Welcome to

MLL 100: Introduction to Materials

Science and Engineering (3-0-2)

Course coordinators

1. Prof. Shib Shankar Banerjee

Assistant Professor
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Email: ssbanerjee@mse.iitd.ac.in

2. Prof. Ayan Bhowmik

Assistant Professor
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Email: abhowmik@mse.iitd.ac.in,
1
 MLL100: Introduction to Materials
Science and Engineering (3-0-2)
Lectures 3 hours/wk
(Tues. Wed. and Fri. from 10:00-11.00 AM)

Lab 2 hours/wk
(Mon, Tues, Thurs, Fri: 1-3 pm or 3-5 pm)

Total 5 hours/wk
 Grading

Contribution Marks
(Exam Marks)
1. Laboratory Expt. 25 (250)
(Lab Expt/assignment)
2. Quizzes (2) 10 (10)
3. Minor-1 20 (20)
4. Minor-2 20 (20)
5. Major 25 (50)
Total 100
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 Instructions for Lab Experiments
❑ Total lab experiments: 10

❑ Lab expt. time: 2 hours/wk

❑ Each experiment is for 25 marks.

❑ Full attendance in the lab for all experiments is mandatory

❑ NO LATE SUBMISSIONS OF THE LAB SHEETS WILL BE ENTERTAINED.

Zero marks will be given for late submissions.

❑ All the assignments and lab sheets must be submitted in the lab TAs before
leaving lab. Clear instructions will be given. If you violate instructions, marks
will be deducted accordingly.

❑ Any query related to grading of lab experiments and assignments should be

asked to the corresponding TAs.

❑ Any kind of cheating or unfair means during the lab expt. may lead to strong
disciplinary action. 4
 Instructions for Quiz

❑ It would be surprised Quiz, held during the regular class slots. Only
a particular week will be informed for surprised Quiz.

❑ The format of the Quiz will be discussed one week before the date
of the quiz.

❑ No make up quizzes will be given.

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Instructions for Minor/Major Exam

❑ Minor and Major examinations will be conducted on the specified

dates as per the institute calendar.

❑ Both these exams will also be conducted in off-line mode in the

classroom.

❑ No make up for Minor or Major exams will be taken. Such requests

will not be considered. Further instructions will be provided prior to
the exam.

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 Attendance Policy
75% attendance is mandatory

Timble attendance system

Entry in class

- Doors will be closed at 10:05 AM, no late entry will be

allowed after this.
- The classes will be offline. No recordings of the lectures will
be allowed/provided.

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 MLL 100: Course content

Prof. SS Banerjee’s Section

1. Structure of Solids and the fundamentals of structure of Materials
(Metal, Polymer and Ceramic)
2. Processing of Materials (Metal, Polymer and Ceramic Materials)

Prof. A Bhowmik’s Section

3. Defects in Solids and Properties of Materials (Metal, Polymer and
ceramic Materials)
4. Performance and selection of materials for various applications

8
Textbooks:

❑ V. Raghavan, Materials Science and Engineering: A

First Course, Sixth Edition, PHI India.

❑ William D Callister, Materials Science and

Engineering, An Introduction, Sixth Edition, John Wiley
and Sons.
 Materials Drive Our Society

what is today's materials age? Is it the polymer age?

 Significance of Materials Science

Why should we know about materials ?

Titanic failure, Space Shuttle Challenger Eschede train disaster,

1912 disaster, 1986 1998
Why did Titanic
sink ?

Dramatic Material Failure

What is Materials Science and Engineering ?

“Materials Science”
Involves investigating the relationships that exist
between the structures and properties of materials.

“Materials Engineering”
The basis of these structure–property correlations,
designing or engineering the structure of a material to
produce a predetermined set of properties.
 What is the role of a Material Scientist?

❑ To develop or synthesize new materials with

adequate functional properties

What is the role of a Material Engineer?

❑ Create new products or systems using existing
materials, and/or to develop techniques for
processing materials.
❑ Avoid failure

How to avoid failure?

