PRACTICAL FILE

Name – Gurpreet Kaur

Roll no. - 17032000328

Semester – 2nd

Department – Computer Science and Engineering

Subject – Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Subject code – ECL-119

EXPERIMENT - 1
AIM - Familiarisation with Resistor
Objectives of Experiment

At the end of the experiment the student would be able to

• Explain the function and unit of Resistors

• Measure the value of a Resistor
• Measure the Tolerance of a Resistor
• Explain the types of Resistors

Types of Resistors

Figure:1

Reading Value of Fixed Resistors

 Figure:2.1

• Resistors are color coded as they are too small for the value to be written on them.
• There are 4 or 5 bands of color . Value of a Resistor is decoded from these band of
colors.

Figure:2.2

Reading Value:Step 1
 • If your resistor has four color bands ,turn the resistor so that the gold or silver band
is on right hand side or the end with more bands should point left.

Figure:3

Reading Value:Step 2

The first band is now on the left hand side. This represents the first digit .Based on the
color make a note of the digit.In this case- 4 band its ‘5’ and for 5 band its ‘2’.
 Figure:4

Reading Value :Step 3

The second band represents the second digit. The colors represent the same numbers
as did the first digit .In this case -4 band its’6’ and for 5 band its’3’.
 Figure:5

Reading Value : Step 4

The third band divulges how many zeros to add/divide to the first two numbers –for a 4
band Resistor . In this case – 4 band its ‘4’ zeroes to be added . So value is 560K.
 Figure:6

Reading Value : Step 5

The third band denotes the 3rd digit – for a 5 band Resistor. In this case -5 band its ‘7’ .
So the value of the 5 band resistor is 237 Ohms as its multipier digit is ‘0.
 Figure:7

Tolerance

The last band denotes the tolerance . So the value of the 4 band resistor it is +/- 10%
while for the 5 band resistor it is +/- 1%.
 Figure:8

o Tolerance of a Resistor is also an important property to consider .

o A 100 ohm resistor with a 10 % tolerance can mean its value can be any fixed
value between 90 to 110 Ohms.
o A 120 Ohm resistor with a 10 % tolerance can mean its value can be any fixed
value between 108 and 132 Ohms.
o So there is some overlap between 100 Ohm and 120 Ohm resistance in terms
of its limits.

Mnemonic to Remember
Figure:9.1

Figure:9.2
Carbon Film Resistors

o Most general purpose ,cheap resistor

o Tolerance of Resistance value is usually +/- 5%
o Power ratings of 1/8 W ,1/4 W and ½ W are usually used
o Con:Tend to be electrically noisy

Figure:10

Metal Film Resistor

o Used when higher tolerance is needed , ie more value.

o They have about +/- 0.05% tolerance

Figure:11

Wire Wound Resistors

o A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and because of this
they can be manufactured to precise values
o Also, high wattage resistors can be made by thick wire material
o Wire wound resistors in a ceramic case are called as ceramic resistors
o Wire wound resistors in a ceramic case are called as ceramic resistors
EXPERIMENT – 2
AIM - Familiarisation with Capacitor
Objectives of Experiment

After the end of this module the student would be able to

• Provide a definition of capacitor and name its units

• Explain how a capacitor can be constructed to give a particular value of capacitance
• Explain why a capacitor has maximum working voltage
• Determine experimentally the energy stored in a capacitor
• Identify the value and type of capacitor
• Identify the polarity of terminals

What is Capacitor?

It is one of the passive components like resistor. Capacitor is also known as condenser.
Capacitor is generally used to store the charge. The charge is stored in the form of
“electrical field”. Capacitors play a major role in many electrical and electronic circuits.

Figure: 1

Construction of a Capacitor
The basic construction of all capacitors is of two parallel metal plates separated by an
insulating material (the dielectric). An insulator is a material which is non-conducting
i.e. it shows a high resistance to letting to electric used is air, other types are oil or
paper. Real capacitors are made by taking thin strips of metal foil and the appropriate
dielectric material and sandwiching them together.

Figure: 2

Capacitor achieve large area (thus large capacitance) by doing something tricky, such as
putting a dielectric between 2 layers of metal foil and rolling it up like in this figure.
 Figure: 3

Capacitance

A capacitor is so called because it has the capacity to store charge- just like a beaker
storing a liquid. Capacitors are marked with a value which indicates their capacitance –
their ability to store charge . Capacitance can be thought of as the “electrical capacity”
of that body. It is measured in Farads.
 Figure: 4

Note- Maximum Working Voltage

If the voltage across a capacitor is too high, the insulator between the plates fails to
insulate and charge passes from one plate to the other . Capacitor are usually marked
with the maximum working voltage to help the user avoid situation .
A good rule of thumb is to never place a voltage across the capacitor which exceeds
about two thirds of this value, especially for alternating current circuits.

Mathematical Notation

• A static description of the way a capacitor behaves would be to say Q = C ×V , where

Q is the total charge, C is a measure of how big the capacitor is and V is the voltage
across it.
• A dynamic description ,ie one that changes with time would be to say I = C × dV/dT.
This is just the time derivative of the static description .C is constant wrt time, I is
the rate at which charge flows . This essentially says – the bigger the current , the
faster the capacitor’s voltage changes.

Classification of Capacitors

UN-POLARIZED POLARIZED
Ceramic Electrolytic
Multilayer Tantalum
Polystyrene Film Super
Polyster Film They have positive and negative electrode
Polypropylene
Mica
They don't have positive and negative
electrode

Ceramic Capacitors
 Figure: 15

Ceramic capacitors are the most used capacitors in the electronics industry. Ceramic
capacitors are fixed capacitance type capacitors and they are usually very small (in terms of
both physical dimensions and capacitance). The capacitance of ceramic capacitors is usually
in the range of picofarads to few micro farads (less than 10µF). They are non-polarised type
capacitors and hence can be used in both DC as well as AC circuits.

Electrolytic Capacitor
 Figure: 16

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way round ,
atleast one of their leads will be marked + or – . It is very easy to find the values of
electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their capacitance and voltage
rating.

