GWT-2 By:-YOMIF 

DEREJE              R.N=
        22571013
  
Q.1 What do you understand by abstraction losses of soil.

Abstraction is the term used to describe the amount of rainfall that doesn’t turn into runoff. There are
numerous processes that intercept rainfall. Some rainfall never even reaches the ground, instead being
intercepted by leaves on trees. Some rainfall is evaporated back into the atmosphere. Of the rainfall
that reaches the ground, some is infiltrated and some just ponds with no outlet.

Abstraction losses of soil refer to the loss of topsoil due to erosion caused by various factors such as
water, wind, and tillage. Topsoil, also known as the A-horizon, is the uppermost layer of soil that is rich in
organic matter and nutrients, making it vital for plant growth.

When topsoil is eroded, it can lead to a reduction in soil fertility, which can have significant implications
for agricultural productivity and sustainability. Abstraction losses can occur due to natural factors such as
rainfall, runoff, and wind, as well as human activities such as overgrazing, deforestation, and intensive
agriculture.

To minimize abstraction losses, various soil conservation practices can be implemented, including no-till
farming, cover cropping, and terracing. These practices aim to protect the soil surface from erosion by
reducing the impact of water and wind, improving soil structure, and enhancing organic matter content.

Q.2 What is Horton’s Law? Describe

Horton's Law of Infiltration is a principle in hydrology that describes the relationship between the rate
of infiltration of water into soil and the duration of rainfall. It was also formulated by Robert E. Horton,
an American hydrologist, in the mid-20th century.

The law states that the rate of infiltration of water into soil during a rainfall event initially increases
rapidly and then gradually decreases as the duration of the rainfall event continues. This is due to
several factors, including the decreasing capacity of the soil to absorb water as it becomes saturated,
and the increasing resistance to infiltration caused by the development of a soil crust or a reduction in
soil porosity.

where fp = the infiltration capacity (depth/time) at some time t

k = a constant representing the rate of decrease in / capacity
fc = a final or equilibrium capacity
f0 = the initial infiltration capacity
It indicates that if the rainfall supply exceeds the infiltration capacity, infiltration tends to decrease in an
exponential manner. Although simple in form, difficulties in determining useful values for /0 and k
restrict the use of this equation. The area under the curve for any time interval represents the depth of
water infiltrated during that interval. The infiltration rate is usually given in inches per hour and the time
t in minutes, although other time increments are used and the coefficient k is determined accordingly

Horton's Law of Infiltration has important implications for soil water management, irrigation, and
hydrology. It suggests that the initial phase of the infiltration process is the most important for water
management, as it determines the rate of water infiltration and the amount of water that can be
stored in the soil for plant growth. It also implies that the final infiltration rate is an important
parameter for soil water balance calculations, as it determines the amount of water that can
percolate to the groundwater table or contribute to surface runoff.
 By:-YOMIF DEREJE                          
Q. 3 What do you understand by infiltration? Describe briefly the factors affecting infiltration?

The process of entering rain water in to soil strata of earth is

called INFILTRATION

The infiltrated water first meets the soil  moisture

deficiency if any & excess  water moves vertically
downwards to reach the groundwater table. This vertical
movement is called PERCOLATION

The infiltration capacity of soil is defined as the

The rate at which soil is able to absorb rainfall or
irrigation is called infiltration rate
 It is measured in (mm/hr) or (inches/hr )
Infiltrometer is used for measurement of
maximum rate at which it is capable of absorbing
water and is denoted by f.
If i >= f then fa = f (depend upon soil capacity )
If i < f then fa = i (depend upon rainfall
intensity)where fa = actual infiltration capacity

infiltration. i = rate of rainfall

f = infiltration capacity
 If (i > f ) runoff occurs.
For
Infiltration rate is connected to hydraulic       Dry Soil – (infiltration rate) f is more
conductivity       Moist Soil – (infiltration rate) f is less
Maximum rate of water absorption
           by soil –Infiltration Capacity
 Maximum capacity of water absorption
by soil –Field Capacity

Factors affecting infiltration The steeper the slope (gradient), the less the infiltration or seepage

SLOPE OF THE LAND

DEGREE OF SATURATION The more saturated the loose Earth materials are, the less the infiltration

Porosity is the percentage of open space (pores and cracks) in a earth

POROSITY surface.The greater the porosity, the greater the amount of infiltration.