❑ To select correct materials for given application

❑ To understanding the behaviour of the material
 Materials Science Tetrahedron

In this course, we will be looking at the four components of materials

(structure, properties, processing, and performance)
 Lecture 2

MLL 100: Introduction to Materials

Science and Engineering

Dr. Shib Shankar Banerjee

Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
 Classification of Materials

Materials can be divided into three main group: metals, polymers and ceramics
based on atomic arrangement and chemical properties
 Metals

❑ Consist of metal objects or may a little non-metal mixed with valence electrons surrounded by “an
electron sea” that holds the positive charge together.

❑ Properties: Mechanically strong, resistant to fracture, good conductors of electricity and heat, and are
not transparent to visible light

❑ Example: Ferrous metals and alloys including iron and cast iron, Non-Ferrous metals and alloys
including aluminium, zinc, cupper, brash, etc.
 Polymers

❑ A large molecule (macromolecule) built up by repetitive bonding (covalent) of smaller molecules

(monomers)

❑ The word “polymer” can be broken down into the Greek components: poly (many) + mer (part).

❑ Their mechanical characteristics are generally dissimilar to the metallic and ceramic materials—
they are not as stiff nor as strong as these other material types
 Ceramics

❑ Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most frequently
oxides, nitrides, and carbides.

❑ Properties: Mechanically stiff and strong, highly susceptible to fracture , typically insulative to the
passage of heat and electricity

❑ Example: common ceramic materials include aluminum oxide (or alumina,Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or
silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4), , etc.
 Composites
❑ A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the categories discussed
above—viz., metals, ceramics, and polymers.

❑ The design goal of a composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by any single
material, and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component materials.
 Materials of the Future
Smart/intelligent materials

❑ Smart (or intelligent) materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials now being developed that will have
a significant influence on many of our technologies.

❑ The adjective “smart” implies that these materials are able to sense changes in their environments and then respond
to these changes in predetermined manners
Atomic Bonding in Solids
 Primary Interatomic Bonds in Solid Materials

Ionic Bonding Covalent Bonding Metallic Bonding

 Lecture 3

MLL 100: Introduction to Materials

Science and Engineering

Dr. Shib Shankar Banerjee

Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
 The Structure of Crystalline Solids
-Crystalline solids
-Noncrystalline solids
Crystal ?
A 3D translationally periodic One can select a small volume of the crystal which
arrangement of atoms in space is by periodic repetition generates the entire crystal
called a crystal. (without overlaps or gaps)

Unit
Cells Space filling

Building blocks of
2D crystal crystal
 2D crystal

Unit cell of 2D crystal can be defined by two translation

vectors and angle between them
Size and shape of the unit cell:
1. A corner as origin
2. Three edge vectors {a, b, c}
from the origin define
a a CRSYTALLOGRAPHIC
 COORDINATE
SYSTEM
c  3. The three
 lengths a, b, c and
the three
interaxial angles
b , ,  are called the
LATTICE PARAMETERS
Crystal Lattice

A 3D A 3D
translationally translationally
periodic periodic
arrangement arrangement of
of atoms points
 Lattice






b



a
Each lattice point in a lattice has identical neighbourhood
of other lattice points.
Similarly one can create 3D lattice as well
What is the relation between
the two?

Crystal = Lattice + Motif

Motif or basis: an atom or

a group of atoms associated
with each lattice point
Lattice + Motif = Crystal

+ =

Lattice + Heart = Love Crystal

 UNIT CELLS OF A LATTICE (2D)
If the lattice
points are only
Primitive at the corners,
cell Non- the unit cell is
primitive cell
primitive
otherwise non-
Primitive primitive
cell
A unit cell of a
Non- lattice is NOT
primitive cell
unique.

Primitive
cell

b
a
UNIT CELLS OF A LATTICE

Can we select a
triangular unit
cell? Since it can
give a very small
repeat unit

Unit cell is a small volume

Primitive of the crystal which by
cell periodic repetition
generates the entire
crystal (without overlaps
or gaps)
Classification of lattices
The Seven Crystal Systems
And

The Fourteen Bravais Lattices

Example Units Cells
 Symmetry

If an object is brought into self-

coincidence after some
operation it said to possess
symmetry with respect to that
operation.
Reflection (or mirror symmetry)
 Symmetry elements in a cubic crystal

