to Rosling, can also be
removed by processing. Published work on the effect of processing methods on the
functional properties of the flour is very scanty. Since cassava flour can be used in
many food formulations, its functional and chemical properties as affected by the
processing methods require investigation. The aim of this study is, therefore, to
evaluate the effect of fermentation, blanching, and drying temperature on the
functional and chemical properties of cassava flour.

MATHERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
Freshly harvested IITA variety of TMS 4(2) (1425) cassava roots (12 months
old) obtained from the National Root Crop Research Institute (NRCRI), Umudike
Abia State Nigeria, were used.

Preparation of Samples
The cassava tubers were peeled and sliced into 10 mm thickness. They were
washed in running tap water and divided into three portions. One portion was
fermented; a second was blanched, while the last was the control.
Fermentation was achieved by soaking three portions of the sliced cassava
tuber for 2, 3, and 4 days, respectively. The water was changed every 6 h. The
samples were washed after fermentation with clean water. Blanching was done by
heating the samples in boiling water for 3, 6, 9, and 12 min, respectively. Both the
blanched and the fermented samples were dried in an electric oven maintained at 60,
70, 80, and 90
C for 10 h. The dried chips were milled in an attrition mill (Thomas
Willey Lab. Mill, Model EDS). The flour produced from each sample was sieved
(1 mm pore size) and packaged in polythene bags before analysis. The control sample
was sun-dried, milled, and packaged as before.

Analysis
The moisture content and pH were analysed using AOAC[9] and Nout,
Rombouts, and Houst[10] methods, respectively. The bulk density was determined
using the Okaka and Potter[11] method while the swelling index (SI) and water
absorption capacity were measured following Eniola and Delarosa[12] and
Beuchet[13] procedures, respectively. The Coffman and Garcia[14] method was
adopted for a determination of gelation capacity, and viscosity was evaluated using
the Mosha and Svaberg[15] method. The method of Cooke[16] was adopted for
hydrogen cyanide (HCN) analysis.
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EFFECTS OF FERMENTATION, BLANCHING AND DRYING TEMPERATURE 173

Statistical Design and Analysis

A completely randomized design (CRD) was used in the experiment while
analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan new multiple range tests were used for
mean separation.[17]

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Effect of Fermentation and Blanching on the Functional Properties
Table 1 presents the results. The bulk density value ranged 450–870 kg/m3
within the processing conditions considered. The control sample had bulk density of
440 kg/m3 that was below the processed samples. Generally, the fermented sample
had lower bulk density than the blanched ones. The bulk density of the fermented
samples did not significantly differ (p < 0.05) with the control. They, however, were
significantly different from the blanched samples. Blanching, therefore, affected the
bulk density of the flours while fermentation did not. The bulk density did not
significantly ( p < 0.05 ) vary with fermentation and blanching times. Ekwu and
Ugwu[18] reported similar values (510–750 kg/m3) for blanched and dried cassava
flour and 430–550 kg/m3 for unblanched samples. This shows that blanching affected
the bulk density of the cassava flour. Balagopalan et al.[19] reported that blanching
confers harder consistency to chips due to the gelatinization of starch. This,
ultimately, toughened the chips leading to the production of granulated materials,
which had higher bulk density than unblanched flours.
The results of the gelation capacity indicate that all the flour samples gelled at
relatively low flour concentration (20–24%). There was no significant difference
(p < 0.05) between the control, the sample fermented for 2 or 3 days, and those
samples blanched for, 3, 9, and 12 min. The samples fermented for 4 days, and the
sample blanched for 6 min did not differ statistically (p < 0.05). They were, however,
different from others. From these results, it may be concluded that fermentation and
blanching did not affect significantly the gelation capacity of the flours.
The sample that had blanched for 12 min had the highest water absorption
capacity of 3.53% while the value of 1.5% for the control sample was the lowest. The
water absorption capacity of the fermented samples ranged from 1.49 to 1.51%,
which was lower than 2.05–3.53% obtained for blanched flours. The fermentation
did not affect the water absorption capacity of the cassava flours but blanching

Table 1 Effect of fermentation and blanching on functional properties of cassava flour

Fermentation blanching

Functional properties 2 3 4 3 6 9 12 Control LSR

Bulk density kg/m3 450b 450b 530b 830a 810a 983a 870a 440b 122
Gelation capacity (%) 22ab 22ab 24a 22ab 24a 20b 22ab 22ab 2.642
b b a a a a
Water absorption Capacity (%) 1.51 1.49 3.5 2.55 2.55 2.55 3.53a 1.50b 1.01
Swelling index at 50
C (%) 1.33d 1.22e 1.20w 3.5a 3.93b 4.43a 3.68c 1.12f 0.03
Viscosity Nsm2 2.7081a 2.068b 2.041c 2.864d 2.872e 2.883f 2.896g 2.773h 0.003

Values in the same row with different superscript are significantly different ( p < 0.05).
 ORDER REPRINTS

174 UDENSI, UKOZOR AND EKWU

did (p < 0.05). There was no significant difference (p < 0.05) between the water
absorption capacity of the fermented samples and the control (Table 1). It has been
reported that blanching cassava chips and drying them between temperature range of
40 and 70
C resulted in higher water absorption capacity values than unblanched
one.[18] This agrees with the results obtained here. Beuchet[13] also observed that
processing techniques influenced the water absorption capacity of flours.
The swelling index (SI) of the blanched samples was generally higher
(3.68–4.43%) than the fermented ones (1.12–1.33%). The swelling index (SI) of
fermented samples differed significantly (p < 0.05) from the blanched samples. The
viscosity (2.864–2.896 Nsm2) of blanched samples were higher than the fermented
samples which ranged from 2.041 to 2.081 Nsm2. The processing techniques,
the blanching time, and fermentation period, significantly (p < 0.05) affected the
viscosity of the samples. From the results, however, fermentation affected
the viscosity of the cassava flours more than blanching. The lower viscosity values
observed in the fermented samples may be due to the breakdown of the
macromolecules such as polysaccharides and polypeptides by enzymes mobilized
during the fermentation process.[15] From the result, it may be inferred that there is a
direct relationship between the bulk density and the viscosity. This is because the
blanched sample, which had higher bulk density, also produced higher viscosity than
the fermented samples.

