CHAPTER 4 - Social Perception and Managing Diversity

Perception: A cognitive process that enables us to interpret and understand our environment → affect
actions and decisions; based on (1) perceiver (2) target (3) situation
Johari’s Window: enhance the individual's perception on self and others; invented by John + Harris.
Open Area = Public Self, Hidden Area/Facade = Private Self
- Disclosure: What others don't know about me, but I know → others know about me
- Feedback: What I don't know about myself, but others do → I know about myself

Social Information Processing Model: SESR

1. Selective Attention/Comprehension: Takes competing stimuli and interprets it

a. Cognitive miser theory: tendency of humans to think and solve problems in simpler and
less effortful ways rather than in more sophisticated and effortful ways, regardless of
intelligence (i.e. use mental shortcuts in making judgments and drawing inferences)
b. Attention: being consciously aware of something for someone
c. Selective attention: People pay attention to salient stimuli
d. Salient: bulge, something that stands out from context
2. Encoding and Simplification: Assign raw information into cognitive categories built on a schema:
“Mental picture/summary of something or type of something”
a. Scum: stereotyping and can be culturally different. i.e. you can grouping based on
characteristics upon which you have a mindset/perspectives that you can
3. Storage and Retention: long-term memory separated into 3 compartments
 a. Event memory: information about both specific events (relying on unique details) and
general events (relying on schemata)
b. Semantic memory: general knowledge about the world stored as schemata (subject to
cultural differences), mental dictionary of concepts; includes a definition (e.g., a good
leader) and associated traits (outgoing), emotional states (happy), physical
characteristics (tall), and behaviors (works hard)
c. Person memory: information about a single individual (your professor) or groups of
people (professors)
i. More likely to remember information about a person, an event, or an
advertisement if it contains characteristics that are similar to something stored
in the compartments of memory
4. Retrieval and Response: Decisions are based: (1) On the process of drawing on, interpreting, and
integrating categorical information stored in long-term memory (2) Retrieving a summary
judgment that was already made
a. EX. Hiring - Interviewers make hiring decisions based on their impression of how an
applicant fits the perceived job requirements (implicit cognition → poor hiring decisions)
b. EX. Performance Appraisal - Important for managers to accurately identify the behavioral
characteristics and results indicative of good performance
c. EX. Leadership - Schemata of good leaders impacts employee’s evaluations → good
leaders exhibit the following behaviors: telling others they have done well, setting
specific goals + tasks + standards for group, encouraging group decision making
i. bad leaders tell about poor performance, insist on having their own way and do
things without explaining themselves

4.2 Stereotyping
● Stereotypes: an individual's set of beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of a group. They
apply to whole groups, whereas person schemas apply to individual people → can lead to poor
decisions and create barriers
● Stereotyping process (CIEM): Categorization (based on criterias) → Inferences (about ppl in
same category) → Expectations/Application of Inferences (interpret behaviors about others) →
Maintenance (overestimating frequency of stereotypic behavior, incorrectly explaining expected
and unexpected behaviors, Differentiating minority individuals from ourselves)
● Managerial Impact - Managing stereotyping:
○ Educate people about stereotypes and how they influence behavior and decision making
+ Encourage all employees to increase their awareness.
○ Create opportunities for diverse employees to meet and work with others.

Common Perceptual Errors

Halo: A rater forms an overall positive impression about an object and uses the impression to bias
ratings about object (EX. Rich/attractive positive characteristics pollute rest of ratings about someone)
Horn: Negative factor influences all other (including positive) factors; opposite of Halo (EX. drug user)
Leniency: personal characteristic that leads an individual to consistently evaluate other people or objects
in an extremely positive fashion
Central Tendency: tendency to avoid all extreme judgments and rate people and objects as average or
neutral (exacerbated by uncertainty)
Contrast Effects: Tendency to evaluate people/objects by comparing them with characteristics of
recently observed people or objects (EX. average height person standing next to a short person, KPOP
idols)
Recency Effects: tendency to remember recent info more clearly. (EX. Presidential election in class, EX. If
the recent information is negative, the person or object is evaluated negatively)
Primacy Effects: The tendency to remember the first information. If the first impression is negative, the
person or object is evaluated negatively.

