ETHICS (PRELIMS REVIEWER) 2.

Meta-Ethics - This branch seeks to understand

the nature of ethical properties and judgments
Topics: such as if truth values can be found and the
1. Ethics theory behind moral principles.
2. Religion, Law & Culture 3. Applied Ethics - This is the study of applying
3. Sense of the Self and Moral Development theories from philosophers regarding ethics in
4. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development everyday life. For example, this area of ethics
5. Ethical Dilemma & Decision Making asks questions such as "Is it right to have an
abortion?" and "Should you turn in your friend at
your workplace for taking home office supplies?”
ETHICS 4. Moral Ethics - This branch questions how
individuals develop their morality, why certain
− The Latin word mos or moris (and its plural aspects of morality differ between cultures and
mores) from which the adjective moral is derived why certain aspects of morality are generally
is equivalent to ethos. universal.
− Etymologically, Ethics is a survey of patterns of 5. Descriptive Ethics - This branch is more
behavior that is done by the human being in scientific in its approach and focuses on how
general or a society in particular. human beings actually operate in the real world,
rather than attempt to theorize about how they
should operate.
Ethics as

the good thing that the bad thing that Morality

we should pursue VS. we should avoid
− The term “morals” may be used to refer to
specific beliefs or attitudes that people have or to
the right ways in the wrong ways of describe acts that people perform.
VS.
which we could or acting − Thus, it is sometimes said that an individual’s
should act personal conduct is referred to as his morals, and
if he falls short of behaving properly, this can be
− It is about what is acceptable and described as immoral.
unacceptable in human behavior. − However, we also have terms such as “moral
− It may involve obligations that we are. judgment” or “moral reasoning”, which
− Ethics as a subject for us to study is about suggest a more rational aspect.
determining the grounds for the values with
particular and special significance to human
life. Moral vs. Ethics

1. How one ought to live? − The term “ethics” can be spoken of as the
2. What is moral and what is immoral? discipline of studying and understanding ideal
3. What makes an action moral or human behavior and ideal ways of thinking.
4. immoral? − Thus, ethics is acknowledged as an intellectual
5. What should I do? discipline belonging to philosophy.
6. How should I act? − However, acceptable and unacceptable
7. What am I ought to do? behaviors are also generally described as ethical
and unethical, respectively. In addition, with
regard to the acceptable and unacceptable ways
Branches of Ethics of behaving in a given field, we have the term
“professional ethics”.
1. Normative Ethics - The largest branch, it deals
with how individuals can figure out the correct
Moral and Ethics
moral action that they should take. Philosophers
such as Socrates and John Stuart Mill are − Therefore, various thinkers and writers posit a
included in this branch of ethics. distinction between the terms “moral” and

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 “ethics” and they may have good reasons for 2. Paul is harmed by theft.
doing so, but there is no consensus as to how to
− Many automatically jump to the conclusion that
make that distinction.
Sally should not steal from Paul because Sally
− So, in this course, we will be using the terms
should not harm Paul.
“ethical” and “moral” (likewise, “ethics” and
− Hume argues, however, that this conclusion is
“morality”) interchangeably.
not a logical outcome of these two statements.
That is, he argues that humans insert the
In conclusion, Ethics is more on a field of premise that Sally should not harm Paul, when,
thought while Morals are set of what we ought in fact, that premise does not exist except by
to do and ought not to do. some moral code.
Nonetheless, since there is no solid distinction,
they are still interchangeable.

Moral Subjectivism

− Moral judgement reflects moral preferences,

opinions and attitude.
• “This is me!”
• “I am like this. People should accept me for who
I am.”
• “I followed my heart. That is not wrong!”
• “In my culture, it is permissible to engage in
polygamy.”

Moral Objectivism

− Moral Realism
− Moral judgements can be true or false, and are
made so by objectives features of the world.
• “Only a heterosexual couple should have sexual
intercourse”
• “I should take care of my children”
• “If I lie, it is like saying that everyone shall lie, with
which there would be no sense of truth.
Therefore, I should not lie”

Is-Ought Problem by David Hume

− Can you derive what you ought to do by the facts

of the world?
− There is a gap in the observation of facts to
judgement of value.
− “Is-Ought Gap” or “Hume’s Guillotine”
− The gap is called Moral Code.