Tantalum Capacitor

Figure: 16

Tantalum bead capacitors are polarized and have low voltage ratings like electrolytic
capacitors . Usually , the “+” symbol is used to show the positive component lead . Modern
tantalum bead capacitors are printed with their capacitance voltage and polarity in full.
However older ones use a color – code systems which has two stripes (for the two digits )
and a spot of color for the number of zeros to give the value in uF.

Un-polarized Capacitors- small values(upto 1uF)

 Figure: 17

The value printed but without a multiplier, so you need to use experience to work out what
the multiplier should be! For example 0.1 means 0.1 pF. Sometimes the multiplier is used in
place of the decimal point: For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.

Un-polarized Capacitors — Capacitor Number Code

Figure: 18
A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult: The 1st number
is the 1st digit, the 2nd number is the 2nd digit, the 3rd number is the number of zeros to
give the capacitance in pF. Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage
rating. For example: 102 means 1000pF (not 102pF!) For example: 472J means 4700pF (J
means 5% tolerance).

Un-polarized Capacitors — Capacitor Color Code

Figure: 19

Capacitors in series

Capacitors in series means two or more capacitors connected in a single line. Positive plate
of the one capacitor is connected to the negative plate of the next capacitor.
 Figure: 20

QT = Q1 = Q2 = ---------- =Q
IC = I1 = I2 =-----------I

where,
QT is the total charge,
IC is the capacitive current

When the capacitors are connected in series Charge and current is same on all the
capacitors.

For series capacitors same quantity of electrons will flow through each capacitor because
the charge on each plate is coming from the adjacent plate. So, coulomb charge is same. As
current is nothing but flow of electrons, current is also same.

Equivalent Capacitance for two capacitors in series,

1/Ceq = 1/C1 + 1/C

1/Ceq =C1 C2 /C1+C2

Capacitors in parallel

When the capacitors are connected in parallel the total capacitance value is increased. There
are some applications where higher capacitance values are required.
 Figure: 21

All the capacitors which are connected in parallel have the same voltage and is equal to the
VT applied between the input and output terminals of the circuit.

V T = V1 = V 2
Equivalent Capacitance for two capacitors in parallel,

Ceq = C 1+ C2

Function of Capacitance

Consider a circuit set up like the one at the side. What will happen when the switch is
closed?
The ammeter will

• How a steady reading

• Show a reading of ’0’
• Flick back and forth
• Flick on one side and come back to ‘0’
 Figure: 5

Now let’s place large metal plate at each of the connectors a few millimetres apart.
What will happen when the switch is closed?
The Ammeter will

• Show a steady reading

• Show a reading of ‘0’
• Flick back and forth
• Flick on one sid and come back to ‘0’

Figure: 6

Let us extend this by placing a galvanometer on both sides of the capacitor and using a
two-way switch .
What will happen when the switch is connected to ‘P’?
For both of the Ammeters

• Neither moves
• Both flick briefly to left
• Both flick briefly to right
• They flick in opposite dirs
 Figure: 7

After moving to ‘P’ now the switch is moved to ‘O’.

What will happen?
For both of the Ammeters

• Neither moves
• Both flick briefly to left
• Both flick briefly to right
• They flick in opposite dirs

Figure: 8
Instead of moving to ’P’ the first time ,if the switch is first moved to ‘O’ .
what will happen?
For both of the Ammeters

• Neither moves
• Both flick briefly to left
• Both flick briefly to right
• They flick in opposite dirs

Figure: 9

The behaviour of the ammeter needles in the previous experiment suggests that a current
flow firstly one way ,then the other as the switch is moved from P to O. So, this suggests

• Equal amounts of charge flows off one plate and onto the other
• More charge flows off plate A than plate B
• More charge flows off plate B than plate A
• No charge flows at all
 Figure: 10

Charging and Discharging

We say that the capacitor is charged up when connected to P and discharged when moved
to .

Charging

Figure: 11
The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal of the battery accepts
electrons that the battery is producing .The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the
positive terminal of the battery loses electrons to the battery. Once it’s charged , the
capacitor has the sam voltage as the battery.

Charging - Question

Here you have a battery ,light bulb and a capacitor .If they are connected – what will
happen to the bulb?

Figure: 12

• It will never glow

• It will glow as long as the battery is connected
• It will first glow and then keep dimming and finally turn off

Discharging
 Figure: 13

If you then remove the battery and replace it with a wire , current will flow from one plate of
the capacitor to the other. The bulb will light initially and then dim as the capacitor
discharges , until it is completely out.

A color code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now obsolete, but of
course there are many still around. The colors should be read like the resistor code, the top
three color bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band
(voltage rating). .For example: brown, black, orange means 10000pF. Note that there are
no gaps between the color bands, so 2 identical bands actually appear as a wide band. For
example: wide red, yellow means 220nF.
EXPERIMENT - 3
AIM - Familiarisation with Inductor
Objectives Of Experiment

At the end of the module, the student would be able to

• Explain Function of Inductor

• Explain the factors influencing inductance

Function of an Inductor

The function of a valve is to control the amount of fluid that flows through a pipe.

Figure:1

In an electronic circuit, the resistor is used to control the amount of current that flows through
a conductor.
 Figure:2

Mother device that controls the current is the inductor .

Figure:3

However unlike the resistor that affects the current uniformly at all times, the inductor only
affects currents when they are changing in value.

Similarity with Capacitor

• Rate of change of voltage in a capacitor depends upon the current through it

• Rate of change of current in an inductor depends upon the voltage applied across it.
 • Like capacitive current, inductive current is not simply proportional to voltage
• Unlike the situation in a resistor, the power associated with inductive current (V times I)
is not turned into heat but is stored as energy in the inductor’s magnetic field.

Equation of an Inductor

V= L* dl / dt

• L is the inductance and is measured in henry.

• Putting a voltage across an inductor causes the current to rise as a ramp
• 1 volt across 1 henry produces a current that increases at 1 amp per second

Structure of an Inductor

Figure:4

It consists of a wire wound as a coil around a core. The core may consist of a air filled hollow
tube or solid material.

Inductance

The amount of inductance in henries a coil has, is determined by the following factors -

1. No of turns of wire wound around the coil

2. Cross sectional area of the coil
3. The material type of the coil
4. The Length of the coil
 Figure:5

Test Question

1. If the number of turns of coil around an inductor is increased ( doubles ), how will the
inductance change ?

Figure:6
 o Increase
o Decrease
o Will Not Change

2. If the distance between the turns of coil around an inductor is increased ( doubles ),
how will the inductance change ?