❑ Center of Symmetry Center of Symmetry

❑ Axis of Symmetry
❑ Plane of Symmetry

It is the imaginary point in the crystal that any line drawn through it intersects the
surface of the crystal on either side.
 Axis of Symmetry

n-fold axis of symmetry:

When a rotation through an

angle of (2π/n) radians or
(360/n) degrees

n Angle of Axis of No. of folds

rotation symmetry
1 360O Identity Infinite
2 180O Diad 2-fold symmetry
3 120O Triad 3-fold symmetry
4 90O Tetrad 4-fold symmetry
6 60O Hexad 6-fold symmetry

Axis of Symmetry
-a line about which a crystal can be rotated with a defined angular rotation
 Axis of symmetry
(2-fold symmetry) (3-fold symmetry)

How many diad axis is possible in a cubic system ?

(4-fold symmetry)
How many triad axis is possible in a cubic system ?

How many tetrad axis is possible in a cubic system ?

 Plane of symmetry

Parallel Planes of symmetry = 3

When an imaginary plane can divide the
crystal into two equal part such that each
part is the mirror image of the other, then
the crystal is said to have plane of
symmetry
Total Symmetry elements in a cubic crystal

Center of Symmetry: 1

Total Axes of symmetry in a Cube: 13

Angle of rotation Axis of No. of folds No. of Axes
symmetry
180O Diad 2-fold symmetry 6
120O Triad 3-fold symmetry 4
90O Tetrad 4-fold symmetry 3

Plane of symmetry in a Cube: 9

Total symmetry elements in a Cube: 1+13+9=23

 Homework
Q1: Draw the positions of the characteristic symmetry elements for
each of the crystal systems

Crystal system Characteristic Convention Unit Bravais

Symmetry CellShape Lattices
Cubic Four three-fold axes a=b=c, α=β=γ=90° P, I, F
Tetragonal A single four-fold axis a=b≠c, α=β= γ =90° P, I
Orthorhombic Three two-fold axes a≠b≠c, α=β= γ =90° P, I, F, C
Hexagonal One six-fold axis a=b≠c, α=β=90°, γ =120 P
Rhombohedral A single three-fold axis a=b=c, α=β= γ ≠90° P
Or Trigonal
Monoclinic A single two-fold axis a≠b≠c,α=β=90°,≠ γ P, A
Triclinic None a≠b≠c,α≠β≠ γ P
P: Primitive or simple, I: Body centred, F: Face centred,
A, B or C: End-centred or Base-centred.
 Lecture 4

MLL 100: Introduction to Materials

Science and Engineering

Dr. Shib Shankar Banerjee

Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
 METALLIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

The Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure (FCC)

a hard sphere unit cell representation A reduced-sphere unit cell an aggregate of many atoms

Some of the familiar metals having this crystal structure are copper, aluminum, silver, and gold

adapted from W. G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall, and J.Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure
 The Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure (BCC)

(a) a hard sphere unit cell representation, (b) a reduced-sphere unit cell, and (c) an aggregate of many atoms

Chromium, iron, tungsten exhibit a BCC structure

adapted from W. G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall, and J.Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure
 hexagonal close-packed crystal structure (HCP)

(a) a reduced-sphere unit cell (a and c represent the short and long edge lengths, respectively), and (b) an aggregate of
many atoms.

The HCP metals include cadmium, magnesium, titanium, and zinc

adapted from W. G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall, and J.Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure
Effective Number of Atom and Co-ordination Number:
❖ Co-ordination Number (CN) of a crystal structure by the number of
nearest neighbours of each atom, ion or molecule in the crystal

BCC CN

Effective No. of atoms in an unit cell: SC, FCC and BCC ?

Coordination Number: SC, FCC and BCC ?
Co-ordination Number and Packing Fraction:

❖The atomic packing fraction (APF) of an unit cell of a crystal lattice determines how effectively atoms are
packed within the lattice
Edge Length to Atomic Radius Calculation:
Edge Length to Atomic Radius Calculation:
Edge Length to Atomic Radius Calculation:
HCP Lattice
Closest Packed Crystal Structures:

The term "closest packed structures" refers to the most tightly packed or
space-efficient composition of crystal structures (lattices).
Void Spaces can be of the following types: (Spheres represent atoms)
 FCC Stacking Sequence:

FCC Stacking type : ABCABCABCABC

Atomic Packing Fraction : 74%
 Hexagonal Close Packed Structure (HCP):

In a hexagonal closest packed structure, the

third layer has the same arrangement of
spheres as the first layer and covers all the
tetrahedral holes.