❖ Example:

Consider the following two “is” statements:

1. Sally is stealing from Paul.

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 RELIGION, LAW & CULTURE
Objectives
o Define and understand basic concepts on Law,
Religion & Culture.
o Understand different concepts and arguments
revolving religion and morality.
o Draw conclusions about morality and religion
being interdependent with each other.
LAW
− It is supposed that law is one’s guide to ethical
behavior.
− In the Philippines, Filipinos are constrained to
obey the laws of the land as stated in country’s
criminal and civil codes.
− The term positive law refers to the different rules
and regulations that are posited or put forward by
an authority figure that require compliance.
RELIGION
− the service and worship of God or the
supernatural
− commitment or devotion to religious faith or
observance
− a cause, principle, or system of beliefs held to
with ardor and faith
(Merriam-Webster Dictionary)
Concepts on Religion and Morality
The Presumed Connection between Morality
and Religion
• When newspapers want comments about the
ethical dimensions of a story, they call upon the
clergy, and the clergy are happy to oblige. Priests
and ministers are assumed to be wise
counselors who will give sound moral advice
when it is needed.
• Why are clergymen regarded this way? The
reason is not that they have proven to be better
or wiser than other people - as a group, they
seem to be neither better nor worse than the rest
of us. There is a deeper reason why they are
regarded as having special moral insight.
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The Presumed Connection between Morality
and Religion
• In popular thinking, morality and religion are
inseparable: People commonly believe that
morality can be understood only in the context of
religion. So, because the clergymen are the
spokesmen for religion, it is assumed that they
must be spokesmen for morality as well.
The Divine Command Theory
− We were created as free agents, so we may
choose to accept or to reject his commandments.
But if we are to live as we should live, we must
follow God’s laws.
− In the major theistic traditions, including
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, God is
conceived as a lawgiver who has laid down rules
that we are to obey. He does not compel us to
obey them.
EUTHYPHRO DILEMMA
− There are, however, serious problems for the
theory, Of course, atheists would not accept it,
because they do not believe that God exists. But
there are difficulties even for believers. The main
problem was first noted by Plato, the Greek
Philosopher who lived 400 years before the birth
of Jesus.
− Socrates is skeptical and asks Euthyphro: Is
conduct right because the gods command it,
or do the gods command it because it is
right?
“Right conduct is right because God
commands it”
− For example, according to Exodus 20:16, God
commands us to be truthful. On this option, the
reason we should be truthful is simply that God
requires it. Apart from the divine command, truth
telling is neither good nor bad. It is God’s
command that makes truthfulness right.
❖ Issue:
✓ It makes God arbitrary. It means God could
have given different commands just as
easily.
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 ✓ He could have commanded us to be liars,
and then lying, not truthfulness, would be
right.
✓ Remember that on this view, honesty was not
right before God commanded it.
✓ Another problem is that, on this view, the
doctrine of the goodness of God is reduced
to nonsense.
✓ It is important to religious believers that God
is not only all-powerful and all-knowing, but
the he is also good; yet if we accept the idea
that good and bad are defined by reference
to God’s will, this notion is deprived of any
meaning.
“God commands us to do certain things
because they are right”
− God, who is infinitely wise, realizes that
truthfulness is better than deceitfulness, and so
he commands us to be truthful; he sees that
killing is wrong, and so he commands us not to
kill; and so on for all the moral rules.
➢ Issue:
✓ In taking this option, we have abandoned the
theological conception of right and wrong.
✓ When we say that God commands us to be
truthful because truthfulness is right, we are
acknowledging a standard of right and wrong
that is independent of God’s will.
Religion and Particular Moral Issues
− It is often difficult to find specific moral guidance
in the Scriptures.
o The Bible contains a number of general
precepts, such the injunctions to love one’s
neighbor and to treat others as one would
wish to be treated oneself, that might be
thought relevant to a variety of issues. But
worthy as those precepts are, they do not
yield definite answers about exactly what
position one should take concerning the
rights of workers, the extinction of species,
the funding of medical research, and so on.
− Another problem is that in many instances the
Scriptures and church tradition are ambiguous.
o Authorities disagree, leaving the believer in
the awkward position of having to choose
which element of the tradition to accept and
which authority to believe.
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➢ Example:
The New Testament condemns being rich, and
there is a long tradition of self-denial and
charitable giving that affirms this teaching. But
there is also an obscure Old Testament figure
named Jabez who asked God to enlarge my
territories (I Chronicles 4:10), and God did. A
recent book urging Christians to adopt Jabez as
their model became a best-seller.
− In the debate over abortion, religious issues are
never far from the center of discussion.
− Religious conservatives hold that the fetus is a
human being from the moment of conception,
and so they say killing it is really a form of
murder.
− They do not believe it should be the mother’s
choice whether to have an abortion, because that
would be like saying she is free to commit
murder.
SUMMARY
• Right and wrong are not to be defined in
terms of God’s will.
• Morality is a matter of reason and
conscience, not religious faith; and in any
case, religious considerations do not provide
definitive solutions to the specific moral
problems that confront us.
• Morality and religion are, in a word, different.
Because this conclusion is contrary to
conventional wisdom, it may strike some
readers as anti-religious.
• Therefore, it should be emphasized that this
conclusion has not been reached by
questioning the validity of religion.
• The arguments we have considered do not
assume that Christianity or any other
theological system is false; these arguments
merely show that even if such a system is
true, morality remains an independent
matter.
CULTURE
− Culture is the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and
other characteristics shared by groups of people.
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− Given this, someone could very well say that they
are influenced by internet culture, rather than an
ethnicity or a society!
− Culture could be based on shared ethnicity,
gender, customs, values, or even objects.
− Some cultures place significant value in things
such as ceremonial artifacts, jewelry, or even
clothing.
➢ Example:
Christmas trees can be considered ceremonial
or cultural objects. They are representative in
both Western religious and commercial holiday
culture.
− Superior conception of one’s culture over
another.
− Have you ever seen or eaten food from another
country, such as dried squid or fried crickets and
think of it as weird and gross?
− Related to Xenophobia.
Xenocentrism
− Foreign culture is the “Center”.
− Inferior conception of one’s culture over another.
− Thinking that another culture is superior over
your own. Like, “I wish I was born Korean”.