Figure:7

o Increase
o Decrease
o Will Not Change

3. IF the diameter of the coil around an inductor is increased(doubles),how will the

inductance change?
 Figure:8

o Increase
o Decrease
o Will Not Change

Inductive Kick

An Inductive is capable of producing a momentary voltage that is much higher than the voltage
of the power source that supplied the current to create its magnetic field . This temporary
voltage is called an inductive kick.

Figure:9

Example of applications of inductive devices to provide an inductive kick is a Combustion

Engine ignition system that creates the spark across the gap of the spark plug.
EXPERIMENT- 4
AIM - Ohms Law
Theory
Objectives

Explain Ohm's Law

Ohm's Law

1. The law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points. Such a conductor is characterized by its
‘Resistance’ – R measured in Ohms.

2. V=I×R
• V is the Voltage in Volts across the conductor.
• I is the current in Amperes through the conductor.
• Voltage(V) is directly proportional to current i.e V=I×R.
• Resistance(R) in inversely proportional to current(I) i.e I=V/R

Figure 1: Ohm's Law triangle

NOTE:
From the above figure, the equation may be represented by a triangle known as Ohm's Law
triangle, where V (voltage) is placed on the top section, the I (current) is placed to the left section,
and the R (resistance) is placed to the right. The line that divides the left and right sections
indicates multiplication, and the divider between the top and bottom sections indicates division.
Therefore equations derived from Ohm's law triangle are-

V=I×R
I=V/R
R=V/I
Explaination of Ohm's Law

Figure 2: Current through resistor

From the circuit:

The voltage across resistor is equal to source voltage:

VR=VS

The current through the resistance is given by:

 I=VR /R
Procedure
Experiment

1. Let us go through the experiment of confirming Ohms Law.

a. Set DC voltage(0-30 V).
b. Set the Resistance Value(1 Kohm - 100 Kohm) .
c. Voltmeter is placed parallel to resistor and ammeter series with resistor.
d. Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC voltage.
e. Increase the DC voltage by 2 factor and note Voltmeter and Ammeter Readings.
Keep resistance value constant
f. Plot the V-I graph to verify Ohm's Law.
g. Repeat step 2 to 6 for another set of resistance value.
h. V versus I graph is a straight line.
i. Therefore from the graph we see that the resistance do adhere to Ohm’s law.
Thus resistance is said to be an Ohmic device.

Figure:1
EXPERIMENT - 5
AIM - VI Characteristics of a Diode
Theory
Objectives

At the end of the experiment, the student should be able to

1. Explain the structure of a P-N junction diode

2. Explain the function of a P-N junction diode
3. Explain forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode
4. Explain forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Germanium diode

Structure of P-N junction diode

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material. The
lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to the n-type
material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on the
diode.

Figurer:1

Figurer:2

Function of a P-N junction diode in Forward Bias

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the negative terminal of
battery is connected to the N side(cathode) of a diode, the holes in the p-type region and the
electrons in the n-type region are pushed toward the junction and start to neutralize the
depletion zone, reducing its width. The positive potential applied to the p-type material repels
the holes, while the negative potential applied to the n-type material repels the electrons. The
change in potential between the p side and the n side decreases or switches sign. With increasing
forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the zone's
electric field cannot counteract charge carrier motion across the p–n junction, which as a
consequence reduces electrical resistance. The electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-
type material (or holes that cross into the n-type material) will diffuse into the nearby neutral
region. The amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of
current that may flow through the diode.

Figurer:3

Function of a P-N junction diode in Reverse Bias

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal
of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode. Therefore, very little current will flow
until the diode breaks down.
 Figurer:4

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal
of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode, the 'holes' in the p-type material are
pulled away from the junction, leaving behind charged ions and causing the width of the
depletion region to increase. Likewise, because the n-type region is connected to the positive
terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from the junction, with similar effect. This
increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus
allowing minimal electric current to cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n
junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator.
The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases.
Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–n junction depletion zone
breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either the Zener or the avalanche breakdown
processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as
the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to
overheat and cause thermal damage.

Forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in forward biasing
because the forward biasing will decrease the depletion region width and overcome the barrier
potential. In order to conduct, the forward biasing voltage should be greater than the barrier
potential. During forward biasing the diode acts like a closed switch with a potential drop of
nearly 0.6 V across it for a silicon diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a silicon
diode. From the graph, you may notice that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias
voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

Figurer:5

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the diode does not
conduct electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an increase in the depletion region width;
hence current carrier charges find it more difficult to overcome the barrier potential. The diode
will act like an open switch and there is no current flow.

Forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Germanium diode

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in forward biasing
because the forward biasing will decrease the depletion region width and overcome the barrier
potential. In order to conduct, the forward biasing voltage should be greater than the barrier
potential. During forward biasing the diode acts like a closed switch with a potential drop of
nearly 0.3 V across it for a germanium diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a
germanium diode. From the graph, you may notice that the diode starts conducting when the
forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.3 volts (for Ge diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

Figurer:6

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the diode does not
conduct electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an increase in the depletion region width;
hence current carrier charges find it more difficult to overcome the barrier potential. The diode
will act like an open switch and there is no current flow.

Diode Equation

In the forward-biased and reversed-biased regions, the current (If), and the voltage (Vf), of a
semiconductor diode are related by the diode equation:

If = Is×(exp Vf /n×VT−1)

where,
Is is reverse saturation current or leakage current,
If is current through the diode(forward current),
Vf is potential difference across the diode terminals(forward voltage)
VT is thermal voltage, given by

VT=k×T/q

and
k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10−23 J /°Kelvin,
q is the electronic charge = 1.6x10 −19 joules/volt(Coulombs),
T is the absolute temperature in °Kelvin(°K = 273 + temperature in °C),
At room temperature (25 °C), the thermal voltage is about 25.7 mV,
n is an empirical constant between 0.5 and 2

The empirical constant, n, is a number that can vary according to the voltage and current levels.
It depends on electron drift, diffusion, and carrier recombination in the depletion region. Among
the quantities affecting the value of n are the diode manufacture, levels of doping and purity of
materials.

If n=1, the value of k×T/q is 26 mV at 25°C.