COMPACTION The clay surfaced soils are compacted even by the impact of rain
drops which reduce infiltration. This effect is negligible in sandy soils

Vegetation:- Grasses, trees and other plant types capture falling precipitation
SURFACE COVER
CONDITION on leaves and branches, keeping that water from being absorbed into the
Earth & take more time to reach in to the ground. MORE the
vegetation Slower the Infiltration
OTHER FACTORS

Entrapped Quality of Freezing TEMPERATURE

air in pores water-
Q.4 A storm with 20 cm of precipitation produced a surface runoff of 12.6 cm. Estimate
the Ǿ index of the storm with following data

Ø index = (precipitation - runoff) / storm

duration
Given the precipitation is 20 cm and the runoff is 12.6 cm, the difference between them is 7.4 cm. To
calculate the storm duration, we can assume that the precipitation and runoff were evenly
distributed over the entire storm period. Thus, the average precipitation rate can be calculated as
the total precipitation divided by the duration of the storm:

Average precipitation rate = total precipitation / storm duration

20 cm / storm duration = (0.8 + 1.8 + 3.0 + 4.6 + 3.6 + 3.2 + 2.0 + 1.0) cm/hr
20 cm / storm duration = 20 cm/8hr
Storm duration = 8 hour
Ø index = (precipitation - runoff) / storm duration

Trial-1 Ø index=(20cm-12.6cm)/8hr=0.925cm/hr

However, this value of Ø index is more than the rainfall recorded during the first hour storm

Therefore ,by assuming again that the effective rainfall period of 7 hours ,we eliminate the chance for
occurrence of any excess rainfall during the first hour.
 then for seven  hour effective time period ,the infiltration loss is

Trial-2 Ø index=(20cm-0.8cm-12.6cm)/7hr=0.943cm/hr

This value of Ø index  is not more than any of the values of precipitation from the second to the
 eight hour of storm ,and is acceptable. 

for verification ,it should be checked that the excess

 rainfall is equal to the given excess runoff.
Q.5.Two consecutive storms of four hours duration each and of 3.5 cm and 2.5 cm respectively,
occurred on a catchment having an area of 25 Km2 These two storms generated the following
runoff hydrograph at the catchment outlet. If a base flow of 5 m3/s was distributed uniformly
over the storm period, calculate the excess runoff (ER) and the      infiltration index (Øindex)

We draw the hyetograph from the given data

volume of Direct runoff= the Area inside the hydrograph after separation of base flow
Ø index=summation of all trapezium inside the hydrograph
=1/2(60*60*60[(1+7)+(7+20)+(20+15)+(15+10)+(10+6)+(6+3)+(3+1)]
=1.33928*10^6m^3
excess Runoff, ER=volume of runoff/catchment Area.
=1.3392810^6m^3/25*10^6
=5.3cm
Total volume of rainfall=3.5+2.5cm=6cm
abstraction losses=6-5.35cm=0.65cm
duration of total rainfall=4+4hr=8hr
=abstraction losses/Duration of rainfall
=0.65cm/8 hr.
 =0.08125cm/hr.
Q.6 The following mass curve was obtained for a 14-hour effective rainfall period that occurred on a
catchment area of 25 Km2 Calculate the ordinates of the effective rainfall hyetograph and runoff
volume, when the Ø index Is 0.35 cm/h.

Solution

Direct runoff volume Summation of the volume of runoff during each time period ,from the catchment.
from the catchment = Area of the hyetograph bars*Catchment Area.

