Students of basic animal science as a course should have a working

knowledge of the basic principles of genetics, This branch of science is

necessary in order to understand how different theories of inheritance and
variation work specifically among farm animals.

In like manner, concept of genetics can be applied in improving

existing breeds and strains of domestic animals. This is the major reason
of taking animal breeding as a course. Its major concern is on how we can
improve or improve further the productivity and efficiency of production
among livestock and poultry species.

Within the trilogy of animal production, breeding and genetics together

with nutrition and management should work hand in hand if an animal
husbandman or a common animal raiser is aiming to produce animals
possessing genetically superior economic traits with maximum efficiency
given the existing resources and environmental conditions.
 Upon the completion of this unit, you are expected to:

1. Define animal breeding and explain its contribution to animal

science
2. Explain how genetics relates to improvement in livestock
production
3. Name and explain common breeding system used in livestock
production.

A. Basic Concept of Animal Genetics: Cells, Chromosomes and

Gametes

Genetics is the science that deals with heredity and variations Animal
Genetics is that branch of genetics that deals with the principles of
genetics exclusive to animals, whether feral or domesticated in nature.
 The Law of Biogenesis states that all living organisms come from other
living organisms through the process of reproduction where each of the
parents transmits a sample one-half of their genes through the gametes to
their offspring or progenies.

Bodies of all animals are made of cells. They're made of two major
parts: the cytoplasm and the nucleus. Aside from secretion products, the
cytoplasm is made up of highly organized structures known as organelles
with specific specialized functions. These are the following:

1. Golgi apparatus - primary site of the synthesis of carbohydrates

2. Ribosomes - sites where the amino acids are assembled into proteins

3. Mitochondria responsible for the generation of energy in the form of

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate).

4. Lysosome - acts as defense mechanism of the cells through

phagocytosis or the process of engulfing invading foreign substances or
organisms that may injure the cells.

Nuclear Inheritance

The nucleus contains the chromosomes which are threadlike

bodies and usually occur in pairs (2N or diploid) among autosomes or
body cells and haploid (N) among sex cells or gametes. Homologous
chromosomes are very similar in appearance while those that are
heterozygous differ. For example, the human being has 23 pairs of
chromosomes, 22 pairs are present in autosomes while the remaining pair
comprises the sex cells, sperm for males and ova for females. The ovum
contains the XX chromosomes which are homozygous while the XY in the
sperm are heterozygous. However, in poultry, ZZ is for male while ZW is
for female.

The central inner portion of each chromosome contains a long

helical structure called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). This is the genetic
material carried on the chromosomes. The gene is a portion of the DNA It
is the basic unit of inheritance. Also, genes occur in pairs and they occupy
a certain location known as locus (pl. loci). Alternative form of a given
gene is known as allele (short for allelomorph) For example, B is the gene
for black in Angus cattle while ds allele, b is responsible for red coat color
Thus, three combinations of these genes can be found on different pairs of
chromosomes. These are BB. Bb, and bb. BB and bb are homozygous
dominant and homozygous recessive, respectively while Bb is considered
heterozygous. BB, Bb and bb are considered as genotypes while black
and red are termed as phenotypes. Genotypes in general are the actual
genetic makeup or composition of an individual while phenotypes are the
external expression or manifestations of the genes which are perceived by
the senses.

Grouping of chromosomes based on similarity of their morphology

is known as karyotype

Extra nuclear inheritance can also be observed for there are DNA
and RNA that can be synthesized outside the nucleus such as the
plasmids. Mitochondria and other cytoplasmic materials.

B. Types of Gene Action

1. Complete dominance or complete recessiveness. A dominant gene

inhibits the expression of its allele.

Example: Black is dominant to red coat color among Angus beef

cattle thus B is dominant to b even in the heterozygous state. Consider the
example given below.

Genotype Phenotype

BB homozygous black (dominant)

Bb heterozygous black

Bb homozygous red (recessive)

Other traits which are considered as dominant are the following:

Curly hair and tallness in human, white coat color among sheep and
commercial breeds of hogs. Polledness is also dominant to horned trait.

2. Incomplete dominance or Lack of dominance (No Dominance) - A

dominant gene cannot totally mask or inhibit the expression of its allele
thus a different phenotype is produced in the heterozygous state Consider
another coat color in cattle R is responsible for red coat color among
Simmental breeds while its allele is for white The possible combination of
genes when RR and are crossed are given below:

Genotype Phenotype

RR homozygous red

Rr heterozygous roan

Rr homozygous white

Other examples of traits under incomplete dominance are blood

types in humans (ABO blood groups) and compress height (Cc) in
Hereford cattle.

3. Epistasis this is type of gene action which involved non-allelic

interaction of genes. Unlike in both the dominance and lack of dominance
types of gene action, these require interaction of alleles to produce a
phenotype Consider the coat colors in horses B is black while its allele b is
for chestnut color. W is responsible for white while its allele w when
present in homozygous state allows the expression of other colors among
horses. Thus,

Genotype Phenotype

BBww Black

Bbww Black

bbww chestnut

The presence of the dominant white gene (W) will produce the
following phenotypes among horses,

Genotype Coat color (Phenotype)

BBWw white

BBWW white

bbWw white
 Thus, we can say that gene W inhibits the expression of either B or
b therefore W is epistatic to these genes.

4. Over dominance - type of gene action where heterozygous individuals

are preferred or selected compared to homozygous dominant or recessive
because they are perceived to be superior. Examples of these are the Ss
genotypes wherein individuals possessing these are resistant to malarial
infection. Other examples are the A1Az and H1H2 genotypes believed to be
superior in terms of antigen and hemoglobin production, respectively.

