Energy crises :-

1. In April, India witnessed acute power shortage due to unavailability of coal supplies, with more than 100
million units (MU) of energy shortage on eight days over the course of the month.

2. This forced discoms in several states to enforce load-shedding or rolling blackouts to ration power. The power
shortage was due to problems with the evacuation and stockpiling of coal at thermal power plants, combine d
with a spike in the price of imported coal for coastal plants and high prices on the power exchange.

3. In 2016, India set an ambitious goal of reaching 175 GW of renewable energy by 2022, and as of April 2022, it
had 95 GW of operating solar and wind power. This implies a target slippage of about 51 GW.

4. Causes of Power Crisis in India

1. Increasing Demand:
Increase in the demand for Electricity has been increasing from all fronts, i.e., from agriculture, industries,
domestic for chronic shortage of electricity in the country.

2. Poor Plant Load Factors (PLF):

The plant load factors (PLF) reflects the operational efficiency of power projects in conditions of excess
demand. In India the PLF is very poor. PLF of the projects under the SEBs of Bihar, Assam, West Bengal and
Orissa are ranging between 25 to 40 per cent. PLF of SEBs in general remained all along very low.

3. Gaps between Targets and Achievements

4. Use of obsolete machinery,
5. Huge transmission loss to the extent of 20 per cent,
6. Irregular supply of coal and supply of inferior quality coal to thermal power plants,
7. Labour indiscipline and lack of proper administration
8. Lack of efficient engineers, technicians and skilled labour,
9. Unfavourable hydel-thermal mix
10. Public sector’s monopoly control over the generation of electricity.

Review of conventional and non-conventional energy sources

Conventional Sources of Energy
•The sources of energy that are in use for an extended time, e.g., coal, petroleum, gas and water power.
•They are exhausting ready except water.
•They cause pollution once used, as they emit smoke and ash.
•They are terribly high-ticket to be maintained, keep and transmitted as they’re carried over
long distance through transmission grid and contours.

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

•The resources that are measure however within the method of development over the past few
years. It includes solar, wind, tidal, biogas, and biomass, geothermal.
•They are measure inexhaustible.
•They are measure typically pollution free.
•Less overpriced because of native use and straight forward to take care of.
1. SOLAR ENERGY
• The continuous input of the energy from the sun is 1, 67,000 times greater than the current
consumption. As such, now many countries are in effort to harness the solar energy for domestic,
commercial or industrial purposes. Solar energy can be used for direct heating. Alternatively, the
heat can be converted into the electricity- the thermal electric generation. Photovoltaic cells-the solar
cells or solar batteries convert direct solar energy into electricity.
• The country’s solar power in capability reached 26 GW as of 30 September 2018.
• The 20 GW capabilities were at the start targeted for 2022 however the Govt. achieved the target
four years prior to schedule.
• In Jan-2015, the Indian government expand edits solar plans, targeting US$100 billion in investment
and 100 GW of solar capacity including 40 GW from rooftop solar by 2022.

2. WIND ENERGY
• The potential for the wind farms in India was assessed in 2011 to be more than 2,000 GW
• In the year 2015, the MNRE set the target of Wind Power generation capacity by the year 2022up to
60,000 MW. North east and East regions have no grid connected the wind power plant as of December
2017.
• Wind power accounts for nearly 10% of India’s total put in power generation capability and
generated 52.67 TWh within the year 2017-18, that is sort of 3% of total electricity generation.

3. TIDAL ENERGY
• Tidal power or periodic event energy may be a sort of hydropower that converts the energy obtained
from tides into helpful sorts of power, chiefly electricity.
• Tides are a lot of certain than the wind and also the sun.
• The Gujarat government is all set to develop India's first tidal energy plant. The state government has
approved Rs 25 crore for setting up the 50 MW plant at the Gulf of Kutch. It will produce energy from
the ocean tides.

4. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
• Geothermal energy is that the natural heat ofthe world. Earth’s interior heat originated from its fiery
consolidation of mud and gas over four billion years past.
• Geothermal Energy has experienced modest growth worldwide in recent times as compared to other
RE sources especially wind or solar due to its site specific nature, risk/uncertainty involved with
resource exploration and high capital cost.
• As per preliminary investigations undertaken by the GSI, there are around 300 geothermal hot springs
in India. Most of these geothermal hot springs are in medium potential (100 C to 200 C) and low
potential.
• The promising geothermal sites for electric power generation are Puga Valley & Chummathang in
Jammu & Kashmir, Cambay in Gujarat, Tattapani in Chattisgarh, Khammam in Telangana & Ratnagiri
in Maharashtra.