HCP Stacking Sequence: ABABABAB

Atomic Packing Fraction: 74%

Q1. Determination of BCC and FCC Unit Cell Volume, respectively.

Q2. Copper has an atomic radius of 0.128 nm, an FCC crystal structure, and an
atomic weight of 63.5 g/mol. Compute its theoretical density.
 Lecture 5

MLL 100: Introduction to Materials

Science and Engineering

Dr. Shib Shankar Banerjee

Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Crystal Planes and Directions: Indexing
Algorithm of Crystal Directions
Algorithm of Crystal Directions
Algorithm of Crystal Directions
Algorithm of Crystal Directions
Algorithm of Crystal Planes
Algorithm of Crystal Planes
Algorithm of Crystal Planes
Algorithm of Crystal Planes
 Lecture 6

MLL 100: Introduction to Materials

Science and Engineering

Dr. Shib Shankar Banerjee

Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Family of Crystal Directions and Family of Planes
Family of Directions:
Algorithm for lattice directions
1. Vector passing through an origin is projected in
terms of lattice parameter.
2. Reduction by multiplying the components to
adjust to smallest integer values
3. Enclosed in brackets [uvw], without commas.
4. The lattice direction [uvw] and all directions
equivalent to it are represented by the family of
planes depicted as <uvw> (V-bracket notation).

Family of <100> directions

(Same atomic arrangements along the directions)
 Family of Planes:
Algorithm for lattice planes
1. Intercepts of the plane are read with respect to
the lattice parameters.
2. Reciprocals of the intercepts are taken.
3. The resultant values are reduced to smallest
integer values.
4. Enclosed in parentheses (hkl), without
commas.
5. Lattice plane (hkl) and all planes equivalent
to it are represented by a family of planes Family of {100} planes
{hkl} (second bracket notation). (Determined by permutation and combination of a
given plane)
Relation between edge length 𝑎, the interplanar spacing 𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 for a cubic crystal
 Stacking sequence in closed packed structures
Two important structures in which many metals crystallize:

hexagonal close packed (HCP)

cubic close packed (CCP)
Stacking type : ABCABCABCABC Stacking Sequence: ABABABAB
Voids in Close-Packed Crystals
TETRAHEDRAL VOID

B
A A

OCTAHEDRAL VOID

B
A A

B B
A A A
Voids in Close-Packed Crystals
Voids in Close-Packed Crystals
Location of Voids in CCP Unit cell

No. of TH Voids = 8
No. of OH Voids = 4 {1 + (12x1/4)}
No. of spheres around a TH void: 4
10
No. of spheres around a OH void: 6
Location of Voids in HCP Unit cell

No. of TH Voids = 12
No. of OH Voids = 6
No. of spheres around a TH void: 4
No. of spheres around a OH void: 6
 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝑯 𝑽𝒐𝒊𝒅 𝒔Τ𝒄 𝒆𝒍𝒍
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝑯 𝑽𝒐𝒊𝒅𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎 =
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎 𝒔Τ𝒄 𝒆𝒍𝒍

𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑶𝑯 𝑽𝒐𝒊𝒅 𝒔Τ𝒄 𝒆𝒍𝒍

𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑶𝑯 𝑽𝒐𝒊𝒅𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎 =
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎 𝒔Τ𝒄 𝒆𝒍𝒍

Homework: Calculate the effective no. of TH and OH voids,

respectively per sphere for CCP and HCP structures
 Closed Packed Systems:

❑ Closed packed planes in FCC: <111>

[101ത ]
❑ Total no. of closed packed planes in FCC: 12
(111) ❑ No. of distinct closed packed planes in FCC: 4
[011ത ]
❑ Closed packed directions in FCC: {110}
❑ No. of closed packed directions on a single closed
Origin
packed plane in FCC: 3

[1ത 10]

❑ Closed packed planes in HCP: <0001>

❑ Total no. of closed packed planes in HCP: 2
❑ No. of distinct closed packed planes in FCC: 1
❑ ത
Closed packed directions in HCP: {1120}
[112ത 0] ❑ No. of closed packed directions on a single closed
packed plane in HCP: 3
[1ത 21ത 0]

[21ത 10]
ത
(0001)
Draw one close packed plane in CCP and show all close- packed directions lying in it. Give the Miller indices of
the plane and directions. Do the same in a HCP unit cell.
Radius of TH void in CCP: Radius of OH void in CCP:
Radius of TH void in HCP:
Radius of OH void in HCP:
 Lecture 7

MLL 100: Introduction to Materials

Science and Engineering

Dr. Shib Shankar Banerjee

Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Structure of Polymer
 What is Polymer?