4.3 Causal Attributions

Attribution theory: people infer causes for observed behavior (by Heider)
Naive scientist assumption: people are curious as to the causes of certain outcomes
Causal Attributions: suspects or inferred causes of behavior of others (attribution theory); influences our
future behavior, but NOTE that we do not know the real causes
● EX. Fails to meet minimum standards → Lack of effort or Lack of ability
Behavior: function of P and S
Internal factors (P): personal characteristics (personality, effort, attitude, ability) causing behavior
External behavior (S): environmental/situational characteristics (situation, luck, difficulty of task) that
cause behavior
● EX. Our presidential electiomn. internal = team is bad, so members leave to attempt to fix it;
external = condition of audience at the time
● EX. Mr. Kim’s absence. Internal = Kim = laziness, inattentive; External = traffic, accident, etc.
Kelley’s Model of Attribution (CDC): three dimensions of behavior that influence our attribtion
1. Consensus; compare individual behavior with that of his peers (i.e. what do others do in the
same situation)
a. Few people are absent: low consensus = internal
b. A lot of people are absent: high consensus = external
2. Distinctiveness: compare a person’s behavior on one task with the behavior from other tasks (i.e.
what about his behavior in other contexts?)
a. Kim is always late for other classes as well: low distinctiveness = internal = lazy boy
b. Kim is always punctual for finance: high distinctness = external
3. Consistency: judge if the individuals performance on a given task is consistent over time
a. Always late for class: high consistency = internal
b. Never late for less: low consistency = external

Attributional Tendencies: distort one’s interpretation of observed behavior

Fundamental attribution bias: ignoring environment (situational) factors (because they are invisible) that
affect behavior
EX. Movie, behave based on the scenario such as acting in a romance (they don’t love you, they
just fall in love because of the situation
Self-serving bias: taking more personal responsibility for success than failure (to protect self esteem)
Actor-observer bias: From whose perspective, your attribution will be different (ex. As observer →
fundamental attribution bias, as actor → internal and external factors)
Managerial Impact - Application of attributional tendencies:
● Managerial fundamental attribution bias: Managerial tendency to attribute behavior to internal
causes may lead managers to take inappropriate actions.
● Impact of self attribution on performance: An employee’s attributions for own performance have
dramatic effects on subsequent motivation, performance, and personal attitudes.
● Performance appraisal: process of attribution to identify who contribute the most.
● Some people take advantage of the mechanism of attribution such as consensus, consistency
and distinctiveness.

4.4 Defining and Managing Diversity

Diversity: multitude of individual differences and similarities that exist among people
Four layers of diversity: distinguish the important ways in which people differ
1. Personality: a stable set of characteristics responsible for a person’s identity
2. Surface-level/internal dimension: quickly apparent to interactants (race, gender, and age),
unchangeable
Deep-level: take time to emerge in interactions, such as attitudes, opinions, and values
3. External influences: can be controlled/influenced (EX. your religious affiliation, whether you are
married and have children, and your work experiences)
4. Organizational dimensions: seniority, job title and function, and work location
Demographic Trends in Diversity:
● Glass ceiling: invisible barrier blocking women and minorities from top management positions
● Racial groups are encountering perceived discrimination
● Mismatch between educational attainment and occupational requirements
● The workforce is aging: (1) Firms should help employees deal with personal issues associated
with eldercare (2) Employers need to make a concerted effort to keep older workers engaged
and committed and their skills current
4.6 Barriers in Managing Diversity: enables people to perform up to their maximum potential
● Inaccurate stereotypes and prejudice
● Ethnocentrism (EX. Americans = technological advancement, industrialization, wealth)
● Poor career planning
● A negative diversity climate
● An unsupportive and hostile working environment for diverse employees
● Lack of political savvy on the part of diverse employees
● Difficulty in balancing career and family issues
● Fears of reverse discrimination
● Diversity is not seen as an organizational priority
● The need to revamp the organization’s performance appraisal and reward system
● Resistance to change
8 Approaches in Managing Diversity: Only fostering mutual adaptation endorses the philosophy behind
managing diversity (education, enforcement, and exposure)
● Include or exclude: outgrowth of affirmative-action programs to increase or decrease the
number of diverse people at all levels of the organization.
● Deny: Denial may manifest itself in proclamations that all decisions are color-, gender-, and
age-blind and that success is solely determined by merit and performance (no differences exist)
 ● Assimilate: all diverse people will learn to fit in or become like the dominant group. It only takes
time and reinforcement for people to see the light (homogeneity) → training
● Suppress (status quo): Differences are squelched or discouraged by telling or reinforcing others
to quit whining and complaining about issues (i.e. you’ve got to pay your dues)
● Isolate (status quo): setting the diverse person off to the side (silos) making them unable to
influence organizational change
● Tolerate: Allows for the inclusion of diverse people but differences are not really valued or
accepted (i.e. live-and-let-live approach)
● Build relationships: addresses diversity by fostering quality relationships (to overcome
differences) —characterized by acceptance and understanding—among diverse groups.
● Foster mutual adaptation: people are willing to adapt or change their views for the sake of
creating positive relationships with others (EX. diversity training) → employees and
management alike must be willing to accept differences, and, most important, agree that
everyone and everything is open for change