5. ENERGY FROM BIOMASS

• India is perfect surroundings for Biomass production given its tropical location and ample sunshine
and rains.
• The countries immense agricultural potential provides large agro-residues which might be
accustomed meet energy desires ,each in heat and power applications.
• According to IREDA “Biomass is capable of supplementing the coal to the tune of regarding260 million
tones”, saving of regarding Rs. 250billion, every year.
• It’s calculable that the potential for biomass energy in India includes 16,000 MW from biomass energy
and an additional 3,500 MW from pulp cogeneration.
Impact of grid integration of renewable energy resources on existing power system
1. Regardless of where renewable energy generation is located on the grid, it impacts how the grid operator
dispatches resources in the same way. Most of the time, the grid will absorb all the electricity produced by
renewables because there is sufficient demand for electricity.
2. During rare events, production from renewables exceeds demand for electricity in a given region and
production must be curtailed. This may occur more often as the penetration, or proportion, of renewables on
the grid rises. See here for more.
3. Consequently, grid operators only need to use other sources to make up the difference between the amount
of electricity demanded and the amount of electricity produced by renewables on the grid. This is known as
net load, which is equal to the difference between the forecasted load (the expected level of electricity
demanded by customers), and the production of all renewables on the system.
4. Utilities are responsible for meeting the net load and typically use conventional fossil-fuel resources, like
natural gas plants, to do so. As a result, the more renewable energy resources present on the grid, the less
electricity must be generated using conventional fossil-fuel plants.
5. However, as more renewables are integrated into the grid, their intermittent nature can pose problems for
grid operators in terms of forecasting and meeting load. A growing proportion of renewables on the grid makes
weather increasingly important for forecasting net load
6. Since weather can change quickly and unpredictably, high renewables penetration requires grid operators to
be flexible and quickly react to new conditions and production patterns. Failure to do so could potentially lead
to power shortages and blackouts.
7. Even if the weather is predictable, grid operators face the issue of how to quickly respond to dwindling
production from solar energy when the sun goes down but the demand for electricity stays the same (or
increases during late afternoon peak).

2 Chapter

DG topologies, regulatory standards/ framework: IEEE 1547 series

Qn. Modes of Operation of microgrid

Islanding Mode & issues

1. The microgrid is a solution for the integration of DG to a distribution network. It changes the architecture of
the distribution network and realizes bidirectional power flow. Traditionally, when the distribution system
became unavailable, power supply to loads will be interrupted.
2. With a microgrid, when the distribution system is out of service, the DG is expected to operate independently
to power the loads.
 3. This is known as islanding, either intentional or unintentional, Intentional islanding means planned islanding
with predetermined control strategies, and unintentional islanding means unplanned and uncontrollable
islanding, which should be prevented.

4.
-Overgeneration :- In this situation, the total power generated by distributed sources exceeds the load consumption.
Under steady-state conditions, the extra power is stored in distributed energy storage devices according to their state
of charge, and the EGs are driven accordingly.

- If overgeneration lasts too long, the power generated by renewable sources is scaled down to meet the actual power
consumption according to a suitable sharing criterion.

Undergeneration :-In this situation the power generated within the microgrid is not enough to fulfill the demand from
loads. The power balance must therefore be ensured by use of the distributed energy storage units according to their
energy availability.

5. The status of an island system is unknown as it is not monitored by the utility and operates independently.
Therefore, unintentional islanding is uncontrollable, poses high risks, and will cause the following problems:
6. 1.Some lines that are considered to have been disconnected from all power sources may still be powered,
endangering the maintenance personnel and consumers.
7. 2. Normal closing of the grid is disturbed. When the DG in islanded operation is reconnected to the grid, the
microgrid system may be asynchronous with the grid. In this case, when the circuit breaker is closed, it may
be damaged and a high current may appear, thus damaging the DG, or even caus ing tripping of the grid.
8. 3. The grid cannot control the voltage and frequency of the island system, thus causing damage to distribution
equipment and loads. If, after islanding occurs, the DG cannot regulate its voltage and frequency and is not
equipped with protection relay for limiting deviation, the voltage and frequency of DG will fluctuate
remarkably, thus causing damage to distribution equipment and loads.