• Definition: Many units of monomers (or repeating units) covalently bonded together to form a long
chain (or macromolecule).

Mono- mer/single part ‘poly’ meaning ‘many’

Oligo- mer/few parts ‘meres’ meaning ‘parts’

e.g. n H2C = CH2 CH2 CH2

n
A brief history of polymer science/technology
• 1920’s Staudinger – first to recognise the long-chain nature of polymers
• 1929 Carothers – invented condensation (or step) polymerisation
• 1937 Synthesis of polystyrene
• 1939 Commercial production of polyethylene
• 1947 Nylon is a major commercial success for Du Pont & Nemours in USA
• 1940 - 50 P. J. Flory developed thermodynamic theory of polymer solutions
• 1953 - 60 K. Ziegler and G. Natta: co-ordination polymerisation
• 1955 - 60 M. Szwarc invented living (anionic) polymerisation
• 2000 Nobel Prize in chemistry, for the discovery and development of conductive polymers
• Next ?

H. Staudinger
1953 Nobel Prize
(A pioneer of polymer science)
 Natural polymer materials

Examples of naturally occurring polymers are silk, wool, DNA,

cellulose and proteins.
5
Synthetic polymer materials

6
 Solid-State Structure of Thermoplastics

Semi-crystalline thermoplastics
Amorphous thermoplastics
Common semi-crystalline materials are usually
These include mostly translucent plastics:
opaque and include:
❑ Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA / Acrylic)
❑ Polyethelyne (PE)
❑ Polystyrene (PS)
❑ Polypropylene (PP)
❑ Polycarbonate (PC)
❑ Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)
❑ Polysulfone (PSU)
❑ Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
❑ Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
❑ Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
❑ Aacrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
❑ Polyetherimide (PEI)
Melting point and glass transition temperature of polymer
 Lecture 8

MLL 100: Introduction to Materials

Science and Engineering

Dr. Shib Shankar Banerjee

Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
 Structure and behavior of elastomer chains

-Long-chain character

-Chains are entangled with each other

-Long-chain character of polymer molecules can form crystals??

-In the case of the rubbers, the macromolecular chains may or may
not be capable of crystallizing on stretching, depending on their
chemical structure and regularity

-Crystal melting point

-Glass transition

-Viscoelasticity

-Vulcanization 2
 Structures of Copolymer
Homopolymer:
A A A A A A A A A A
Nomenclature: polyA or poly(A)

(i) Alternating copolymer:

Nomenclature: poly(A-alt-B) A B A B A B A B A B

(ii) Block copolymer:

Nomenclature: poly(A-b-B) A A A A A B B B B B

(iii) Statistical copolymer:

Nomenclature: poly(A-stat-B) A B A A A B A B B A

(iv) Graft copolymers: B B B B B

Nomenclature: poly(A-g-B) B B
A A A A A A A A A A
3
B
 Classification of polymers

1. Based on origin

2. Based on thermal response

3. Based on mode of polymerization

4. Based on line structure

5. Based on application and physical properties

6. Based on tacticity

7. Based on crystallinity
 Based on origin
Polymer

Natural Semi- synthetic Synthetic

Ex. Natural rubber, (chemically modified (man made polymers
natural silk, cellulose, natural polymers) prepared synthetically)
starch, proteins etc. Ex. Hydrogenated or Ex. Polyethylene,
hydrohalogenated polypropylene,
natural rubber, esters polystyrene, polyvinyl
and ethers such as chloride, SBR, CR,
cellulose nitrate methyl NBR etc.
cellulose etc.
 Based on thermal response
heat
Thermoplastic polymers: Hard Soft
cool

This is a physical + reversible change

e.g. polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene, poly(vinyl chloride) etc.

heat
Thermoset polymers: Soft Hard

This is a chemical, irreversible change

e.g. epoxy resins, phenol-formaldehyde resins (Bakelite), etc.