When n=2, the value of k×T/q becomes 52 mV. For germanium diodes, n is usually considered to
be close to 1. For silicon diodes, n is in the range of 1.3 to 1.6.

Note

1. Ideal Diode Model:Diode is a simple switch that is either closed (conducting) or open
(non conducting). Specifically, the diode is a short circuit, like a closed switch, when
voltage is applied in the forward direction, and an open circuit, like an open switch,
when the voltage is applied in the reverse direction.
2. Offset Voltage Model:The offset voltage model adds the barrier potential to the ideal
switch model. When the diode is forward biased it is equivalent to a closed switch in
series with a small equivalent voltage source equal to the barrier potential (0.6 V for
Silicon, 0.2 for germanium) with the positive side towards the anode. When the diode is
reverse biased, it is equivalent to an open switch just as in the ideal model.
3. Complete diode Model:It is the most accurate of the diode models. The Complete diode
model of a diode consists of the barrier potential, the small forward dynamic resistance
and the ideal diode. The resistor approximates the semiconductor resistance under
forward bias. This diode model most accurately represents the true operating
characteristics of the real diode.
 4. When a diode is reverse biased a leakage current flows through the device. This current
can be effectively ignored as long as the reverse breakdown voltage of the diode is not
exceeded. At potentials greater than the reverse breakdown voltage, charge is pulled
through the p-n junction by the strong electric fields in the device and large reverse
current flows. This usually destroys the device. There are special diodes that are
designed to operate in breakdown. Such diodes are called zener diodes and used as
voltage regulators.

When is each Model used ?

Ideal Diode Model: This is primarily used in troubleshooting. Is the diode working or not. The
greatest utility of the ideal diode model is in determining which diodes are on and which are off
in a multi-diode circuit.

Offset Voltage Model:This is used when a more accurate determination of load current or
voltage is required.

Complete Diode Model:This is use during the actual design of circuits using diodes.

Procedure
1. Forward Bias-Si Diode
a. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
b. Select the diode.
c. Set the resistor.
d. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.
e. The positive side of battery to the P side(anode) and the negative of battery to
the N side(cathode) of the diode.
f. Now vary the voltage upto 5V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for
particular DC voltage .
g. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and
Ammeter reading.
h. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
i. Calculate the dynamic resistance of the diode. rd=ΔV/ΔI
j. Therefore from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when the
forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is
called cut-in voltage.
 Figure:1

2. Reverse Bias-Si Diode

(a) Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
(b) Select the diode.
(c) Set the resistor.
(d) Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.
(e) The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode.
(f) Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading
for DC voltage .
(g) Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and
Ammeter reading.
(h) Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
Figure:2
EXPERIMENT - 6
AIM - Half Wave Rectification
Theory
Objectives

At the end of the module the student would be able to

1. Explain Rectification
2. Explain Half Wave Rectification
3. Explain Half Wave Rectification:For Positive Half Cycle
4. Explain Half Wave Rectification:For Negative Half Cycle

Rectification

Figure:4

A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process
known as rectification. Rectifiers are essentially of two types – a half wave rectifier and a full
wave rectifier.

Half Wave Rectification

 Figure:3

On the positive cycle the diode is forward biased and on the negative cycle the diode is reverse
biased. By using a diode we have converted an AC source into a pulsating DC source. In summary
we have ‘rectified’ the AC signal.
 Figure:5

The simplest kind of rectifier circuit is the half-wave rectifier.The half-wave rectifier is a circuit
that allows only part of an input signal to pass. The circuit is simply the combination of a single
diode in series with a resistor, where the resistor is acting as a load.

Half Wave Rectifiers – Waveforms

Figure:6
The output DC voltage of a half wave rectifier can be calculated with the following two ideal
equations.

Vpeak=Vrms×√2
 Vdc=Vpeak/π

Half Wave Rectification:For Positive Half Cycle

Figure:1

Diode is forward biased, acts as a short circuit, passes the waveform through.

For positive half cycle:

VI−Vb−I×rd−I×R=0
where,
VI is the input voltage,
Vb is barrier potential,
rd is diode resistance,
I is total current,
R is resistance

I=VI−Vb /rd+R
 VO=I×R

VO=VI−Vb /rd+R ×R

For rd<< R,

VO=VI−Vb

Vb is 0.3 for Germanium ,

Vb is 0.7 for Silicon

For VI <Vb

The diode will remain OFF.The Output voltage will be,

VO=0

For VI >Vb

The diode will be ON.The Output voltage will be,

VO=VI−Vb

Half Wave Rectification:For Negative Half Cycle

 Figure:2

Diode is reverse biased, acts as a open circuit, does not pass the waveform through.

For negative half cycle:

VO=0 Since,I=0

Half wave Rectification:For an Ideal Diode

For Ideal Diode,

Vb=0

For positive half cycle,

VO=VI

For negative half cycle,

VO=0
Procedure
1. Set the resistor RL.
2. Click on 'ON' button to start the experiment.
3. Click on 'Sine Wave' button to generate input waveform
4. Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the rectified output.
5. Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers.
6. Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.
7. Channel 1 shows the input sine waveform, Channel 2 shows the output rectified
waveform.
8. Calculate the Ripple Factor.Theoretical Ripple Factor= 1.21.

Figure:1

Calculation

Measure the Vm

Vrms=Vm/2

Vdc=Vm/π
Ripple Factor = Vac /Vdc Since, Vac = √(Vrms )2- (Vdc)2
Half Wave Rectifier
EXPERIMENT – 7
AIM - Full Wave Rectification
Theory
Objectives

At the end of the module the student would be able to

1. Explain Rectification
2. Explain Center Tapped Full Wave Rectification
3. Explain Bridge Full Wave Rectification

Rectification

Figure :1

A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process
known as rectification. Rectifiers are essentially of two types – a half wave rectifier and a full
wave rectifier.

Full Wave Rectifier

A full-wave rectifier is exactly the same as the half-wave, but allows unidirectional current
through the load during the entire sinusoidal cycle (as opposed to only half the cycle in the half-
wave). A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity
(positive or negative) at its output. Let us see our half wave rectifier example and deduce the
circuit.