CHAPTER 5 - Individual Differences: Self-Concept, Personality, Emotions

Self: core of one’s conscious existence (expression through attitudes, abilities and emotions)
Cognitions: a person's knowledge, opinions or beliefs
Self-concept: a person’s self-perception as a physical, social, spiritual being.
● Self-esteem: belief about one’s own self worth based on an overall self-evaluation
○ High self esteem ------- high performance
○ Low self esteem---------high unethical behavior
● Self-efficacy: a person's believer about his chances of successfully accomplishing a specific task
○ Learned Helplessness: debilitating lack of faith in one’s ability to control the situation
(EX. Repeated failure)
○ Managerial Implication - Self Efficacy Beliefs Pave the Way for Success or Failure: positive
correlation between self-efficacy and job performance → should nurture self-efficacy

● Self-monitoring: extent to which a person observes their own self-expressive behavior and
adapts it to the situation
○ Positive relationship between high self-monitoring and career success
Personality: stable and mental characteristics responsible for a person’s identity
Nature vs nurture controversy: (50:50---- 80:20): heredity from gene (education may be useless) VS.
training and development (education determine patterns of behavior)
Big Five Personality Dimensions: Conscientiousness = success for job and training performance;
Extraversion = success for managers and salespeople
Internal locus of control: attributing outcomes to one’s own actions
External locus of control: believing performance is the product of circumstances beyond one’s immediate
control
Nature/Components of Attitudes (ABC):
Attitude: learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with
respect to a given object
Affective: feelings or emotions one has about an object or situations (EX. favorable)
EX. Hatred → Killing whoever
Cognitive: beliefs or ideas one has about an object or situation (EX. well evaluative)
EX. Subjective norm: Not a good norm to kill people (VS. mafia not dorm)
Behavioral: how one intends to act or behave toward someone or something (EX. like to buy)
EX. Cannot possibly go and kill him (VS. mafia gives access to guns)
Cognitive Dissonance: discomfort a person experiences what their attitudes/beliefs are incompatible
with their behavior (EX. Smoking, discomfort from inconsistency → quit smoking or change attitude)
● Attitude = behavior → consistent, comfort VS. Attitude =/= behavior → inconsistent, discomfort
● To change Cognitive DIssonance
(1) Change attitude/behavior
(2) Belittle the importance (subjective norm) of the inconsistent behavior (EX. help friends)
(3) Find constant elements that outweigh the dissonant ones
Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior

Intelligence: capacity for constructive thinking, reasoning, problem solving; high intelligence = high
performance (7 types)
Types of Abilities: (1) General mental ability needed for all cognitive tasks (2) Unique to the task at hand
Emotions: complex human reactions to personal achievements and setbacks that may be felt and
displayed

Emotional intelligence: ability to manage oneself one’s relationships in mature and constructure ways
- SELF awareness (i.e. reading and understanding own) and management (i.e. emotional burst)
- SOCIAL (other) awareness (i.e. empathy) and management (i.e. relationship management)
Emotional Labor: Job ask you to present certain emotion; displayed =/ felt (real) emotion
- EX. Funeral service industry - sad emotion, Shopping center - happy emotion

CHAPTER 6 - Motivation I: Needs, Job Design and Satisfaction

Motivation (DIP): psychological processes that arouse and direct goal-directed behavior
● Direction: what kind of behavior/goal (EX. Arousal)
● Intensity: how hard/intense are you doing the behavior
● Persistence: how long (endurance)
Types of motivation theories: content (what drives behavior) vs. process (how it drives behavior)
Content theory: what drives the behavior (need theories)
1. Need theory: about Physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior.
○ Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: fulfillment progress model of 5 basic needs
■ Humans need to emerge in a predictable stair-step fashion
■ Managerial Implication – a satisfied need may lose its motivational potential