− In addition, culture can also demonstrate the way Cultural Relativism

a group thinks, their practices, or behavioral
patterns, or their views of the world.
➢ Examples:
o In some countries like China, it is acceptable
to stare at others in public, or to stand very
close to others in public spaces.
o In South Africa, if you board a nearly empty
bus or enter a nearly empty movie theater, it
is regarded as polite to sit next to the only
person there.
o On the other hand, in a recent study of
Greyhound bus trips in the US, a researcher
found that the greatest unspoken rule of bus-
taking is that if other seats are available, one
should never sit next to another person.
o Numerous passengers expressed that “it
makes you look weird”. These are all
examples of cultural norms that people in one
society may be used to.
− Cultural relativism refers to not judging a culture
to our own standards of what is right or wrong,
strange or normal. Instead, we should try to
understand cultural practices of other groups in
its own cultural context.
o “Why do some cultures eat fried
insects?”
o You may learn that fried crickets or
grasshoppers are full of protein and in
Mexico, it is famous Oaxaca regional cuisine
and have been eaten for thousands of years
as a healthy food source!

− Norms that you are used to are neither right nor

wrong, just different.
− Picture walking into a nearly empty movie theater
when visiting another country, and not sitting
next to the only person in the theater.
− Another person walks up and tells you off for
being rude. You, not used to these norms, feel
confused, and anxious. This disorientation you
feel is an example of culture shock.
− Cartoon showing two people in an empty movie
theater. One person is saying "you're a jerk" to
the person who sat far away from him.

Ethnocentrism

− Your culture is the “Center”.

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 SENSE OF THE SELF AND MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
Ethical Subjectivism & Egoism
Kohlberg;s Stage of Moral Development
Objectives
o Moral statements are just factual statements
about the attitude normal human beings hold
on a particular issue.
− And this may ultimately lead us to this conclusion
about moral truths:
o Moral judgements are dependent on the
feelings and attitudes of the persons who
think about such things.