=(0.3+1.3+1.8+1.5+0.3+0.3
Total Effective Rainfall Area of the hythergraph bars =5.5cm
=0.055m

Catchment Area =25*10^6m^2

volume of Direct runoff 

from the catchment =  Total Effective Rainfall Catchment Area

= 0.055m X =25*10^6m^2 = (1.375*10^6)m^3

Q.7 What do you understand by measurement of infiltration? Describe the working of

single  cylinder method and double cylinder methods of measurement of infiltration
Measurement of infiltration refers to the process of quantifying the amount of water that enters the soil
surface from the atmosphere. This is an important process in hydrology and agriculture, as it helps to
determine how much water is available to plants and how it is distributed within the soil profile.
The single cylinder method and the double cylinder method are two common methods used for
measuring infiltration rates. Here's a brief description of each:

Single cylinder method: In this method, a metal cylinder with a known diameter and height is inserted
into the soil surface to a depth of about 10-15 cm. Water is then poured into the cylinder, and the time
it takes for the water to infiltrate into the soil is measured. The infiltration rate is then calculated by
dividing the volume of water by the time taken to infiltrate.

Double cylinder method: This method is similar to the single cylinder method, but it uses two
cylinders. The first cylinder is filled with water, and the second cylinder is placed on top of the first one,
with a known height of water between the two cylinders. The water in the top cylinder is then allowed
to slowly drain into the lower cylinder and infiltrate into the soil. The infiltration rate is then calculated
by dividing the volume of water in the top cylinder by the time taken for the water to completely
infiltrate into the soil.
Both methods have their advantages and disadvantages. The single cylinder method is simpler and
less expensive, but it may not accurately represent infiltration rates under field conditions. The double
cylinder method is more accurate, but it requires more equipment and can be more time-consuming.
Ultimately, the choice of method depends on the specific needs of the study and the available
resources.

comparing the single cylinder method and the double cylinder method for measuring infiltration:

In summary, the single cylinder method is simpler, cheaper, and quicker, but may not accurately
represent field conditions. The double cylinder method is more accurate, representative of field
conditions, but requires more equipment, time, and is more complex to set up and use. The choice
between the two methods depends on the specific needs of the study and the available resources.
advantages and disadvantages of the single cylinder method and the double cylinder method
for measuring infiltration:
 In summary, the single cylinder method is simpler, cheaper, and quicker, but may not accurately
represent field conditions and can cause moderate to high soil disturbance. The double cylinder
method is more accurate, representative of field conditions, and allows for accounting of natural
processes of water infiltration, but requires more equipment, time, and is more complex to set up and
use. The choice between the two methods depends on the specific needs of the study and the
available resources.

Q.8 .For determining infiltration capacity, a concentric-ring infiltrometer was installed in a

sample plot of 5000 m2 During the experiment the following data were recorded;

(i) Diameter of concentric ring = 30 cm

(ii) Constant depth of water in the ring = 1.5 cm
Calculate the infiltration capacity and basic intake rate of the soil
Solution

Basic infiltration rate is 0.5803cm/hr.

infiltration capacity is the the last column of the above table

Q.9 An infiltration test on a ring with 35 cm diameter yielded following results

Determine
(i) Infiltration capacity rates for the time intervals in the experiments
(ii) What is the ultimate infiltration capacity rate fc
(iii) What is the average infiltration capacity for the first 10 minutes
and for the first 30 minutes of the experimen
 SOLUTION

I. Infiltration capacity rates for the time intervals in the experiments The last column of above tables

II. the minimum infiltration capacity /ultimate infiltration capacity= 0.75cm/hr

III. the average infiltration capacity for the first 10 minutes and for the first 30
minutes of the experiment

average infiltration capacity for the first 10 minutes=1.21981/(10/60)=7.314cm/hr.

average infiltration capacity for the first 30 minutes=2.59977/(30/60)=5.198 cm/hr.

End

By:-YOMIF DEREJE                           R.N= 22571013