Effect of Fermentation and Blanching on the Chemical Properties of

the Flour
The results presented in Table 2 show that fermentation reduced the pH value
of the samples. The pH of the blanched samples and the control were generally
higher than the fermented samples. The pH and total titrable acidity (TTA) were
inversely related. The higher the pH, the lower the TTA, irrespective of the
processing methods used. Table 2 shows that the longer the fermentation period, the
more acidic the samples become. Westby and Twiddy[20] reported that fermentation
generally lowers pH. Rose[3] observed that during cassava fermentation, some
organic acids, such as lactic and acetic acids, were produced. This did not only
contribute to the characteristic flavour of fermented cassava products but lowered
the pH. The pH of the blanched samples did not significantly differ from each other.

Table 2 Effect of fermentation and blanching on chemical properties of cassava flour

Fermentation (days) Blanching (min)

Chemical properties 2 3 4 3 6 9 12 Control LSR

a a b b b b b
pH 4.79 4.38 4.16 7.25 7.32 7.23 7.20 6.80 1.653
Total titrable acidity (%) 0.18c 0.24a 0.22b 0.04d 0.03d 0.04d 0.02c ND 0.017
Moisture content (%) 8.856a 7.55b 4.15d 3.78c 4.53c 4.53c 4.62c ND 0.149
Hydrogen cynide (mg/kg) 6.82bc 2.63c 1.87c 14.42 13.64 13.13 11.98bc
b b b
27.35a 10.153

ND ¼ Not determined.
Values are means of triplicate.

Values with the same superscript in the same row are statistically the same ( p < 0.05).
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EFFECTS OF FERMENTATION, BLANCHING AND DRYING TEMPERATURE 175

They were statistically the same as the control sample (p < 0.05). Blanching did not,
therefore, affect the pH of the cassava samples.
The moisture content of the fermentation samples was generally higher than
the blanched ones. The values ranged from 4.15 to 8.05% and 3.75 to 4.46% for
fermentation and blanched samples, respectively. The moisture content of the
samples is within the allowable rage for effective storage of flour. The hydrogen
cyanide (HCN) content of the blanched samples was generally higher than the
fermented samples. It was also observed that the longer the fermentation days or the
blanching time, the lower the HCN value in the samples.
The HCN reduction was 71–93% during the 2–4 days of fermentation while
blanching gave a reduction of 46–56%. Fish and Trim[21] reported 50% reduction
when they blanched cassava chips in boiled water for 5–10 min and sun dried. They
attributed low reduction of HCN to the blanching process which inactivates
linamarase. Increasing the blanching time resulted in more reduction of HCN.
Nambisan and Sundaresan[22] made a similar observation. The smaller value of
cyanide content of the fermented samples may be due to the leaching of the released
HCN into the soak water. Ekwu and Ugwu[18] also reported that soaking cassava
chips achieved higher reduction of HCN.

Effect of Drying Temperature on the HCN value of the Fermented and

Blanched Cassava Flour
Table 3 shows that fermented samples had lower HCN values than the
blanched ones, irrespective of the drying temperatures. As the fermentation period
and blanching time were increased, the HCN of the samples decreased at each drying
temperature. It was further observed that increasing the drying temperature
increased the HCN value in the samples, irrespective of the processing methods.
Fish and Trim[21] compared HCN reduction in sun-dried and oven-dried
cassava chips and observed that high temperature drying resulted in low glycoside
removal. This had been attributed to the combination of rapid depletion of moisture
resulting in reduction of enzyme activity and inactivation of linamarase, which
breaks down linamarin and release HCN, by high temperature drying.[21,23]

Table 3 Effect of drying temperature on the hydrogen cyanide value of the fermented and blanched
samples

Hydrogen Cyanide Value mg/kg

Fermentation (days) Blanching (min)

Drying temp.
(
C) 2 3 4 3 6 9 12 Control LSR
bc c c b b h bc a
60 6.82 2.63 1.87 14.42 13.64 13.13 11.96 27.16 0.153
70 6.94a 2.73b 1.94c 14.12d 13.80c 13.56f 12.42g 27.16h 0.044
80 6.98a 2.81b 1.97c 14.71d 14.20c 13.90f 12.68g 27.16h 0.023
90 7.05a 2.84h 2.04c 15.16d 14.30 14.09g 27.16h 27.16h 0.019

Values in the same row with the same letter are significantly the same ( p < 0.05).
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176 UDENSI, UKOZOR AND EKWU

CONCLUSION
Blanching improved the functional properties of the flour. Residual cyanide
was found more in blanched samples. The viscosity and cyanide content were
reduced by increasing the fermentation time. The fermented samples had lower pH
values than the control and blanched samples.

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EFFECTS OF FERMENTATION, BLANCHING AND DRYING TEMPERATURE 177

20. Wesby, A.; Twiddy, D.R. Role of micro-organism in cyanide reduction during the
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