o Compare and contrast Ethical Subjectivism and GOOD POINTS OF BAD POINTS OF
Ethical Egoism. SUBJECTIVISM SUBJECTIVISM
o Discuss contentions against Ethical Egoism.
✓ Reflects the ✓ “If I approve of
subjective something, it
Ethical Subjectivism and Ethical Egoism
elements of must be good.”
morality. ✓ Moral statements
Subjectivism ✓ Reflects the seem more than
− The starting point of subjectivism is the evaluative statements about
recognition that the individual thinking person elements of moral feelings.
(the subject) is at the heart of all moral statements. ✓ How can we
valuations. ✓ Shows that moral blame people if
− She is the one who is confronted with the judgements moral truths are
communicate always
situation and is burdened with the need to
dis/approval. subjective?
make a decision or judgment.
✓ May clarify what
− From this point, subjectivism leaps to the
people are
more radical claim that the individual is the
arguing about.
sole determinant of what is morally good or
✓ Reflects the
bad, right or wrong.
persuasive
intentions behind
ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM ethical
discussions.
− The basic thought of Ethical Subjectivism is the
idea that our moral opinions are based on our
feelings and nothing more. On this view, there PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM
is no such thing as “objective” right and wrong.
− Subjectivism teaches that there are no objective − “Human beings are naturally self-centered, so
moral truths out there. all our action is always already motivated by self-
o There are no objective moral facts. interest.”
Therefore, “murder is wrong” can't be − This theory that describes the underlying
objectively true. dynamic behind all human actions. As a
− Many forms of subjectivism go a bit further and descriptive theory, it does not direct one to act in
teach that moral statements describe how the any particular way.
speaker feels about a particular ethical issue. − Instead, it points out that there is already an
o Moral statements are just factual statements underlying basis for how one acts.
about the attitude the speaker holds on a − The ego or self has its desires and interest, and
particular issue. all our actions are geared toward satisfying these
o So, if I say "lying is wrong", all I'm doing is interests.
telling you that I disapprove of telling lies.
− Some forms of subjectivism generalize this idea
to come up with: ETHICAL EGOISM

− It differs from psychological egoism in that it does

not suppose all our actions are already inevitably

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 self-serving. Instead, ethical egoism prescribes
that we should make our own ends, our own
interest, as the single overriding concern. We
may act in a way that is beneficial to others, but
we should do that only if it ultimately benefits us.
− It is the view that people ought to pursue their
own self-interest, and no one has any obligation
to promote anyone else’s interests. It is thus a
normative or prescriptive theory; it is
concerned with how people ought to behave.
Arguments in support of Ethical Egoism
“Everyone pursuing his own self-interest is
the best way to promote the general good.”
Bernard Mandeville (1670-1733) "The Fable of the Bees"
& Adam Smith (1723-1790) "The Wealth of Nations.”
o Smith - when individuals single-mindedly pursue
“the gratification of their own vain and
insatiable desires” they unintentionally, as if
“led by an invisible hand,” benefit society as a
whole.
o This happy result comes about because people
generally are the best judges of what is in their
own interest, and they are much more motivated
to work hard to benefit themselves than to
achieve any other goal.
➢ Prisoner's Dilemma
Consider the prisoner’s dilemma, for instance.
This is a hypothetical situation described in game
theory.
You and a comrade, (call him X) are being held
in prison. You are both asked to confess. The
terms of the deal you are offered are as follows:
• If you confess and X doesn’t, you get six
months and he gets 10 years.
• If X confesses and you don’t, he gets six
months and you get 10 years.
• If you both confess, you both get five years.
• If neither of you confesses, you both get two
years.
o Regardless of what X does, the best thing for you
to do is confess.
o Because if he doesn’t confess, you’ll get a light
sentence; and if he does confess, you’ll at least
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avoid getting extra prison time. But the same
reasoning holds for X as well.
− According to Ethical Egoism, you should both
pursue your rational self-interest. But then the
outcome is not the best one possible. You both
get five years, whereas if both of you had put
your self-interest on hold, you’d each only get
two years.
Ayn Rand's Objectivism
− Author of “The Fountainhead” and “Atlas
Shrugged”.
− Her complaint is that the Judeo-Christian moral
tradition, which includes — or has fed into —
modern liberalism and socialism, pushes an
ethic of altruism. Altruism means putting the
interests of others before your own.
− This is something people are routinely praised for
doing, encouraged to do, and in some
circumstances even required to do, such as
when you pay taxes to support the needy.
According to Rand, no one has any right to
expect or demand that I make any sacrifices for
the sake of anyone other than myself.
Objections of Moral Philosophy
− Ethical egoism has no solutions to offer when a
problem arises involving conflicts of interest.
− Ethical egoism goes against the principle of
impartiality.
− To many, this seems to contradict the very
essence of morality.
o The golden rule —versions of which appear
in Confucianism, Buddhism, Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam — says we should
treat others as we would like to be treated.
o One of the greatest moral philosophers of
modern times, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804),
argued that the fundamental principle of
morality (the “categorical imperative,” in
his jargon) is that we should not make
exceptions of ourselves.
− According to Kant, we shouldn’t perform an
action if we cannot honestly wish that everyone
would behave in a similar way in the same
circumstances.
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 KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL − The first stage is characterized by a view that
DEVELOPMENT right action is to behave according to socially
acceptable norms imposed by some
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG authority figure (e.g., parent or teacher) in
order to avoid punishment. (Egocentric)
− A professor of
psychology in Harvard II. Stage 2: Individual and Instrumental
university. Exchange (Aiming at Reward)
− Prominent moral − The second stage is characterized by a view
development theorist that right behavior means acting in one’s own
− His thinking grew out of best interests. (Individualistic)
Jean Piaget’s writing on
children’s intellectual
development. CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
− His theory is descriptive,
− it speaks on isolated individuals rather than as
rather than proven facts.
members of the society. It sees individual
exchanging favors, but there is still no
identification with the values of the
− Kohlberg presumes that there are six stages of family/community.
moral development that people go through in
much the same way as infants learned first to roll III. Stage 3: Mutual and Interpersonal Conformity
over, to sit, to crawl, to stand and finally to walk. (Good Boy & Good Girl Attitude)
− Kohlberg clearly emphasized the following − Characterized by an attitude which one
system of his theory: seeks to do that will gain the approval of
o Everyone goes through each stage in the others (individual in relationship to other
same order, but not everyone goes individuals).
through all the stages, and
o A person at one stage can understand the IV. Stage 4: Law and Order (Loyalty to Law &
reasoning of any stage below him but Order)
cannot understand more than one stage − Characterized by abiding the law and
above. respecting authority and performing one’s
duty so that social order is maintained
(differentiates societal point of view from
interpersonal agreement or motives).

POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL

− moral decisions are generated from the rights,

values or principles that are or that could be
agreeable to all individuals composing or
creating a society designed to have fair and
beneficial practices.

V. Stage 5: Social Contract & Individual Rights

(Justice & Spirit of the Law)
PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL − Characterized by thinking about a society in
a very theoretical way, stepping back from
− pre-conventional because individuals do not yet their own established society and
speak as members of society, instead they see considering the rights and values of the
morality as something external to themselves. society ought to uphold (individuals are
aware of the values and rights prior to social
I. Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience (Avoid attachment and contract).
Punishment)

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VI. Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles
(Universal Principles of Ethics)
− Characterized by an attitude of respect for
universal principle and the demands of
individual conscience (social agreement are
derived on which they are grounded or
motives).
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ETHICAL DILEMMA & DECISION MAKING
Learning Outcomes
After the lesson, the students will be able to:
o Define ethical dilemma
o Differentiate personal dilemma to social
dilemma
o Evaluate different ethical dilemmas and
answer them
o Give example of ethical dilemmas
o Do ethical decision making
ETHICAL DILLEMA
− Situations in which there is a choice to be made
between two options, neither of which resolves
the situation in an ethically acceptable fashion. In
such cases, societal and personal ethical
guidelines can provide no satisfactory outcome
for the chooser.
− Ethical dilemmas assume that the chooser will
abide by societal norms, such as codes of law or
religious teachings, in order to make the choice
ethically impossible.
✓ Three (3) conditions that must be present:
1. Person is obliged to make an action about
which action is best.
2. there must be different course of action to
choose from.
3. no matter what course of action to be taken,
some moral principles are compromised.
❖ Example:
The Euthyphro Dilemma
− Socrates is skeptical and asks Euthyphro: Is
conduct right because the gods
command it, or do the gods command it
because it is right?
Model for Ethical Decision Making
1. Gather the Facts
− Frequently ethical dilemmas can be resolved
simply by clarifying the facts of the case in
question. In those cases that prove to be
more difficult, gathering the facts is the
essential first step prior to any ethical
analysis and reflection on the case. In
analyzing a case, we want to know the
available facts at hand as well as any facts
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 currently not known but that need to be
ascertained. Thus, one is asking not only
“what do we know?”, but also “what do we
need to know?” in order to make an
intelligent ethical decision.
2. Determine the Ethical Issues
− The ethical issues are stated in terms of
competing interests or goods. It’s these
conflicting interests that actually make for an
ethical dilemma. The issues should be
presented is a ______versus ______ format
in order to reflect the interests that are
colliding in a particular ethical dilemma. For
example, in business ethics there is often a
conflict between the right of a firm to make
profit and its obligation to the community. In
this case, the obligation pertains to the
environment.
3. What Ethical Principles have a bearing on the
case
− In any ethical dilemma, there are certain
moral values or principles that are central to
the conflicting positions being taken. It is
critical to identify these principles, and in
some cases, to determine whether some
principles are to be weighted more heavily
than others.
4. List the Alternatives
− Part of the creative thinking involved in
resolving an ethical dilemma involves coming
up with various alternative courses of action.
Although there will be some alternatives that
you will rule out without much thought, in
general the more alternatives that are listed,
the better the chance that your list will include
some high-quality ones. In addition, you may