C. Types of Mendelian Crosses

1. Monohybrid Cross this involved crossing of single pair of genes

responsible for two different traits.

Example: Tall guy is mailed to small lass considering complete dominance.

Parental genotypes (P) Male (TT) x Female (tt)

Phenotypes Tall small

(Homozygous) (Homozygous)

Gametes (G1) (T) (t)

First Filial generation (F1) or progenies/offspring-----------Tt

Phenotype Tall (heterozygous)

Inter se mating of F1 = F1 Male (Tt) x Female (Tt)

Gametes (G2) T,t T,t

Second Filial generation (F2) TT, Tt, Tt, tt

Genotypic ratio (GR) 1TT: 2Tt: 1tt

Phenotypic ratio (PR) 3 Tall 1 small

2. Dihybrid Cross - mating of two different phenotypes involving 2 pairs of

genes. Consider this example involving complete dominance:
 A guy who is tall with curly hair is mated with a lady who A is small
and with straight hair.

Traits:

T is for tall; t is for dwarf

C is for curly; c is for straight hair

Parental Genotypes (P) TTCC х ttcc

Gametes (G1) TC х tc

F1 TtCc

Phenotypes Tall and curly

Inter se mating (P2) TtCc x TtCc

Gametes (G2) TC, Tc, tC, tc TC, Tc, tC, tc

GR= 1 TTCC: 2TTCc: 1TTcc: 2TtCC: 4TtCc: 2Ttcc: 1ttCC: 2ttCc: 1ttcc

PR= 9 tall, curly: 3 tall, straight: 3 small, curly: 1 small, straight

To determine the corresponding gametes for each mating genotype.

the Punnett Square is highly recommended.

3. Other Crosses - Multi-trait crosses such as trihybrid crosses can also be

done involving three different traits. However, this type of mating will be
discussed as the students pursue a course specifically Animal Genetics or
probably Principles of Animal Breeding.

Back Cross - a cross made when an F1 progeny or offspring is

mated back to either of the parental genotypes (P1) Say an offspring Bb is
mated back either to BB or bb.

Test Cross - a cross is made when an F1 progeny is mated back

to the homozygous recessive parent. Example, an offspring with Bb
genotype is mated back to bb parent. This cross is usually done to
determine parents who are carriers of recessive genes, which are usually
disadvantageous.

D. Phenotypic Expression of Genes

Genes expressed themselves through phenotypes. Usually, traits of

economic importance are the one being considered to develop certain
breeds or strains of animals or further improve existing breeds or lines.
Economic traits are defined as those characters which are given monetary
values; Economic traits are of two types, Qualitative and Quantitative
Traits.

Difference Quantitative Qualitative

Mode of expression verbally (adjective) unit of measurement

(specific)

Examples:Milk White, creamy liter or gallon

Egg large brown dozen
Meat red, tender kilo or Ibs

No of genes involved Many (polygenic) few

Importance of less important very important

Dominance

Importance of very important Slightly less important

environment

Distribution normal, continuous discrete discontinuous

The phenotype of an individual is a function of heredity (genetics)

and environmental factors to which he is exposed, plus the interaction
between genetics and environment. Thus in equation form,
Phenotype =f (Genetics + Environment + Genetics x Environment)

Thus, both hereditary (genetic make-up of individual or parents)

and environmental factors (other than genetics such as climate, nutrition,
health status, etc.) and their possible interaction play important roles on
how an animal may exhibit or manifest its characters or traits in the form of
phenotypes

Genotype by environment (G x E) interaction means a dependent

relationship between genotypes and environments in which the difference
in performance between two or more genotypes changes from
environment to environment.

When traits are transferred from the parents to their progenies, we

say that these traits are heritable. Heritability estimate (h2) is that portion
of the loyal phenotypic variation that is due to heredity. Some traits such
as production characteristics are moderately to highly heritable. Examples
of these traits are milk yield, birth weights and structural traits such as
heart girth, body length and wither height. In contrast, reproductive traits
such as estrus cycle gestation length, litter size and rate of twinning
among monotonous animals are lowly or not heritable at all. This means
that improvement of management and even environmental characters or
traits factors can improve the expression of these

Repeatability estimate (R) on the other hand is the likelihood that a

certain individual will tend to repeat records for a particular trait throughout
its life. It refers to the expression of the same trait at different stages of the
life of the same individual. Example is milk yield among dairy animals.
Repeatability estimate should be high such that milk yield from a dairy cow
is expected to be consistent throughout its lactation period

Both heritability and repeatability estimates are important genetic

parameters that can be used toward the improvement of livestock and
poultry species

Heterosis or hybrid vigor is the average superiority on the cross beds

or offspring compared to the average of their parents or of the purebred
parents. Usually this is affected through the mating of different breeds
known for some important economic traits.

E. Population Genetics
Population genetics branch or area of genetics that deals with the
qualitative characters of a given population of livestock and poultry
species

Animal population is the totality or sum of all individuals in a breed,

species, or any groupings of those individuals that inhabit a specific area
or location

Gene frequency is the relative abundance or relative rarity of a particular

gene in a population as compared to its own alleles in that specific
population.

The Hardy-Weinberg Law or simply H-W Law is the foundation of

population genetics. This law states that in large populations where
matings have been at random for at least one generation and where the
frequency of one of the alleles is equal to p. the frequency of the other
allele is q, and the sum of the frequencies is equal to one, the offspring of
the three genotypes will occur in a definite ratio or in an equilibrium in the
next generation.