Figure:2

For a half wave Rectifier this is what we have observed

 Figure:3

If we change the phase of the input waveform by 180 degrees

 Figure:4

Now if we add these two circuits, we would get

Figure:5

Full Wave Rectifier - Circuit

So, we have seen that this rectifier circuit consists of two sources which have a phase difference
along with two diodes. When V1 is positive, V2 is negative. Hence the top diode(D1) will be a short
and the bottom diode(D2) will be an open. On the other hand, when V1 is negative, V2 is positive.
Hence the bottom diode(D2) will be on and the top diode(D1) will be an open circuit.
 Figure:6

Full Wave Rectifier – Waveforms

Figure:7
 Figure:8

Figure:9

The resulting waveform of the schematic is shown above. This configuration is rarely used
because sometimes it may be impractical to obtain two voltage sources and it is difficult to SYNC
the sources. Let us see how a single source can be used.

Full Wave Rectifier – Center Tapped Transformer

A Full-Wave Rectifier can be constructed using Center-Tapped transformer – which give us two
shifted sinusoids so that exactly one of the waveforms is positive at one time and two diodes. As
compared to the half wave rectifier we use two diodes instead of one, one of the two diodes
remains in conduction in both of the half cycles. At any point in time, only one of the diodes is
forward biased. This allows for continuous conduction through load.
 Figure:10

Figure:11

NP/NS=VP/VS=1/2
⇒VS = 2×VI

Center Tapped Transformer – Positive cycle

 Figure:12

For Positive Cycle D1 is Forward Biased and D2 is Reverse Biased

VI−VO=0

⇒VO=VI

Center Tapped Transformer– Negative cycle

Figure:13
For Negative Cycle D1 is Reverse Biased and D2 is Forward Biased

VI−VO=0

⇒VO=VI

Bridge Rectifier

Bridge rectifier uses 4 rectifying diodes connected in a "bridged" configuration to produce the
desired output but does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its
size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network
and the load to the other side as shown below.

Figure:14

Bridge Rectifier – Positive Half Cycle

During the positive half cycle of the supply diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3
and D4 are reverse biased (ideally they can be replaced with open circuits) and the current
flows through the load as shown below.

Figure:15

For Positive Half Cycle D1 and D2 is Forward Biased and D3 and D4 is Reverse Biased.
VI−VO=0

⇒VO=VI

VO=VI−2×Vb

VO=VI−2×Vb−2×Ird

where,
VI is the input voltage,
Vb is barrier potential,
rd is diode resistance

Bridge Rectifier – Negative Half Cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1
and D2 switch of as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the
same direction as before.

Figure:16

For Negative Half Cycle D1 and D2 is Reverse Biased and D3 and D4 is Forward Biased.
VI−VO=0

⇒VO=VI

Average DC Load Voltage

VO=Vm×sin⁡wt for0≤wt≤π
 Vav=Vdc=2×Vm / π
Average Load Current

Iav=Vav /R = 2×Vm /π×R

Iav =2×Im /R

RMS Load Current

I = Im×sin⁡wt for0≤wt≤π

Irms =Im /√2

RMS Load Voltage

Vrms =Irms ×R = Im /√2 × R

Vrms = Vm /√2

Form factor: It is defined as the ratio of rms load voltage and average load voltage.

F.F = Vrms / Vav

F.F = Vm / √2 / 2×Vm / π = π / 2√2 = 1.11

F.F≥1

Ripple Factor

γ=√(F.F2−1)×100%

γ=√(1.112−1)×100%=48.1%

Efficiency:It is defined as ratio of dc power available at the load to the input ac power.

n% = Pload / Pin×100%

n%=I2dc×R / I2rms ×R × 100%

n% = 4×I2m / π2 / I2m / 2 × 100% = 8 / π2 × 100%=81.13%

Peak Inverse Voltage

For rectifier applications, peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse voltage (PRV) is the
maximum value of reverse voltage which occurs at the peak of the input cycle when the diode is
reverse-biased. The portion of the sinusoidal waveform which repeats or duplicates itself is
known as the cycle. The part of the cycle above the horizontal axis is called the positive half-
cycle, the part of the cycle below the horizontal axis is called the negative half cycle. With
reference to the amplitude of the cycle, the peak inverse voltage is specified as the maximum
negative value of the sine-wave within a cycle's negative half cycle.

For Bridge Rectifier,

D1 and D2 is Forward Biased
D3 and D4 is Reverse Biased

Vm−VO=0

⇒ VO=Vm

−VO + PIV=0

⇒ PIV = Vm

PIV ≥ Vm

For Center Tapped Rectifier,

D2 is Forward Biased,
PIV at D1
Vm−VO=0

⇒ VO=Vm

VO − PIV + Vm

⇒ PIV = 2Vm
 PIV ≥ 2Vm

Note

An alternative representation of full-wave bridge rectifier circuit is easier both to remember

and to comprehend. It's the exact same circuit, except all diodes are drawn in a horizontal
attitude, all “pointing” the same direction.

Figure:17

Procedure
Bridge Rectifier - Experiment

1. Set the resistor RL.

2. Click on 'ON' button to start the experiment.
3. Click on 'Sine Wave' button to generate input waveform
4. Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the rectified output.
5. Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers.
6. Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.
7. Channel 1 shows the input sine waveform, Channel 2 shows the output rectified
waveform.
8. Calculate the Ripple Factor.Theoretical Ripple Factor=0.483.
 Figure 1

Calculation

Measure the Vm

Vrms = Vm / √2

Vdc = 2×Vm / π
Ripple Factor = Vac / Vdc Since, Vac = √ (V2rms − V2dc)
FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION
EXPERIMENT- 8
AIM – ZENER DIODE – VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Theory
Objective
At the end of the experiment, the student will be able to
1. Explain the function of a Zener diode
2. Explain Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

Zener Diode
A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the forward direction
as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above the
breakdown voltage or ‘zener’ voltage. Zener diodes are designed so that their breakdown
voltage is much lower - for example just 2.4 Volts.

Figure:1

Figure:2

Function of Zener Diode

 1. Zener diodes are a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the forward
direction.
2. Zener diodes will also allow current to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is
above a certain value. This breakdown voltage is known as the Zener voltage. In a
standard diode, the Zener voltage is high, and the diode is permanently damaged if a
reverse current above that value is allowed to pass through it.
3. In the reverse bias direction, there is practically no reverse current flow until the
breakdown voltage is reached. When this occurs there is a sharp increase in reverse
current. Varying amount of reverse current can pass through the diode without
damaging it. The breakdown voltage or zener voltage (VZ) across the diode remains
relatively constant.