come up with some very creative alternative
that you had not considered before.
5. Compare the Alternatives with the Principles
− At this point, the task is one of eliminating
alternatives according to the moral principles
that have a bearing on the case. In many
instances, the case will be resolved at this
point, since the principles will eliminate all
alternatives except one. In fact, the purpose
of this comparison is to see if there is a clear
decision that can be made without further
deliberations. If a clear decision is not
forthcoming, then the next part is the model
that must be considered. At the least, some
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of the alternatives may be eliminated by this
step of comparison.
6. Weigh the Consequences
− If the principles do not yield a clear decision,
then a consideration of the consequences of
the remaining available alternatives is in
order. Both positive and negative
consequences are to be considered. They
should be informally weighed, since some
positive consequences are more detrimental
than others.
7. Make a Decision
− Deliberations cannot go on forever. At some
point, a decision must be made. Realize that
one common element in ethical dilemmas is
that there are no easy and painless solutions
to them. Frequently the decision that is made
is one that involves the least number of
problems or negative consequences, not one
that is devoid of them.
Ethical Dilemma Situations
✓ Two types of Ethical Dilemmas:
a. Personal dilemmas
b. Societal dilemmas
Personal Dilemmas
❖ Examples:
Michael had several friends including
Roger and Daniel. Roger has recently met and
started dating a wonderful lady named Phyllis.
He is convinced this is a long-term relationship.
Unknown to Roger, Michael observed them at a
restaurant several days ago, and realized Phyllis
is the wife of his other friend Daniel.
Michael is deciding whether to tell Roger
that Phyllis is married when he receives a call
from Daniel. Daniel suspects his wife is having
an affair and since They and michael share many
friends and contacts, he asksAubrey May Parra
if michael has
 from Daniel. Daniel suspects his wife is having an There seems no way to get the pregnant
affair and since They and Michael share many woman loose without using the dynamite which
friends and contacts, he asks if Michael has will inevitably kill her; but if they do not use it
heard anything regarding an affair. everyone will drown. What should they do?

To whom does Michael owe greater

friendship to in this situation? No matter who he
tells, he is going to end up hurting one, if not both
friends. Does he remain silent and hope his
knowledge is never discovered?

Societal Dilemmas

❖ Examples:

The mood at Baileyville High School is

tense with anticipation. For the first time in many,
many years, the varsity basketball team has
made it to the state semifinals. The community is
excited too, and everyone is making plans to
attend the big event next Saturday night. Jeff, the
Varsity Coach, has been waiting for years to field
such a team. Speed, teamwork, balance: they've
got it all. Only one more week to practice, he tells
his team, and not a rule can be broken. Everyone
must be at practice each night at the regularly
scheduled time: no exceptions.
Brad and Mike are two of the team's
starters. From their perspective, they're
indispensable to the team, the guys who will
bring victory to Baileyville. They decide why, no
one will ever know-to show up an hour late to the
next day's practice.
Jeff is furious. They have deliberately
disobeyed his orders. The rule says they should
be suspended for one full week. If he follows the
rule, Brad and Mike will not play in the semifinals.
But the whole team is depending on them. What
should he do?

A pregnant woman leading a group of

people out of a cave on a coast is stuck in the
mouth of that cave. In a short time, high tide will
be upon them, and unless she is unstuck, they
will all be drowned except the woman, whose
head is out of the cave. Fortunately, (or
unfortunately) someone has with him a stick of
dynamite.
There seems no way to get the pregnant
woman loose without using the dynamite which
will inevitably
Created kill by:
and edited her; but if they do not use it Aubrey May Parra
everyone will drown. What should they do?