○ Alderfer ERG: Existence (physiological, safety needs), Relatedness (love), Growth

(esteem, self actualization)
■ Two way direction → Fulfillment progress & Frustration regression process
○ McClelland’s Need Theory: everyone has main motivators for needs learned over time
■ Need for achievement: Desire to accomplish something difficult → high
performance
■ Need for affiliation: Desire to spend time in social relationships and activities.
■ Need for power: Desire to Influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to
achieve → emergence of leader
■ achievement-motivated people share 3 common characteristics
● Preference for working on tasks with moderate difficult
● Preference for situations in which performance is due to their efforts
● Desire more feedback on their successes and failures
○ Self-determination theory: three innate needs influence our behavior and
well-being—competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
2. Herzberg’s two factor theory (Motivator-Hygiene Model): Satisfaction (work content of the task
being performed) vs dissatisfaction (work context or environment)
3. Hackman and Oldman’s Job characteristics model: five core job dimensions affect certain
personal and work related outcomes, including job satisfaction.
○ Job characteristics → Critical Psychological State (Meaningfulness, Responsibility,
Knowledge) → Outcomes
○ Moderator: that affect or moderate how individuals respond to job enrichment:
■ Knowledge and Skill (Many)
■ Growth needs (Strong)
■ Working condition (Good)

○ Managerial Implications
■ Diagnoze work environment to determine level of employee motivation and job
satisfaction
■ Determine whether job redesign is appropriate for a given group of employees
■ Determine how to best redesign the job
4. Deci’s Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation: Intrinsic (within yourself, task = reward) vs. Extrinsic
(salary, reward outside, some contingency that depends on task performance)
○ Sense of meaningfulness: task purpose is important and meaningful
○ Sense of choice: ability to use judgment and freedom when completing tasks
○ Sense of competence: feelings of accomplishment associated with doing high-quality
work
○ Sense of progress: feeling that one is accomplishing something important
 ○ NOTE Extrinsic Reward may decrease intrinsic motivation

CCMP
○ Managerial Implications
■ Foster a sense of meaningfulness by inspiring their employees and modeling
desired behaviors
■ Can lead for choice by empowering employees and delegating meaningful
assignments and tasks
■ Enhance a sense of competence by supporting and coaching their employees
■ Increase employees’ sense of progress by monitoring and rewarding them

Mechanistics VS. Motivational VS. Biological

Job Design Approach: changing the content and/or process of a specific job to increase job satisfaction
and performance
Mechanistic Approach (DSSS): Targets efficiency, flexibility, employee productivity → Simplified,
repetitive jobs lead to high productivity but high job dissatisfaction; Division of work (not one master
does everything, factory workers)
● Simplification: slice task into piece by piece
● Standardization: manual
● Specialization: do the same job over again so he can be skillful)
● Taylor = Father of Modern Management
Motivational Approaches: Based on Job characteristics model
● Job enlargement: putting more variety into a job, horizontal loading, # of tasks increases
● Job enrichment: vertical loading, building achievement, recognition, stimulating work,
responsibility, and advancement into a job (EX. Hawthorn factory experiment)
○ Treat employees as human with hearts (not tool or robot)
○ Focus on psychological, motivational elements → reduce dissatisfaction + increase
productivity
● Job rotation: moving employees from one specialized job to another, increased worker flexibility
and easier scheduling
Biological and Perceptual - Motor Approaches: Focus on designing the world environment to reduce
employees’ physical strain, fatigue, and health complaints
- Based on research from biomechanics, work physiology, and ergonomics
Job satisfaction: an affective or emotional response to one’s job;
● causes include
 1. Need fulfillment: extent to which the characteristics of a job allow an individual to fulfill
his or her needs
2. Discrepancies: satisfaction is a result of met expectations
3. Value attainment: Extent to which a job allows fulfillment of one’s work values
4. Equity: satisfaction, how fairly an individual is treated at work
5. Dispositional/genetic component: satisfaction is partly a function of both personal traits
and genetic factors
● Correlates of job satisfaction:
○ Organizational commitment: extent to which an individual identifies with an
organization and is committed to its goals
○ Organizational citizenship behavior: employee behaviors that exceed work-role
requirements
○ Withdrawal cognitions: overall thoughts and feelings about quitting a job