6
 Based on polymerization mechanism
• Carothers (1929) distinguished between polymers on the basis of chemical composition.
• Two main categories: Addition and Condensation polymers.

Addition polymers Condensation polymers

• They are formed from olefinic, • They are formed from
diolefinic, vinylic and related intermolecular reactions between
monomers bifunctional and polyfunctional
• They all have –C-C- linkages along monomer molecules having
the main chains. reactive functional groups such as
• These polymers are formed by –OH, -COOH, -NH2, -NCO etc.
simple additions of monomer • The related functional groups react
molecules to each other in quick with each other in a step-wise
succession by a chain mechanism. manner producing condensed
• e.g. PE, PP, PS, PVC, PBR etc. structural linkages, usually with the
elimination of a simple small
byproduct molecule in each step of
reaction
• e.g. polyamides, polyesters,
polyethers, epoxy resins etc.
7
 Based on line structure
Polymer

Linear Branched Cross-linked*

e.g. HDPE, PVC e.g. LDPE e.g. vulcanised rubber,
phenol-formaldehyde
resin

*Represents a network structure, either planar network or space network

• Crosslinked polymers are insoluble and infusible
 Based on application and properties

• Rubbers
molar cohesion:
< 2 kcal/g mol per 5Å chain length

• Thermoplastics
molar cohesion:
2–5 kcal/g mol per 5Å chain length

• Fibres
molar cohesion:
4–10 kcal/g mol per 5 Å chain length

9
 Based on crystallinity
Crystallinity: order/ orientation of molecules or chains (Structural regularity)

Polymer

Semi- crystalline Amorphous

e.g. LDPE (Tg is very important)
e.g. PS, NR, SBR
 Lecture 9

MLL 100: Introduction to Materials

Science and Engineering

Dr. Shib Shankar Banerjee

Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
 Rubber or Elastomer
A macromolecular material that returns rapidly to approximately the initial dimensions and shape after substantial
deformation by a weak stress and release of the stress.

Rubber elasticity: a property of crosslinked rubber. Origin of Rubber Elasticity ?

Crosslinks and entanglements between elastomer chains

2
 Thermodynamics of Rubber Elasticity
Gough–Joule Effect (Also known as thermoelastic property)

Gough observed in 1805

Joule confirmed it in 1859 with crosslinked natural rubber

1. Rubber warms on stretching and cools down on retraction

2. Stretched rubber shrinks on heating and elongates on cooling

Thermoelasticity - the thermal response of an elastic material

Thermoplasticity. - the thermal response of plastic

Experience Gough–Joule Effect!

Take a piece of rubber with the dimensions 7 × 3 cm. Hold it loosely on the upper lip. Stretch it quickly to the
maximum extent possible, taking care not to break it. Your lip will feel the warmth. Then hold the strip away
from the lip for 5 seconds. Place it on the lip and release the force quickly; now your lip becomes cold.

3
 Explanation of Gough–Joule Effect
How heat is developed in rubber during stretching
Two fundamental requirements for thermoelasticity: temperature change and elasticity (reversibility).

In this process, energy is

exchanged with the surroundings
only as work

Adiabatic stretching of rubber increases its temperature. But the case of rubber it is more
complicated. If crystallisation occurs during stretching, part of the temperature increase is due
to the latent heat of crystallisation.
The latent heat of crystallisation raises the temperature of rubber up to 10 K at 500% strain 4
 Entropy of natural rubber

How is the phenomenon, strain-induced crystallisation confirmed?

5
 Elasticity of Metal and Rubber

The elasticity of metal is called energy-derived elasticity

When the stretched metal is heated, expansion occurs because of the increased oscillation of atoms about their
equilibrium positions. In other words, the effects resulting from the stretching and heating of the metal are attributed
to the intermolecular potential energy.
-The application of force changes the size and shape of the atomic lattice
6
 Elasticity of Metal and Rubber

The elastic memory of rubber is called entropy-derived elasticity or entropy elasticity