Zener Diode As A Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable DC voltage independent of the
load current, temperature and AC line voltage variations. A Zener diode of break down voltage
VZ is reverse connected to an input voltage source VI across a load resistance RL and a series
resistor RS. The voltage across the zener will remain steady at its break down voltageVZ for all
the values of zener current IZ as long as the current remains in the break down region. Hence a
regulated DC output voltageV0 =VZ is obtained across RL, whenever the input voltage remains
within a minimum and maximum voltage. Basically, there are two type of regulations such as:
Line Regulation: In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed, only
input voltage is changing. Output voltage remains the same as long as the input voltage is
maintained above a minimum value.
Load Regulation: In this type of regulation, input voltage is fixed and the load resistance is
varying. Output volt remains same, as long as the load resistance is maintained above a
minimum value.

Line Regulation
 Figure:3

In Line Regulation, Load resistance is constant and input voltage varies. VI must be sufficiently
large to turn the Zener Diode ON.

VL = VZ = VImin ×RL /(RS+RL)

So, the minimum turn-on voltage VImin is :

VImin = Vz ×(RS+RL) / RL

The maximum value of VI is limited by the maximum zener current IZmax

IRmax = IZmax + IL

IL is fixed at :

V Z / RL Since,VL=VZ

So maximum VI is
 VImax = VRmax + VZ
or,

VImax =IRmax ×R+VZ

For VI<VZ,

V0=VI

For VI>VZ,

V0=VI −IS × RS

Load Regulation

Figure:4

In Load Regulation , input voltage is constant and Load resistance varies. Too small a Load
Resistance RL ,will result in VTH < VZ and Zener Diode will be OFF.
 VL=VZ=VImin×RL /(RS+RL)

So the minimum load resistance RL

RLmin = Vz×RS /VI−VZ

Any load resistance greater than RLmin will make Zener Diode ON

IS =IL +IZ

RLmin will establish maximum IL as

ILmax = VL / RLmin =VZ /RLmin Since,VL=VZ

VS is the voltage drop across RS

VS =VImin − VZ

IS =VImin −VZ / RS

For RL < RLmin,

V0 =VI

For RL > RLmin,

V0 = VI −IS × RS
Procedure
Experiment

1. Zener Diode - Line Regulation

a. Set the Zener Voltage(VZ)

b. Set the Series Resistance (RS) value.
c. Set the Load Resistance (RL) value.
d. Vary DC voltage.
e. Voltmeter is placed parallel to load resistor and ammeter series with the series
resistor.
f. Choose appropriate DC voltage such that zener diode is 'on'.
g. Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for various DC voltage.
h. Note the Load current(IL), zener current(IZ), Output voltage(VO)
i. Calculate the voltage regulation.

Figure:1

2. Zener Diode - Load Regulation

 a. Set DC voltage.
b. Set the Series Resistance (RS) value.
c. 1W D0-41 Glass Zener Diode 1N4740A, Zener voltage is 10 V.
d. Vary the Load Resistance (RL).
e. Voltmeter is placed parallel to load resistor and ammeter series with the series
resistor.
f. Choose Load Resistance in such a manner, such that the Zener diode is 'on'.
g. Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for various Load Resistance.
h. Increase the load resistance (RL).
i. Note the Load current(IL), zener current(IZ), Output voltage(VO)
j. Calculate the voltage regulation.

Figure:2

3. Zener Characteristics
a. Select the diode
b. Set the rheostat Rh=1 Ω
c. By adjusting the rheostat, voltmeter reading is increased from 0 and in each
time note the corresponding reading in milliammeter.
d. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Zener diode and Ammeter
reading.
e. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
Figure:3
Zener Diode - LINE Regulator
EXPERIMENT - 9
AIM - BJT Common Emitter Characteristics
Theory
Objectives

At the end of the module the student would be able to explain

1. Explain structure of Bipolar Junction Transistor
2. Explain Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor
3. Explain Common Emitter characteristics of a BJT

Structure of Bipolar Junction Transistor

A bipolar junction transistor, BJT, is a single piece of silicon with two back-to-back P-N
junctions.BJTs can be made either as PNP or as NPN.

Figure 1: Structures, layers and circuit symbol of NPN transistor

They have three regions and three terminals, emitter, base, and collector represented by E, B,
and C respectively. The direction of the arrow indicates the direction of the current in the
emitter when the transistor is conducting normally. An easy way to remember this is NPN
stands for "Not Pointing iN".
 Figure 2:Structures, layers and circuit symbol of PNP transistor

Emitter (E):It is the region to the left end which supply free charge carriers i.e., electrons in n-
p-n or holes in p-n-p transistors.These majority carriers are injected to the middle region i.e.
electrons in the p region of n-p-n or holes in the n region of p-n-p transistor. Emitter is a heavily
doped region to supply a large number of majority carriers into the base.
Base (B):It is the middle region where either two p-type layers or two n-type layers are
sandwiched. The majority carriers from the emitter region are injected into this region.This
region is thin and very lightly doped.
Collector (C):It is the region to right end where charge carriers are collected.The area of this
region is largest compared to emitter and base region . The doping level of this region is
intermediate between heavily doped emitter region and lightly doped base region.

Note

1. In digital electronics applications,the transistors are used as a switch.

2. Most bipolar switching circuits use NPN transistors.

Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor

 Figure 3:Four Operating Conditions

Cutoff Region: Base-emitter junction is reverse biased. No current flow.

Saturation Region: Base-emitter junction is forward biased and Collector-base junction is
forward biased.
Active Region: Base-emitter is junction forward biased and Collector-base junction is reverse
biased.
Breakdown Region: IC and VCE exceed specifications and can cause damage to the transistor.