2. Grid-connected operation:-

In grid-connected mode, the microgrid is connected to and exchanges power with the distribution system of the utility
grid
1. When the microgrid stops operation, it can transfer to grid-connected mode directly by grid connection control;
when it is connected to the grid, it can be disconnected from the grid by disconnection control.
2. When the microgrid stops operation, it can transfer to islanded mode directly by disconnection control, and when
it is in islanded operation, it can be connected to the grid-by-grid connection control.
3. When the microgrid operates in parallel with the grid or in islanded mode, the microgrid can be shut down by
shutdown control.

3. Control architectures of microgrids:-

The major control architectures considered for the operation of microgrids are classified into four categories:
1. Autonomous (islanded) control architecture, in which the microgrid is designed to run autonomously ensuring
stable, sustainable, and reliable operation. The merits and demerits of droop control are outlined in Table 1.3.
2. Multilevel control architecture, in which microsource controllers and the load controllers are used. The MGCC
provides the microsource controllers with the demand requirements among other control functions.
3. Agent-based control architecture, in which the several control functions are represented in terms of agents that can
be software or hardware components.
4. Neural network-based energy management system, in which multilayer perceptron neural networks have been used
to perform control functions within the microgrid.

4. Coordinated control of microgrids:

1. Voltage Coordination
The objective of voltage coordination is to provide a flat voltage profile in the microgrid—ideally zero voltage
regulation to avoid flow of large current.
2. Power Coordination
Power coordination and economic operation are important operational considerations. The optimal power flow (OPF)
problem aims to solve this in a centralized manner.
3. Frequency Coordination

In traditional power systems the inherent physics of synchronous generators forces exact coupling between
mechanical rotational speed and electrical frequency.

However, most renewable energy resources, including all PVs and most wind turbines, do not have this physical
coupling.

This is because these devices employ power electronic converters that essentially decouple the frequencies of
different parts of the system. As a result, no natural inertia is present in these systems to aid frequency regulation.
Qn. Control architectures of microgrids: Centralised, decentralised and hierarchical control. Local and system level
control functionalities

Centralised:-

1. A centralized control system achieves intelligence from a particular central location, which depends on the
network type, and could be a switch, a server, or a controller. It is easy to operate a centrally controlled
network as it presents increased control to the operator who maintains the entire system.
2. This feature allows the manager to define broad control strategies so as to meet power requirements (see Fig.
1.10). Centralized control is best used for microgrids with the following characteristics:
3. 1. The owners of microsources and loads have common goals and seek cooperation to meet their goals.
4. 2. Small-scale microgrids may be feasible to control with the presence of an operator. Since the primary
control is local and does not have intercommunication with other distributed generation units, to achieve
global controllability of the microgrid, secondary control is often used.
5. A conventional centralized secondary control loop is implemented in an MGCC [38]. Fig. 1.11 shows the
microgrid secondary control architecture consisting of a num of distributed generation units locally controlled
by a primary controller and a secondary controller, which measures from a remote sensing block a number of
parameters to be sent back to the controller by means of a low bandwidth communication system.
6. Hence those variables are compared with the references so they can be compensated by the secondary
controller, which will send the output signal through the communications channel to the primary controller of
each distributed generation unit.
7. The advantage of this architecture is that the communication system is not too busy, since only unidirectional
messages are sent in only one direction (from the remote sensing platform to the MGCC and from the MGCC
to each distributed generation unit).
8. The drawback is that the MGCC is not highly reliable since a failure of this controller is enough to stop the
secondary control action.
 9.

Decentralized Control

1. With reference to Fig. 1.17, the control of the inverter plus filter interfaces is crucial to the operation of the
microgrid. Because of the distributed nature of the system, these interfaces need to be controlled on the basis of
local measurements only. The decentralized control of the individual interfaces should address the following basic
issues:
1. Interfaces should share the total load (linear or nonlinear) in a desired way.
2. Decentralized control based on local measurement should guarantee stability on a global scale.

2.
3. Inverter control should prevent any DC voltage offsets on the microgrid.

4. Inverter control should actively damp oscillations between the output filters. From the viewpoint of decentralized
control, it is convenient to classify distributed generation architectures into three classes:
• In highly dispersed networks the interconnecting impedances are predominantly inductive, and the voltage
magnitude and phase angle at different source interconnects can be very different.
• In networks spread over a smaller area the impedances are still inductive, with a significant resistive component.
The voltage magnitude does not differ much, but the phase angles can be different for different sources.

• In very small networks the impedances are small and predominantly resistive. Neither magnitude nor phase angle
differences are significant at any point.

5. The main common quantity in all cases is the steady-state frequency, which must be the same for all sources.
In grid-connected mode the microgrid frequency is decided by the grid. In islanded mode the frequency is
decided by the microgrid control.
6. In each of these classes, if every source is connected to at most two other sources, as shown in Fig. 1.17A,
then the microgrid is radial; otherwise it is meshed. If there is a line connecting source 1 with source k in Fig.
1.17A, then it is a meshed microgrid. It is worth noting that most of the work done on microgrid decentralized
control has been for radial-microgrid topologies. The decentralized control of interfaces in meshed topologies
is an area that needs further research.

Hierarchical control

1. Functionally, a microgrid can operate by using the following three main hierarchical control levels:
2. • Primary control is the droop control used to share load between converters.
3. • Secondary control is responsible for removing any steady-state error introduced by the droop control.
4. • Tertiary control concerning more global responsibilities decides on the import or export of energy for the
microgrid.
5. Systems of this kind operate over large synchronous machines with high inertias and inductive networks.
However, in power electronics-based microgrids, there are no inertias, and the nature of the networks is
mainly resistive.
6. There are major differences between both systems that we have to take into account when designing their
control schemes. A three-level hierarchical control can be constructed following the method in.
7. The primary control deals with the inner control of the distributed generation units by adding virtual inertias
and controlling their output impedance. The secondary control is conceived to restore the frequency and
amplitude deviations produced by the virtual inertias and output virtual impedance.
8. The tertiary control regulates the power flows between the grid and the microgrid at the point of common
coupling. In what follows we look at the basic elements of consensus-based control that can be possibly
applied to a microgrid. This is an important class type of the cooperative control paradigm.

AC and DC Microgrids;

Microgrids are classified into DC microgrid, AC microgrid, and AC/DC hybrid microgrid.

1. DC microgrid

-As shown in Figure 2.11, in a DC microgrid, DG, ES, and DC load are connected to a DC bus via a converter and the
DC bus is connected to AC loads via an inverter to power both DC and AC loads.
-The advantages of the DC microgrid are as follows:
1. As DG control solely depends on DC voltage, it is easier to realize coordinated operation of the DGs.
2. DG and load fluctuations are compensated by ES on the DC side.
3. Compared with an AC microgrid, a DC microgrid is easier to control, does not involve synchronization among
DGs, and thus is easier to suppress circulating current.
-The disadvantage of the DC microgrid is that inverters are required for the power supply to AC loads.

2. AC Microgrid

1. An AC microgrid connects to the distribution network via an AC bus, and the AC bus controls the microgrid’s
connection to and disconnection from the distribution network through the circuit breaker at the PCC.
2. Figure 2.12 shows the structure of an AC microgrid, in which DG and ES are connected to the AC bus via
inverter.
3. The AC microgrid is a dominant type of microgrid, and the major topic of this book in the following chapters.
4. The advantage of the AC microgrid is that as the microgrid is connected to the grid through an AC bus, no
inverter is required for power supply to AC loads.
5. The disadvantage is that control and operation are difficult.
Chpt 3
Qn. Why anti islanding schemes:
1. The utility cannot control voltage and frequency in the island, creating the possibility of damage to
customer equipment in a situation over which the utility has no control.
2. Utilities, along with the PV distributed resource owner, can be found liable lin es that results from
voltage or frequency excursions outside of the acceptable ranges.
3. Islanding may create a hazard for utility line-workers or the public by causing a line to remain
energized that is assumed to be disconnected from all energy sources.
4. Re-closing into an island may result in re-tripping the line or damaging the distributed resource
equipment, or other connected equipment, because of out of - phase closure.
5. Islanding may interfere with the manual or automatic restoration of normal service by the utility.

Qn. Grid Synchronisation Methods

PLL( Phase locked loop )

1. The main role of PLL is to generate a signal which has the phase angle that is tracking the input signal
of the system.
2. The single phase PLL has the basic principal of PLL which is calculating the phase difference between
the input and output signal and drive this difference to zero by means of a control loop.
3. The structure for pPLL is illustrated in Fig.
4. The only drawback of pPLL is the second harmonic injection to the system. This could be solved by a
tradeoff between the speed response of the system and it being disturbance free in the filter loop
block
BLACK START
1. Black start is the ability of generation to restart parts of the power system to recover from a blackout.
This entails isolated power stations being started individually and gradually re connected to one
another to form an interconnected system again.
2. It is used when the grid experiences a blackout and must be restarted from scratch. As such, black
start is a critical resource for maintaining the reliability and resilience of the electric power system
and is central to system restoration and recovery plans for system operators.
3. In large power grids, black-start service comes from generators that can be started from an on-site
auxiliary generator—without help from external power supplies.
4. For example, a diesel generator may be started with a local battery. This is used to create an AC
voltage waveform that other generation can synchronize to and start to generate additional power.
5. Microgrids can provide local reliability and resilience through local generation. Microgrids insulate
local customers from the effects of outages on the larger grid and can be used to start a system from
the bottom up.
6. Microgrids that are connected to one another and the larger grid need to be able to switch to
“island” mode seamlessly to insulate themselves during widespread disruptions such as blackouts
and cyberattacks. As more distributed energy resources, energy storage, and microgrids are deployed
in power systems, options for expanding system restoration beyond large -scale generation need to
be considered.
7. These assets will need black-start resource testing to ensure they can energize equipment to restore
the system as intended in restoration plans.
8. NREL is also investigating how inverter-based resources can be used to start power grids. These
inverters need to operate in a grid-forming mode that enables them to provide a reference AC
waveform.
Modes of operation:-

1. Voltage control

1. Islanding of microgrid happens because of unplanned occasions the microgrid profile should need
a few alterations in order to lessen the imbalance between local load and generation and to
diminish the disconnection transient.
2. The current compensation is given to control the voltage regulation.
3. Once islanding occurs, both voltage and frequency deviate from the standard allowable levels.
4. Thus, keeping up both active power and voltage constant throughout standalone functioning of
the DG is not possible. Therefore, the control algorithm wants to be modified to account for the
new system configuration.
5. In the islanding mode, the DG control has been changed to operate as a voltage controlled VSI
as shown in Fig . For this situation, the frequency of the modulating signal is set settled at 60 Hz
and there's no frequency feedback as within the case of normal operation.
 6. The voltage at the PCC is measured and compared with the set value. The error is passed to a PI
controller to decide the modulation index value.
7. Three sinusoidal waveforms shifted by 120 degrees are created utilizing the modulation index
and are compared with a high frequency triangular waveform to confirm the on-off signals of the
inverter switches

2. Current Control:
1. Current control Control of the grid side electrical converter utilizes current control loop to direct
the grid current. The active and reactive components of the current introduced into the grid are
controlled using pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques in the current controlled VSI.
2. A current controller is less sensitive to voltage phase shifts and to distortion in the grid voltage.
Also, it is faster in response. On the other hand, the voltage control is sensitive to small phase
errors and massive harmonic currents might occur if the grid voltage is distorted.
3. Consequently, the current control is usually recommended within the control of grid connected
inverter.
4. The main feature of the current control is that it's inborn capacity to restrict the converter output
current amid a microgrid fault and in this way gives overcurrent protection to the converter and
reduces the fault current contribution of the unit.
5. The current control is most typical strategy utilized for the grid connected mode to control the
output voltage and frequency inside the points of confinement.
6. The voltage waveform for the PWM of the VSI will be acquired from the current controlled
strategy and can be synchronized with the grid frequency. For grid-connected operation, the
controller is designed to produce a constant current output.
7. A phase locked loop (PLL) is utilized to decide the frequency and angle reference of the PCC. An
necessary aspect to consider in gridconnected operation is synchronization with the grid voltage.
8. It is essential that the grid current reference signal is in phase with the grid voltage for unity
power factor operation. This grid synchronization can be carried out by utilizing a PLL.
Protection:-
Role of energy storage in Microgrid:
1. Modern storage systems are unique in that they are very fast responding resources that can both generate
and absorb power and, in some cases, regulate real and reactive power quality in an electric distribution
system.
2. These capabilities allow storage to serve a variety of roles within a microgrid for instances where customers
have a need for uninterrupted islanding, have no on-site generation, or need to supplement the on-site
generation that exists in their distribution system.
3. Let’s look at the role storage plays in two distinctly different operation phases of a microgrid: while making
the transition from grid-tied to islanded operation; and during continued islanded operation.
4. Effectively making the transition to island operation requires a great deal of coordination and very fast
control action – on the scale of milliseconds. During this time, the high power and fast response capabilities
of commercially proven battery systems (e.g. lithium-ion) can be used to provide effectively instant power
 to the microgrid for a limited duration of time to bridge an outage period until on-site generation can serve
the majority of load for during a prolonged utility disturbance.
5. If no backup generation exists, the microgrid would only be sustained until the storage cap acity is
exhausted, typically fifteen minutes to a few hours. During a transition from utility supply to an
independent island, some storage inverters have the ability to regulate voltage and frequency within the
islanded system, maintaining power quality of the islanded electric system.
6. This function is typically satisfied by the utility grid when healthy, or spinning generation when available,
but can be achieved with storage if the system is designed appropriately.
7. Once the transition to islanded operation is complete, the role of the storage system shifts from an
immediate short duration response to maximizing the longevity of the microgrid’s operating duration. The
ability of the storage system to charge and discharge creates a dispatchable resource tha t can follow
commands from a microgrid control system to contribute additional generation, or balance supply of on -
site generation with electric demand.
8. Again, since today’s commercially available storage systems can usually be sized to provide rated power
for up to four hours, the storage system’s ability to continuously support the microgrid is finite unless re-
charged by on-site generation. Storage without generation therefore poses a risk to continuity of critical
power supply for very long durations.

P-Q control Of microgrid:-

1. Figure 1 shows the circuit diagram and the corresponding P-Q control scheme for a three-phase grid-
connected inverter in a microgrid
2. Here, Vdc is the DC voltage provided by a distribution generation unit, Cd and Cf are the capacitance of the DC
side and the LC filter, respectively, Lf represents the equivalent inductance of the LC filter, and Rf is the
equivalent resistance of the LC filter.
3. The P-Q control scheme consists of the following key operations: the grid-side voltage, a current and phase
detector, an inverter-side voltage and current detector, active and reactive power calculation, an active power
PI controller, a reactive power PI controller, a current PI controller, abc/dq and dq/abc transformations, and
space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM)
4. Pref and Qref are the reference values of active and reactive powers, respectively; idr and iqr1 are the output
values of the active and reactive PI controllers, respectively; Kp1 and Ki1 are the proportional and integral
parameters of the active PI controller, respectively; Kp2 and Ki2 are the proportional and integral parameters
of reactive PI controller, respectively.
5. As the interface between the microgrid and macrogrid, the basic function of inverters is to control the active
and reactive output. In P/Q control, the inverters can produce active power and reactive power, and the
determination of reference power is the prerequisite for power control.
6. For purpose of power control, the DGs with a mediate or small capacity can be integrated to the grid with a
constant power, the grid provides rigid support for voltage and frequency, and the DGs do not participate in
frequency and voltage regulation and just inject or absorb power.
7. This can avoid direct participation of DG in the regulation of feeder voltage, thus eliminating adverse impacts
on the electric power system. P/Q control is based on the grid voltage oriented P/Q decoupled control
strategy, in which the outer loop adopts power control and the inner loop adopts current control. The
mathematical model is like this: the three-phase voltage is first rotated to the dq coordinate through Park
transformation to get the following inverter voltage equation:

8.
9. The PI controller is usually used for outer-loop power control. Its mathematical model is expressed as follows:

10. If the grid voltage u is constant, the active output of the inverter is proportional to d-axis current id and the
reactive output proportional to q-axis current iq, respectively.
11. Then, by adding compensation terms, the effects of grid voltage and d–q cross-coupling can be eliminated and
current decoupling control can be achieved. The inverter control wave can be obtained by reverse Park
transformation of d-axis and q-axis voltages, and then the three-phase voltage output of the inverter can be
derived by sinusoidal pulse width modulation.