CHAPTER 7 - Motivation II: Equity, Expectancy, and Goal Setting

Process theory: how

Adam’s Equity Theory: motivation is a function of fairness in social exchanges (people strive for fairness
and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships) ← cognitive dissonance theory
● Ratio between your ratio (of outputs to inputs) to others (Output/input = Output/input)
● Negative inequity (under rewarded): another person receives greater outcomes for similar inputs
(More motivation)
● Positive inequity (over rewarded): Comparison in which another person receives lesser
outcomes for similar inputs.
● Equity sensitivity: An individual’s tolerance for negative and positive equity
● Benevolents: people who have a higher tolerance for negative inequity prefer their
outcome/input ratio to be lower than ratios from comparison others
● Sensitives: adhere to a strict norm of reciprocity and are quickly motivated to resolve
both negative and positive inequity
 ● Entitleds: no tolerance for negative inequity; expect to obtain greater output/input
ratios than comparison others and become upset when this is not the case.
● Managerial Implication: need to pay attention to employees’ perceptions of fair/equitable (job
performance).
○ Employees are more likely to accept and support organizational change when they
believe it is implemented fairly and when it produces equitable outcomes.
○ Can promote cooperation and teamwork among group members by treating them
equitably.
○ Treating employees inequitably can lead to litigation and costly court settlements.
○ Employees’ perceptions of justice ← leadership behavior exhibited by their managers
○ Managers should pay attention to the organization’s climate for justice
■ Managers benefit by allowing employees to participate in making decisions
■ Employees should get opportunity to appeal decisions that affect their welfare.
Individual-Organization Exchange Relationship: contract between employee’s inputs and a just return
● In: education/training, skills, creativity, seniority, age, personality traits, effort expended, and
personal appearance (Output/input me >=< output/input others)
● Out: pay/bonuses, fringe benefits, challenging assignments, job security, promotions, status
symbols, recognition, and participation in important decisions.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (cognitive theory): Motivation = decision of how much effort to exert in a
specific task situation.
● Effort → performance metric → outcomes (rewards)
● Expectancy (E→P probability)* instrumentality (P→O perception) * valence (value of outcome)
○ if one element becomes 0, all becomes 0
● EX. work hard -> 100% on exam -> dad buys you an ipad
● Managerial Implications: (1) advised to enhance effort/performance expectancies by helping
employees accomplish their performance goals (2) influence employees’ instrumentalities (3)
monitor valances for various rewards.
○ Performance Prereqs: Managers need to develop (1) and communicate performance
standards to employees (2) valid and accurate performance ratings to compare
employees (3) determine the relative mix of individual versus team contribution to
performance and then reward accordingly (3) use the performance ratings to
differentially allocate rewards among employees
○ Some workers value interesting work and recognition more than money
○ Extrinsic reward vs intrinsic motivation: Extrinsic rewards can lose their motivating
properties over time + can decrease intrinsic motivation
 ● Factors that influence expectancy
○ Self-esteem
○ Self-efficacy
○ Previous success at the task
○ Help received from others
○ Information necessary to complete the task
○ Good materials and equipment to work with
Organizational justice: extent to which people perceive that they are treated fairly at work; 3 parts
1. Distributive justice: perceived fairness of decisions/outcomes (Equity, equality)
2. Procedural justice: perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make
decisions/outcomes
3. Interactional justice: Extent to which people feel fairly treated when procedures are
implemented by those in making decisions
Locke’s goal setting theory: (Urgent VS. Important): people are motivated by specific, challenging goals
that are difficult but attainable. When people set and achieve goals, they experience a sense of
accomplishment and satisfaction that motivates them to continue striving for success. (Clarity, Challenge,
Commitment, Feedback, Complexity)
● Goals direct attention
● Goals regulate effort
● Goals increase persistence
● Goals foster the development and application of task strategies and action plans
Goal: What an individual is trying to accomplish
Management by objectives (MBO): Management system incorporating participation in decision making,
goal setting and feedback; gauge performance against a series of set targets or goals
Goal Setting: (1) Set goals (2) Promote goal commitment (3) Provide support
and feedback (SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result Oriented, Time bound)
 ●
Managerial Implications - Insights from Goal-Setting Research
● Difficult goals = higher performance
● Specific, difficult goals = higher performance for simple rather complex tasks
○ Goal specificity - quality mobility of goal
● Feedback enhances the effect of specific, difficult goals
● Participative goals, assigned goals, and self-set goals are equally effective
● Goal commitment and monetary incentives affect goal-setting outcomes
○ Goal commitment: extent to which individual is personally committed to achieving a goal