Cut-Off Region
In Cut-Off region both junctions are reverse biased, Base-emitter junction is reverse biased
(VBE<0)and also Collector-Base junction is reverse biased(VCB>0).With reverse biasing, all
currents are zero.There are some leakage currents associated with reverse biased junctions,but
these currents are small and therefore can be neglected.
Application: Open switch

Forward Active Region

In Forward Active region Base-emitter junction is forward biased(VBE>0) and Collector-Base

junction is reverse biased(VCB>0). In this case, the forward bias of the BE junction will cause the
injection of both holes and electrons across the junction. The holes are of little consequence
because the doping levels are adjusted to minimize the hole current. The electrons are the
carriers of interest. The electrons are injected into the base region where they are called the
minority carrier even though they greatly outnumber the holes.
Application:Amplifier in analog circuits

IC =−αF×IE+ICO

where,
αF is the forward current transfer ratio
ICO is Collector reverse saturation current

Saturation Region

In Saturation region both junctions are Forward biased,Base-emitter junction is forward

biased(VBE>0) and also Collector-Base junction is forward biased(VCB<0). Maximum currents
flows through the transistor with only a small voltage drop across the collector junction.The
transistor also does not respond to any change in emitter current or base-emitter voltage.
Application:Closed switch

Reverse Active Region

In Reverse Active region Base-emitter junction is reverse biased(VBE<0) and Collector-Base

junction is forward biased(VCB<0).The operation is just the same as the forward active region,
except all voltage sources, and hence collector and emitter currents, are the reverse of the
forward bias case. The current gain in this mode is smaller than that of forward active mode for
which this mode in general unsuitable for amplification.
Application:In digital circuits and analog switching circuits.

IE=−αR∗IC+IEO

where,
αR is the reverse current transfer ratio\newline IEO is the Emitter reverse saturation current

This configuration is rarely used because most transistors are doped selectively to give forward
current transfer ratios very near unity, which automatically causes the reverse current transfer
ratio to be very low.

BJT -Common Emitter Circuit

The DC behavior of the BJT can be described by the Ebers-Moll Model. The equations for the
model are:

IF=IES×(expVBE/VT−1)

IR=ICS×(expVCB /VT−1)
where,
IES is base-emitter saturation currents,
ICS is base-collector saturation currents

VT=k×T / q

where,
k is the Boltzmann’s constant ( k = 1.381 e-23 V.C/ K ),
T is the absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin, and
q is the charge of an electron (q = 1.602 e-19 C).

ΒF = αF / 1−αF

ΒR =αR / 1−αR

where,
βF is large signal forward current gain of common-emitter configuration,
βR is the large signal reverse current gain of the common-emitter configuration

αF =βF / 1+βF

αR =βR / 1+βR

where,
αR is large signal reverse current gain of a common-base configuration,
αF is large signal forward current gain of the common-base configuration.

IC=αF×IF−IR

IE=−IF+αR∗IR

IB=(1−αF)×IF+(1−αR)×IR

The forward and reverse current gains are related by the expression

αR×ICS=αF×IES=IS

where,
IS is the BJT transport saturation current.
The parameters αR and αF are influenced by impurity concentrations and junction depths.
The saturation current, IS , can be expressed as

IS=JS × A

where,
A is the area of the emitter and
JS is the transport saturation current density

Input Characteristics

The most important characteristic of the BJT is the plot of the base current, IB, versus the base-
emitter voltage,VBE, for various values of the collector-emitter voltage,VCE

IB =ϕ(VBE ,VCE) for constant VCE

 Figure 4: Input Characteristics Circuit

Output Characteristics

The most important characteristic of the BJT is the plot of the collector current, I C, versus the
collector-emitter voltage,VCE, for various values of the base current, IB as shown on the circuit
on the right.

IC =ϕ(VCE ,IB) for constant IB

Figure 5: Output Characteristics Circuit

Procedure
Experiment
1. BJT Common Emitter - Input Characteristics
a. Initially set rheostat Rh1 = 1 Ω and rheostat Rh2 = 1 Ω
b. Set the Collector-Emitter Voltage(VCE) to 1 V by adjusting the rheostat Rh2
c. Base Emitter Voltage(VBE) is varied by adjusting the rheostat Rh1.
d. Note the reading of Base current(IB)in micro Ampere.
e. Click on 'Plot' to plot the I-V characteristics of Common-Emitter configuration. A graph
is drawn with VBE along X-axis and IB along Y-axis.
f. Click on 'Clear' button to take another sets of readings
g. Now set the Collector-Emitter Voltage(VCE) to 2 V, 3 V, 4 V

Figure:1

2. BJT Common Emitter - Output Characteristics

a. Initially set rheostat Rh1 = 1 Ω and rheostat Rh2 = 1 Ω
b. Set the Base current(IB)15 uA by adjusting the rheostat Rh1
c. Vary the Collector-Emitter Voltage(VCE)is varied by adjusting the rheostat Rh2.
d. Note the reading of Collector current(IC).
e. Click on 'Plot' to plot the I-V characteristics of Common-Emitter configuration. A graph
is drawn with VCE along X-axis and IC along Y-axis.
f. Click on 'Clear' button to take another sets of readings
g. Now set the Base Current(IB) to 20 uA

Figure:2
EXPERIMENT - 10
AIM - BJT Common Base Characteristics
Theory
Objectives

At the end of the module the student would be able to explain

1. Explain structure of Bipolar Junction Transistor
2. Explain Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor
3. Explain Common Base characteristics of a BJT

Structure of Bipolar Junction Transistor

A bipolar junction transistor, BJT, is a single piece of silicon with two back-to-back P-N
junctions.BJTs can be made either as PNP or as NPN.

Figure 1: Structures, layers and circuit symbol of NPN transistor

They have three regions and three terminals, emitter, base, and collector represented by E, B,
and C respectively. The direction of the arrow indicates the direction of the current in the
emitter when the transistor is conducting normally. An easy way to remember this is NPN
stands for "Not Pointing iN".
 Figure 2:Structures, layers and circuit symbol of PNP transistor

Emitter (E):It is the region to the left end which supply free charge carriers i.e., electrons in n-
p-n or holes in p-n-p transistors.These majority carriers are injected to the middle region i.e.
electrons in the p region of n-p-n or holes in the n region of p-n-p transistor. Emitter is aheavily
doped region to supply a large number of majority carriers into the base.
Base (B):It is the middle region where either two p-type layers or two n-type layers are
sandwiched. The majority carriers from the emitter region are injected into this region.This
region is thin and very lightly doped.
Collector (C):It is the region to right end where charge carriers are collected.The area of this
region is largest compared to emitter and base region . The doping level of this region is
intermediate between heavily doped emitter region and lightly doped base region.

Note
1. In digital electronics applications,the transistors are used as a switch.
2. Most bipolar switching circuits use NPN transistors.

Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor

 Figure 3:Four Operating Conditions

Cutoff Region: Base-emitter junction is reverse biased. No current flow.

Saturation Region: Base-emitter junction is forward biased and Collector-base junction is
forward biased.
Active Region: Base-emitter is junction forward biased and Collector-base junction is reverse
biased.
Breakdown Region: IC and VCE exceed specifications and can cause damage to the transistor.
Cutoff Region: Base-emitter junction is reverse biased. No current flow.
Saturation Region: Base-emitter junction is forward biased and Collector-base junction is
forward biased.
Active Region: Base-emitter is junction forward biased and Collector-base junction is reverse
biased.
Breakdown Region: IC and VCE exceed specifications and can cause damage to the transistor.

Cut-Off Region
In Cut-Off region both junctions are reverse biased, Base-emitter junction is reverse biased
(VBE<0)and also Collector-Base junction is reverse biased(VCB>0).With reverse biasing, all
currents are zero.There are some leakage currents associated with reverse biased junctions,but
these currents are small and therefore can be neglected.
Application: Open switch

Forward Active Region

In Forward Active region Base-emitter junction is forward biased(VBE>0) and Collector-Base
junction is reverse biased(VCB>0). In this case, the forward bias of the BE junction will cause the
injection of both holes and electrons across the junction. The holes are of little consequence
because the doping levels are adjusted to minimize the hole current. The electrons are the
carriers of interest. The electrons are injected into the base region where they are called the
minority carrier even though they greatly outnumber the holes.
Application:Amplifier in analog circuits

IC = −αF × IE + ICO

where,
αF is the forward current transfer ratio
ICO is Collector reverse saturation current

Saturation Region

In Saturation region both junctions are Forward biased,Base-emitter junction is forward

biased(VBE>0) and also Collector-Base junction is forward biased(VCB<0). Maximum currents
flows through the transistor with only a small voltage drop across the collector junction.The
transistor also does not respond to any change in emitter current or base-emitter voltage.
Application:Closed switch

Reverse Active Region

In Reverse Active region Base-emitter junction is reverse biased(VBE<0) and Collector-Base
junction is forward biased(VCB<0).The operation is just the same as the forward active region,
except all voltage sources, and hence collector and emitter currents, are the reverse of the
forward bias case. The current gain in this mode is smaller than that of forward active mode for
which this mode in general unsuitable for amplification.
Application:In digital circuits and analog switching circuits.

IE = −αR ∗IC + IEO

where,
αR is the reverse current transfer ratio\newline IEO is the Emitter reverse saturation current

This configuration is rarely used because most transistors are doped selectively to give forward
current transfer ratios very near unity, which automatically causes the reverse current transfer
ratio to be very low.

BJT -Common Emitter Circuit

The DC behavior of the BJT can be described by the Ebers-Moll Model. The equations for the
model are:

IF = IES × (expVBE / VT−1)

IR = ICS × (expVCB / VT−1)

where,
IES is base-emitter saturation currents,
ICS is base-collector saturation currents

VT = k×T / q

where,
k is the Boltzmann’s constant ( k = 1.381 e-23 V.C/ K ),
T is the absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin, and
q is the charge of an electron (q = 1.602 e-19 C).

ΒF =αF / 1−αF
ΒR = αR / 1−αR

where,
βF is large signal forward current gain of common-emitter configuration,
βR is the large signal reverse current gain of the common-emitter configuration

αF = βF / 1+βF
αF = βR / 1+βR

where,
αR is large signal reverse current gain of a common-base configuration,
αF is large signal forward current gain of the common-base configuration.
 IC = αF × IF − IR
IE = −IF + αR ∗ IR
IB = (1−αF)×IF +(1−αR)×IR

The forward and reverse current gains are related by the expression

αR × ICS = αF × IES = IS

where,
IS is the BJT transport saturation current.
The parameters αR and αF are influenced by impurity concentrations and junction depths.
The saturation current, IS , can be expressed as

IS = JS × A

where,
A is the area of the emitter and
JS is the transport saturation current density

Input Characteristics

The most important characteristic of the BJT is the plot of the emitter current, I E, versus the
base-emitter voltage,VBE, for various values of the collector-base voltage, VCB

IE = ϕ(VBE ,VCB) for constant VCB

 Figure 4: Input Characteristics Circuit

Output Characteristics

The most important characteristic of the BJT is the plot of the collector current, I C, versus the
collector-base voltage,VCB, for various values of the emitter current, IE as shown on the circuit
on the right.

IC = ϕ(VCB ,IE) for constant IE

Figure 5: Output Characteristics Circuit

Procedure
Experiment

1. BJT Common Base - Input Characteristics

a. Initially set rheostat Rh1 = 1 Ω and rheostat Rh2 = 1 Ω
b. Set the Collector-Base Voltage(VCB) to 1 V by adjusting the rheostat Rh2
c. Base Emitter Voltage(VBE) is varied by adjusting the rheostat Rh1.
d. Note the reading of emitter current(IE)in m Ampere.
e. Click on 'Plot' to plot the I-V characteristics of Common-Base configuration. A
graph is drawn with VBE along X-axis and IE along Y-axis.
f. Click on 'Clear' button to take another sets of readings
g. Now set the Collector-Emitter Voltage(VCB) to 2 V, 3 V, 4 V

Figure:1
2. BJT Common Base - Output Characteristics
a. Initially set rheostat Rh1 = 1 Ω and rheostat Rh2 = 1 Ω
b. Set the Emitter current(IE)1 mA by adjusting the rheostat Rh1
c. Vary the Collector-Base Voltage(VCB)is varied by adjusting the rheostat Rh2.
d. Note the reading of Collector current(IC).
e. Click on 'Plot' to plot the I-V characteristics of Common-Base configuration. A
graph is drawn with VCB along X-axis and IC along Y-axis.
f. Click on 'Clear' button to take another sets of readings
g. Now set the Emitter Current(IE) to 2 mA
 Figure:2

BJT- CB INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

BJT- CB -OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS