JAYA SAKTHI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai.)

Department of BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
II Year - IV Semester
ANNAUNIVERSITY, CHENNAI AFFILIATED INSTITUTIONS
Regulation-2021
MINIMUM LEARNING MATERIAL

COURSE
S.No COURSE TITLE
CODE L T P C

THEORY

1. MA3355 RANDOM PROCESSES AND LINEAR ALGEBRA 3 1 0 4

2. BM3491 BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION 3 0 0 3

ANALOG AND DIGITAL INTEGRATED

3. BM3402 3 0 0 3
CIRCUITS

4. BM3451 BIOCONTROL SYSTEM 3 0 0 3

5. BM3401 SIGNAL PROCESSING 3 0 2 4

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND

6. GE3451 3 0 0 3
SUSTAINABILITY

1
 SEMESTER IV COURSES

CONTENTS
Subject Total Page
S.No Subject Title L T P C
Code Hours No.

1. MA3355 RANDOM 3 1 0 4 45 3-41

PROCESSES AND LINEAR ALGEBRA

BM3491 BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

2. 3 0 0 3 45 42-64

ANALOG AND DIGITAL

3. BM3402 3 0 0 3 45 65-99
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
100-
4. BM3451 BIOCONTROL SYSTEM 3 0 0 3 45
129
130-
5. BM3401 SIGNAL PROCESSING 3 0 2 4 45
179
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND 180-
6. GE3451 3 0 0 3 45
SUSTAINABILITY 193

2
 SYLLABUS

MA3355 RANDOM PROCESSES AND LINEAR ALGEBRA LTPC 3104

UNIT - I PROBABILITY AND RANDOM VARIABLES 9 + 3

Axioms of probability – Conditional probability – Baye’s theorem - Discrete and continuous random variables –
Moments – Moment generating functions – Binomial, Poisson, Geometric, Uniform, Exponential and Normal
distributions - Functions of a random variable.

UNIT - II TWO - DIMENSIONAL RANDOM VARIABLES 9 + 3

Joint distributions – Marginal and conditional distributions – Covariance – Correlation and linear regression –
Transformation of random variables – Central limit theorem (for independent and identically distributed random
variables).

UNIT – III RANDOM PROCESSES 9+3

Classification – Stationary process – Markov process - Poisson process - Discrete parameter Markov chain –
Chapman Kolmogorov equations (Statement only) - Limiting distributions .

UNIT - IV VECTOR SPACES 9 + 3

Vector spaces – Subspaces – Linear combinations and linear system of equations – Linear independence and
linear dependence – Bases and dimensions.

UNIT - V LINEAR TRANSFORMATION AND INNER PRODUCT SPACES 9 + 3

Linear transformation - Null spaces and ranges - Dimension theorem - Matrix representation of a linear
transformations - Inner product - Norms - Gram Schmidt orthogonalization process - Adjoint of linear
operations - Least square approximation.

TEXTBOOKS :

1. Gross, D., Shortle, J.F, Thompson, J.M and Harris. C.M., “Fundamentals of Queueing Theory", Wiley
Student 4th Edition, 2014.
2. Ibe, O.C., “Fundamentals of Applied Probability and Random Processes", Elsevier,1st Indian Reprint,
2007.
3. Friedberg. A.H., Insel. A.J. and Spence. L., “Linear Algebra”, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi, 4th Edition, 2004.

REFERENCE BOOKS :

1. Hsu, "Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of Probability, Random Variables and
Random Processes", Tata McGraw Hill Edition, New Delhi, 2004.
2. Trivedi, K.S., "Probability and Statistics with Reliability, Queueing and Computer Science Applications",
2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2002.
3. Yates, R.D. and Goodman. D. J., "Probability and Stochastic Processes", 2nd Edition, Wiley India Pvt.
Ltd., Bangalore, 2012.
4. Kolman. B. Hill. D.R., “Introductory Linear Algebra”, Pearson Education, New Delhi, First
Reprint, 2009.
5. Kumaresan. S., “Linear Algebra – A Geometric Approach”, Prentice – Hall of India, New Delhi, Reprint,
2010.
6. Strang. G., “Linear Algebra and its applications”, Thomson (Brooks/Cole), New Delhi, 2005.

3
 MA3355-RANDOM PROCESS AND LINEAR ALGEBRA
UNIT I

PROBABILITY AND RANDOM VARIABLE

PART – A
1. A RV X has the following probability distribution

x -2 -1 0 1 2 3
P(x) 0.1 k 0.2 2k 0.3 3k

Find the value of k and mean of X.

Solution:
n
We Know that  p(x )  1
i 1
i

0.1  k  0.2  2k  0.3  3k  1

 6k  0.6  1  6k  1 0.6
0.4 1
 6k  0.4  k  
6 15
Mean  E (X)   xi p(x i )
1  1  1  16
 (2)0.1  (1)    0  1 2    2(0.3)  3  3   
 15   15   15  15

2. If the RV X takes values 1, 2, 3 & 4 such that 2 P(X  1)  3P( X  2)  P( X  3)  5P( X  4) find the
probability distribution of X.
Solution:
Assume P(X=3) = α by the given equation
  
P( X  1)  , P( X  2)  & P( X  4) 
2 3 5
n
WKT  p(x )  1
i 1
i

  
   
1
2 3 5
61
  1
30
30
 
61
15 10 30 6
 P( X  1)  ; P( X  2)  ; P( X  3)  ; P( X  4) 
61 61 61 61

The probability distribution is given by

X 1 2 3 4
15 10 30 6
p( x)
61 61 61 61
3. A random variable X has the following probability function.

Values of X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

4
 Probability p(x) a 3a 5a 7a 9a 11a 13a 15a 17a

Determine the value of ‘a’.

Solution:
n
WKT  p(x )  1
i 1
i

 a  3a  5a  7a  9a  11a  13a  15a  17a  1

1
 81a  1  a 
81
4. A random variable X has the following probability function

X 0 1 2 3 4
P(x) K 3k 5k 7k 9k

Find the value of k.

Solution:
n
WKT  p(x )  1
i 1
i

k  3k  5k  7k  9k  1
1
25k  1  k 
25
 x2
 , 1  x  2
5. Show that the function f (x)   3 is PDF.
0
 ow
Solution:
 2
1  x2 
2
x2 1


f (x) dx   dx     (8  1)  1
1
3 3  3  1 9
6. If X is a continuous random variable whose probability density function is given by
c(4 x  2 x 2 ), 0  x  2
f (x)   what is the value of ‘c’?
0 , ow
Solution:

WKT 

f (x) dx  1
2 2

 c(4 x  2 x ) dx  1  2c  (2 x  x 2 )dx  1
2

0 0
2
 2x2
x  3
 8
2c     1  2c  4    1
 2 3 0  3
4 3
2c    1  c 
3 8
7. A continuous random variable X has a pdf f (x)  k, 0  x  1 . Find ‘k’.
Solution:

WKT 

f (x) dx  1

5
 1

 k dx 1  k  x
1
0
 1  k (1  0)  1  k  1
0

1
 , x 2
8. If a random variable X has the pdf f (x)   4 . Find P (X  1)
0 , ow
Solution:
1 1
 , x 2  , 2 x  2
Given f (x)   4  f (x)   4
0 , ow 0 , ow
1 1
1 1 1 1 3
 P(X  1)   f (x) dx   4 dx   x 2  1  2 
 2
4 4 4
2 x , 0  x  1  1
9. A random variable X has the pdf f (x)   find P  X  
0 , ow  2
Solution:
1
 x2  2  1  1
12
 1
P  X     2 x dx  2      0  
 2 0  2 0  4  4
10. A continuous random variable X has a pdf f (x)  3x 2 , 0  x  1 . Find ‘b’ such that P(X  b)  0.05 .
Solution:
Given f (x)  3x 2 , 0  x  1
When P(X  b)  0.05
1 1
  f (x) dx  0.05   3x 2 dx  0.05
b b
1
x 
3
 3    0.05  1  b3  0.05  b3  1  0.05  b  0.9830
 3 b
 x2
 , 1  x  2
11. In a continuous random variable X having the pdf f (x)   3 .Find P (0  x  1)
0 ,
 ow
Solution:
1
1  x3  1 1 
1 1
x2 1
P(0  x  1)   f (x) dx   dx        0 
0 0
3 3  3 0 3  3  9
1
12. A random variable X has the density function f (x)  k in   x   . Find ‘k’.
1  x2
Solution:
  
1 1
WKT

 f (x) dx 1  k 

1 x 2
dx 1  2k 
0
1  x2
dx  1

   1
2k  tan 1 x   1  2k   0   1 k ( )  1 k 
0
2  
0 , x  0

13. For the following CDF F (x)   x , 0  x  1 find (i) P(X  0.2) and (ii) P(0.2  x  0.5)
1 , x  1


6
 Solution:
(i) P(X  0.2)  1  P(X  0.2)  1  F(0.2)  1  0.2  0.8 and
(ii) P(0.2  x  0.5)  F (0.5)  F(0.2)  0.5  0.2  0.3

14. The density function of a RV X is given by f ( x)  kx(2  x) , 0  x  2 find the value of k.

Solution:
Given f ( x)  kx(2  x) , 0  x  2
 2 2
WKT 

f (x) dx  1   k x(2  x) dx  1  k  (2 x  x 2 ) dx  1
0 0
2
 x 2 x3   23   8
 k  2    1  k  22    1  k  4    1
 2 3 0  3  3
4 3
 k   1  k 
3 4
15. A continuous RV X has the PDF f ( x)  k (1  x) , 2  x  5 find P ( X  4) .
Solution:
Given f ( x)  k (1  x) , 2  x  5

WKT 

f (x) dx 1
5
5
 x2   25 4
  k (1  x) dx  1  k  x    1 k 5   2    1
2  2 2  2 2
 21   27  2
 k 3    1  k    1  k 
 2 2 27
4
4 4
 x2  16
And P( X  4)   f (x) dx  k  (1  x) dx  k  x    k  4  8  (2  2)   8k 
 2  2 2 27
2
 3 at x  1

1
16. Find the MGF for the distribution where f (x)   at x  2
3
0 ow


Solution:
2 1
Given f (1)  ; f (2)  & f (3)  f(4)  ...  0
3 3

M X (t)  E e tx    e tx f (x)  e0f(0)  e1f(1)  e 2f(2)  ...
X 0

2 1 2et e2t et

 0  e t    e2t    0    2  et 
3  3 3 3 3

2
17. If a RV X has the MGF M X (t )  find Var (X).
2t
Solution:
2
Given M X (t )   2(2  t) 1
2t
7
 M X '(t)  2(2  t ) 2 (1)  2(2  t) 2
M X"(t)  4(2  t) 3 (1)  4(2  t) 3
1
WKT E  X   M X '(0)  2(2  0)  2  2 
2 2

2
1
& E  X   M X"(0)  4(2  0)  4  2 
2 3 3

2
1 1 1
Var (X)  E  X 2    E  X  
2
 
2 4 4
18. Let X be a RV with E ( X )  10 and Var ( X )  25 Find the positive values of a and b such that Y  aX  b has
expectation 0 and variance 1.
Solution:
Given E  X   10 , Var (X)  25 and E Y   0 , Var Y   1
Given Y  a X  b  E Y   a E  X   b  0  a (10)  b 10a  b
1 1
& Var Y   a Var  X  1  a (25)  a  a 
2 2 2

25 5
1
 b 10  b2
5
19. State and prove additive property of binomial distribution.
Solution:
The sum of two binomial variates is not a binomial variate.
Let X and Y be two independent binomial variates with parameter (n1 , p1 ) and (n 2 , p 2 ) respectively.
Then M X (t)  (q1  p1 et ) n1 and M Y (t)  (q 2  p 2e t ) n 2
 M X  Y (t)  M X (t).M Y (t)  (q1  p1 et ) n1 .(q 2  p 2e t ) n 2  (q  pe t ) n
Hence by uniqueness theorem of MGF X + Y is not a binomial variate.

20. Check whether the following data follow a binomial distribution or not Mean = 3;
Variance = 4.
Solution:
Given Mean = np  3 and Variance = npq  4
npq 4 4
   q   1 Which is not possible.
np 3 3
The given data dose not follow Binomial distribution.
21. If the probability is 0.05 that a certain kind of measuring device will show excessive drift, what is the
probability that the sixth of these measuring devices tested will be the first to show excessive drift?
Solution:
Here p  0.05  q  1  p  1  0.05  0.95 and Given x  6
 P(X  x)  q x 1p  (0.05) (0.95)5  0.0387

22. If 3% of the electric bulbs manufactured by a company are defective, find the probability that in the sample
of 100 bulbs exactly 5 bulbs are defective. (e3  0.0498)
Solution:
Let X be the RV denoting the number of defective electric bulbs.
3
Given P (a bulb is defective) 
100
 p  0.03 and n  100
 Mean =   np  100  0.03  3

8
 e   x
WKT P(X  x) 
x!
e3 35 0.0498  243
 P (exactly 5 bulbs are defective)  P(X  5)    0.1008
5! 120
23. The time (in hours) required to repair a machine is exponentially distributed with parameter what is the
probability that a repair takes atleast 10 hours given that its duration exceeds 9 hours.
Solution:
Let X be the RV which represents the time to repair the machine.
P(X  10 / X  9)  P(X  1)
 P(X  9  1/ X  9) [by memory less property]
 
1
 1
e  0.6065  P(X  k)  e  t here   , t  1
2

 2 
24. A normal distribution has mean and S. D. Find P(15  X  40)
Solution:
Given   20 and   10
X  X  20
The normal variate Z  
 10
15  20
When X  15  Z   0.5
10
40  20
When X  40  Z  2
10
 P(15  X  40)  P(0.5  Z  2)  P(0.5  Z  0)  P(0  Z  2)
 P(0  Z  0.5)  P(0  Z  2)  0.1915  0.4772  0.6687

PART – B
1. A RV X has the following probability distribution

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P(x) 0 a 2a 2a 3a a2 2a2 7a2+a

Find (i) a (ii) P ( X  4) (iii) P ( X  4) (iv) P( X  k )  1/ 2 find the least value of k.

Find the CDF of X.(v) P(1.5  X  4.5 / X  2) (iv) P ( X  2) , P ( X  3) , P (1  X  5)
x 0  x 1

2. Find the cumulative distribution function of the RV with pdf f ( x)  2  x 1  x  2 and find the mean,
0
 ow
variance and MGF of X.

3. The amount of time in hours that a computer function before breaking down is a Continuous RV with pdf given
e x /100 x  0
by f ( x)   what is the probability that (i) a computer will function between 50 and 150 hours
0 x0
before breaking down. (ii) it will function less than 500 hours.
2 x 0  x  1
4. A RV X has the pdf f ( x)   find (i) P ( X  1/ 2) (ii) P(1/ 4  X  1/ 2)
0 ow
(iii) P( X  3 4 / X  1/ 2) (iv) P( X  3 / 4 / X  1/ 2)

9
 1
 ( x  1)  1  x  1
5. Verify whether f ( x)   2 is a probability function of a continuous RV X.
0 ow
If so, find the mean and Var(X).
kx(2  x) 0  x  2
6. The distribution function of a RV is given by f ( x)   find the value of k, the mean,
0 ow
variance and rth moment.
1  x /2
7. Let the RV X have pdf f ( x)  e , x  0 find the MDF and hence find the mean and variance of X.
2
2e2 x x  0
8. A RV X has the pdf given by f ( x)   find (i) the MGF (ii) the first 4 moments about the origin.
0 x  0

9. A Discrete RV X has the following probability distribution

X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

P(X=x) a 3a 5a 7a 9a 11a 13a 15a 17a

(i)Find the value of a. (ii) P ( X  3) , P (0  X  3) , P ( X  3)

(iii) Find distribution function of X.
1
10. Find the MGF of the RV X whose probability function P ( X  x)  , x  1, 2,3... hence find its mean.
2x
11. A RV X has the following probability distribution

x -2 -1 0 1 2 3
P(x) 0.1 k 0.2 2k 0.3 3k

(i) Find the value of k (ii) P ( X  2) and P(2  X  2) (iii) Find the CDF of X
(iv) mean of X.
12. Find the MGF of the Binomial Distribution and hence find the mean and variance.

13. A machine manufacturing screws is known to produce 5% defective. In a random sample of 15 screws what is
the probability that there are (i) Exactly 3 defectives (ii) not more than 3 defectives.

14. Derive the Poisson distribution as limiting form of Binomial distribution.

15. Find the MGF of the Poisson distribution and find the mean and variance.

16. State and prove the additive property of Poisson distribution.

17. The number of monthly breakdown of a computer is a RV having a poisson distribution with mean equal to 1.8.
Find the probability that this computer will function for a month. (i) Without break down (ii) with only one
break down (iii) with atleast one breakdown.

18. The probability that an individual suffers from a bad reaction from a certain injection is 0.001, determine the
probability that out of 2000 individuals (i) exactly 3 (ii) more than 2, individuals will suffer from a bad reaction.

19. If X 1 and X 2 are independent variate with parameters 1 & 2 show that the conditional distribution of X 1 given
X1  X 2  n follows Binomial distribution.

20. Prove that the geometric RV has memory less property.

10
 21. Find the MGF, mean and variance of uniform distribution.

22. A RV X has a uniform distribution over (-3, 3), compute (i) P ( X  2) (ii) P  X  2  (iii) P  X  2  2 
(iv)Find k for which P( X  k )  1/ 3
23. If X is uniformly distributed over ( ,  ) find  so that (i) P( X  1)  1/ 3 (ii) P  X  1  P  X  1
24. Find the MGF of the Exponential distribution, mean and variance.

25. State and prove memoryless property for Exponential distribution.

26. The time required to repair a machine is Exponential distribution with parameter   1/ 2 (i) what is the
probability that the repair time exceeds 2 hours? (ii) What is the conditional probability that a repair takes 11
hours? Given that its duration exceeds 8 hours?

27. The mileage which can owners get with certain kind a radial tyre is a RV having an Exponential distribution
with mean 4000 km. Find the probability that one of these tyres will last (i) atleast 2000 km (ii) atmost 3000 m.

28. An electrical firm manufactures light bulbs that have a life, before burn – out, that is normally distributed with
mean equal to 800 hours and a SD of 40 hours. Find (i) the probability that a bulb more than 834 hours. (ii) the
probability that a bulb between 778 and 834 hours.

UNIT II

TWO DIMENSIONAL RANDOM VARIABLES

PART – A
1. The joint pdf of random variables X and Y is given by f ( x, y)  k xy e( x  y2 )
x  0, y  0 . Find the value of k
2

.
Solution:
 

WKT 
 
f (x, y) dy dx  1

Given f ( x, y)  k xy e( x  y2 )
x  0, y  0
2

 
   k xy e  ( x  y2 )
dy dx  1 k   xy e  x e  y dy dx  1
2 2 2

0 0 0 0
 
1 1
 k  x e  x dx  y e  y dy  1  k . .  1  k  4
2 2

0 0
2 2

 x  y 0  x  1, 0  y  1
2. If X and Y have joint pdf of f ( x, y )   check whether X and Y are independent.
0 ow
Solution:
To prove: f X (x) f Y (y)  f(x, y)
 1
1
 y2  1
f X (x)   f (x, y) dy   ( x  y ) dy   xy    x 
0 0  2 0 2
 1
1
 x2  1
f Y (y)   f (x, y) dx   ( x  y ) dx    xy    y
0 0 2 0 2
 1 1 
 f X (x) f Y (y)   x     y   x  y  f (x, y)
 2 2 
 X and Y are not independent.
11
3. Find k of the joint pdf of a bivariant random variable (X, Y) is given by
k (1  x) (1  y) 0  x  4, 1  y  5
f ( x, y)  
0 ow
Solution:
 
WKT 
 
f (x, y) dy dx  1
4 5 4 5
   k (1  x)(1  y) dy dx  1 k  (1  x) dx  (1  y) dy  1
0 1 0 1


 x2   y2  
4
 1
5

 k  x    y     1  k 

 2 0  2 1  32

4. The random variable (X, Y) has the pdf f ( x, y)  kx 2 (8  y), x  y  2 x,0  x  2 . Find k.
Solution:
 
WKT 
 
f (x, y) dy dx  1
2x
2 2x
 y2 
2
   k x (8  y) dy dx  1 k  x  8 y   dx  1
2 2

0 x 0  2 x
2
 4 x2 x2 
 k  x 2 16 x   8 x   dx  1
0  2 2
2
 x4 
2
 3x 4 
k  16 x3  2 x 4  8 x3   dx  1 k   8x3   dx  1
0
2 0
2 
2
 8 x4 3 x5   48   112  5
k    1  k 32    1 k    1 k 
 4 2 5 0  5  5  112
1
 0  x, y  2
5. If the joint pdf of (X,Y) is f ( x, y )   4 , Find P( X  Y  1)
0 ow
Solution:
1 1 y
P( X  Y  1)    f (x, y) dx dy
0 0
1 1 y 1 1
1 1 1
  dx dy   (x)10 y dy   (1  y) dy
0 0
4 40 40
1
1 y2  1  1 1
  y    1   
4 2 0 4  2  8

x y
6. The joint pdf of X and Y is given by P ( x, y )  , x  1, 2,3; y  1, 2 . Find the marginal probability
21
distribution of X, Y.
Solution:
The marginal distribution are given in the table
Y/X 1 2 3 Marginal distribution of Y = PY (y)
1 2 / 21 3 / 21 4 / 21 9 / 21

12
 2 3 / 21 4 / 21 5 / 21 12 / 21
Marginal distribution of X= PX (x) 5 / 21 7 / 21 9 / 21 1

7. The joint probability mass function of X and Y is

0 1 2
0 0.1 0.04 0.02
1 0.08 0.20 0.06
2 0.06 0.14 0.30
Find the marginal functions of X and Y, P( X  1, Y  1) and check whether X and Y are independent.
Solution:
The Marginal distribution are given in the table
X/Y 0 1 2 Marginal distribution of X = PX (x)
0 0.10 0.04 0.02 0.16
1 0.08 0.20 0.06 0.34
2 0.06 0.14 0.30 0.50
Marginal distribution of Y= PY (y) 0.24 0.38 0.38 1
(i) P( X  1, Y  1)  P(0, 0)  P(1, 0)  P(0,1)  P(1,1)  0.1  0.08  0.04  0.2  0.42
(ii) Here P(X  0) P(Y  0)  0.16  0.24  0.1  P(X  0, Y  0)
 X and Y are not independent.

8. The following data were available X  970, Y  18,  X  38,  Y  2 correlation coefficient r = 0.6. Find the
line of regression and obtain the value of X given Y = 20.
Solution:
X
WKT the line of regression of X on Y is given by X  X  r. (Y  Y )
Y
Given X  970, Y  18,  X  38,  Y  2
38
 X  970  0.6  (Y  18)  11.4 Y  205.2
2
i.e)., x  11.4 y  764.8 This gives the lime of regression of X onY
When y  20  x  11.4(20)  764.8  x  992.8
9. State Central limit theorem.
Solution:
If X1 , X 2 ,...Xn .... be a sequence of independent identically distributed Random Variable with E  X i   
and Var  X i    2 , i  1, 2,3... and if Sn  X1  X 2  X3  ...X n , then Sn follows a normal distribution with mean
n  and variance n  2 as n   .

10. State the equation of the two regression lines. What is the angle between them?
Solution:
The line of regression of X on Y is X  X  bXY (Y  Y )
The line of regression of Y on X is Y  Y  bYX (X  X )

1  r 2   Y X 
The angle between the two lines of regression is given by tan    
r   X 2   Y 2 

11. If X and Y are independent random variables with variance 2 and 3. Find the variance of 3 X  4Y
Solution:

13
 Given Var (X)  2 and Var(Y)  3
Var(3X 4 Y)  32 Var(X)  42 Var(Y)  9  2  16  3  18  48  66

12. If the joint pdf of (X,Y) is given by f (x, y)  x  y 0  x, y  1 Find E  XY 

Solution:
Given f (x, y)  x  y 0  x, y  1
  1 1
1
Now E  XY    xy f (x, y) dy dx    xy (x  y) dy dx 
  0 0
3
PART- B
1. The joint probability mass function of (X, Y) is given by p( x, y )  k (2 x  3 y ), x  0,1, 2; y  1, 2,3 . Find all the
marginal and conditional probability distributions. Also find the probability distribution of X + Y and
P( X  Y  3) .

2. The joint probability density function of two dimensional random variable (X, Y) is given by
x2  1
, 0  x  2, 0  y  1 Compute P( X  1), P(Y  1/ 2), P  X  1/ Y   ,
f ( x, y )  xy 2 
8  2
 1 
P  Y  / X  1 , P ( X  Y ) and P( X  Y  1) .
 2 
 2 xy
x  0  x  1, 0  y  2
3. The random variables X and Y have joint probability density function f ( x, y )   3 ,
0 ow
then find (i) the marginal density function of X and Y (ii) the conditional density function of X given Y (iii) Are X
and Y independent?

4. The joint probability mass function of X and Y is given below

-1 1
0 1/8 3/8
1 2/8 2/8
Find the correlation coefficient of X and Y.
2  x  y, 0  x  1, 0  y  1
5. The random variable X and Y have joint density function f ( x, y )   Find
0 ow
Cov (X, Y) and correlation coefficient of X and Y.

6. The resistors R1 , R2 , R3 , R4 are independent random variable and uniform in the interval (450, 550). Using central
limit theorem find P(1900  R1 , R2 , R3 , R4  2100)

7. A fair coin is tossed 300 times. What is the probability that head will appear more than 140 times and less than 150
times.

8. The life time of a certain brand of tube light may be considered as a random variable with mean 1200 hours and
standard deviation 250 hours. Find the probability using central limit theorem, that the average life time of 60 lights
exceeds 1250 hours.

14
9. A random sample of size 100 is taken from a population whose mean is 60 and variance 400 using central limit
theorem, with what probability can we assert that the mean of the sample will not differ from   60 by more than
4.

10. If the joint pdf of (X, Y) is given by f ( x, y )  x  y, 0  x, y  1 , find the pdf of U = XY.

11. Let (X, Y) be a two – dimensional non – negative continuous random variable having the joint density
4 xy e  ( x  y2 )
, x  0, y  0
2

f ( x, y )   Find the density function of U  X 2  Y 2

0 ow
12. If X and Y independent random variable with pdf e x , x  0 and e y , y  0 , find the density function of
X
U and V  X  Y . Are they independent?
X Y

13. The joint pdf of X and Y is given by f ( x, y)  e ( x  y ) , x  0, y  0 , find the probability density function of
X Y
U .
2
14. Calculate the correlation coefficient for the height (in inches) of father (X) and their son (Y)

X 65 66 67 67 68 69 70 72
Y 67 68 65 68 72 72 69 71

15. From the following data, find (i) the coefficient of correlation between the marks in Economics and Statistics.
(ii) The two regression equations. (iii) the most likely marks in statistics when the marks in Economics are30.

Marks in Economics 25 28 35 32 31 36 29 38 34 32
Marks in Statistics 43 46 49 41 36 32 31 30 33 39

16. The following table gives the joint pdf of two random variables X and Y. Find E(X), E(Y) and E (XY). Verify
whether X and Y are correlated.

0 1 2 3
2 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8
3 1/16 1/8 0 1/16
4 1/16 0 1/8 1/16

(1  e x )(1  e y ), x  0, y  0
17. If the joint cumulative distribution function of X and Y is given by F ( x, y )  
0 ew
(i) Find the marginal density function of X and Y
(ii) Are X and Y independent?
(iii) Find P(1  X  2, 1  Y  2)

cx( x  y ), 0  x  2,  x  y  x
18. Given f XY ( x, y )  
0 ow
 y
(a) Evaluate c. (b) Find f X ( x) (c) f X /Y   and (d) fY ( y)
x

15
 8 xy, 0  x  y  1
19. Given the joint pdf of (X, Y) as f ( x, y )   Find the marginal and conditional probability
0 ow
function of X and Y. Are X and Y independent? Find P( X  Y  1) .

20. The two dimensional random variable (X, Y) has the joint probability mass function
x y
f ( x, y )  , x  0,1, 2; y  0,1, 2 (i) Find the conditional distribution of Y given X = x.
27
(ii) Also find the conditional distribution of Y given X = 1.

UNIT III
RANDOM PROCESSES
PART - A
1. Define WSS process.
Solution:
(i) E  X (t)  Constant and (ii) E  X (t) X(t   )  RXX ( )
2. Define SSS process.
Solution:
(i) E  X (t)  Constant and (ii) Var  X (t)  Constant
3. What is Markov process and Markov Chain?
Solution:
If the future value depends only on the present state but not on the past states is called a Markov process.
A discrete parameter Markov process is called a Markov Chain.
i.e.)., P  X n  an / xn1  an1   n
4. Define a Poisson process. (Or) state the postulates of a Poisson process.
Solution:
If X (t) represents the number of occurrences of a certain event (0, t), then the discrete random process is
called the Poisson, Provided that the following postulates are satisfied.
(i) P 1 occurrencein (t, t   t)  t  o( t)
(ii) P 0 occurencein (t, t   t)  1  t  o( t)
(iii) P  2or moreoccurencesin (t  t   t)  o( t)
0 1
5. If the tpm of a Markov chain is  1 1  , find the steady state distribution of the chain.

2 2
Solution:
0 1
Given P   1 1 

2 2
The invariant probability distribution is the steady state distribution.
 P  
Where   (1 ,  2 ) and 1   2  1 ....... (1)
0 1
 1 
 ( 1 ,  2 )  1 1   ( 1 ,  2 )   2  1   2   ( 1 ,  2 )
  2 2 
2 2
 1 1
 2   1 and  1   2   2   2  2 1 and  1   2
2 2 2

16
 1 2
(1)   1  2 1  1   1  &  2  2 1   2 
3 3
1 2
   , 
3 3
6. Define TPM and one step TPM.
Solution:
Transition probabilities can be arranged in a matrix form. Such a matrix is called as TPM.
 P11 P12 .... P1m 
P P22 .... P2 m 
P   21
 .... .... .... .... 
 
 Pm1 Pm 2 .... Pmm 
One Step TPM:
The conditional probability P  X n 1  a j / xn  ai  is called one – step transition probability from state ai
at time t n to the state a j at time tn 1 in one step.
7. State the four types of a stochastic process.
Solution:
Random process X (t) is classified according to time t and random variable X (t) at time t. Vales of
X (t) are called states of the process.
(i) Discrete time, discrete state RP
(ii) Discrete time, Continuous state RP
(iii) Continuous time, discrete state RP
(iv) Continuous time, continuous state RP
8. State any two properties of a Poisson process.
Solution:
(i) The Poisson process is a Markov process
(ii) Sum of two independent Poisson processes is a Poisson process.

0.2 t1 t2
9. Given that X (t) is a random process with mean  (t )  3 and autocorrelation function R(t1 , t2 )  9  4e
Determine the mean, variance and covariance of the random variable Y  X (5) and Z  X (8) .
Solution:
Given  X (t)  3  E  X (t)  3  t
0.2 t1 t2
And R(t1 , t2 )  9  4e
Y  X (5) and Z  X (8)
 E(Y)  E(X(5))  3 and E(Z)  E(X(8))  3
E Y 2   E  X 2 (5)   R (5,5)  9  4 e 0.2(0)  9  4  13
E  Z 2   E  X 2 (8)   R(8,8)  9  4 e 0.2(0)  9  4  13

Var (Y)  E  X 2 (5)   E  X (5)  13  32  4

2

Var (Z)  E  X 2 (8)   E  X (8)  13  32  4

2

Cov (Y, Z)  E YZ   E(Y) E(Z)

E (YZ)  E(X(5) X(8))  R XX (5,8)  9  4 e 0.2(58)  9  4 e 0.6
Cov (Y, Z)  9  4e0.6  3  3  2.195
10. Consider a random process X (t )  cos  t    , where  is a random variable with density function
1  
f ( )  ,  x  , check whether the process is stationary or not.
 2 2
17
 Solution:
If the random process is stationary then E [X (t)]=Constant
1  
Given X (t )  cos  t    and f ( )  , x
 2 2

 2
1 2 cost
 E  X (t)   X (t) f( ) d   cos (t   ).  d   constant
  
2
Then X (t) is not a stationary process.

A2
11. Find the mean square value of the random process whose autocorrelation is cos 
2
Solution:
A2
Given RXX ( )  cos 
2
A2 A2
Mean Square value is E  X (t)   RXX (0) 
2
cos 0 
2 2
0 1
12. Let A   1 1  be a stochastic matrix. Check whether it is regular.
 
2 2
Solution:
0 1
Given A   1 1  is a stochastic matrix.

2 2
1 1
0 1 0 1  
A2   1 1   1 1    2 2 
   1 3
2 2 2 2 
 4 4 
2
Since all the entries of A are positive, A is regular.

13. Give an example of a Markov process.

Solution:
Three children A, B, C are throwing a ball at each other. A always throws to B, and B always throws to C.
But C is as likely to throw to B as to A. The throw pattern is a Markov process, because the child throwing the ball
is not influenced by those who had the ball previously.

14. When is a Markov chain, called homogeneous?

Solution:
If Pij (n  1, n)  Pij (m  1, m) is called the homogeneous Markov Chain.

PART – B

1. Show that the random process X (t )  A cos( t   ) is WSS stationary, where A and  are constants and
 is uniformly distributed on the interval (0, 2 ) .

18
  (at ) n 1
 (1  at ) n 1 , n  1, 2,3...
2. The probability distribution of the process  X (t ) is given by P  X (t )  n   
 at ,n  0
1  at
Show that it is not stationary.
3. If X (t )  Y cos t  Z sin t , where Y and Z are independent random variables, each of which assumes the values -1
2 1
and 2 with probabilities and respectively. Prove that X (t ) is a WSS process.
3 3
 0.1 0.5 0.4 
4. The TPM of a Markov chain xn  , n  1, 2,3,... having 3 states, 1, 2and 3 is P  0.6 0.2 0.2  and
 
 0.3 0.4 0.3
the initial distribution is P(0)   0.7 0.2 0.1 Find (i) P  X 2  3, X1  3, X 0  2 (ii) P  X 2  3
(iii) P  X 3  2, X 2  3, X1  3, X 0  2 .

5. A man either drives a car or catches a train to go to office each day. He never goes 2 days in a row by train
but if he drives one day, then the next day he is just as likely to drive again as he is to travel by train. Now
suppose that on the first day of the week, the man tossed a fair die and drove to work if and only if 6 appeared. Find
(i) the probability that he takes a train on the third day and (ii) the probability the he drives to work in the long run.

6. An engineer analysing a series of digital signals generated by a testing system observes that only 1 out of 15 highly
distorted signals followed a highly distorted signal with no recognizable signal, whereas 20 out of 23 recognized
signals follow recognizable signals with no highly distorted signals between. Give that only highly distorted signals
are not recognizable, find the fraction of signals that are highly distorted.

7. Show that the random process X (t )  A cos t  sin t , where  is a constant, A and B are random variables, is WSS
if (i) E ( A)  E ( B)  0 (ii) E ( A2 )  E ( B 2 ) (iii) E ( AB)  0 .

8. Three boys A, B, C are throwing a ball to each other. A always throw the ball to B and B always throws to C
but C is just as likely to throw the ball to B as to A. Show that the process is Markovian. Find the TPM and
classify the states.

9. Find the mean and variance of the poisson process.

10. Find the auto correlation function of the poisson process.

11. Sum of two independent poisson processes is a poisson process.

1
12. The inter arrival time of a poisson process with parameter  is an exponential distribution with mean .

13. Prove that the difference of two independent poisson processes is not a poisson process.

14. If the customers arrive in accordance with the poisson process, with mean rate of 2 per minute, find the probability
that the interval between 2 consecutive arrivals is (1) more than 1 minute, (2) between 1 and 2 minute, (3) less than
4 minute.

15. Given a random variable y with characteristic function  ( )  E ei y  and a random process defined by
X (t )  cos[t  y ] show that X(t) is stationary in the wide sense of  (1)   (2)  0 .

16. Given that WSS random process X (t )  10cos 100t    where  is uniformly distributed over ( ,  ) . Prove
that the process X(t) is correlation – ergodic.
19
 17. A house wife buys 3 kinds of cereals A, B and C. She never buys the same cereal in successive weeks. If she buys
cereal A, the next week she buys cereal B. However if she buys B or C, the next week she is 3 times as likely to buy
A as the other cereal. In the long run how often she buys each of the 3 cereals?

 t1 t2
18. If X (t) is a Gaussian process with   10 and C (t1 , t2 )  16e , find the probability that (1) X (10)  8
(2) X (10)  X (6)  4 .

UNIT-IV
VECTOR SPACES
PART-A
1. Define vector spaces.(APL-MAY 2019)
Solution:
Let ( F , , ) be a field. Then a set V is called a vector space over the field F if in V there is defined an
interval binary composition ‘+’ and an external binary composition ‘*’over F such that
V1: (V, +) is an abelian group.
(i) Closure property
(ii) Associative property
(iii) Existence of identity
(iv) Existence of inverse and
(v) Commutative property
V2: a*(α + β) = (a * α) + (a * β)
V3: (a + b) * α = (a * α) + (b * α)
V4: (a b) * α = a * (b * α)
V5: 1 * α = α,  a, b  F , and  ,  V
 
2. Let V  a  b 2 / a, b  Q . Then V is a vector space over Q under addition and multiplication.
Proof:Obviously V is an abelian group under usual addition.
The remaining axioms of a vector space are true since the scalars and vectors are real numbers and the
operations are usual addition and multiplication. Hence V is a vector space over Q.
3. How do you define the set of polynomials over the field F?
Solution:
Let F be a field. Then F x , the set of all polynomials over F, is a vector space over F under the addition of
polynomials and scalar multiplication defined by
 a0  a1 x  a 2 x 2  .......  a n x n  =  a0   a1 x  .............   an x n
4. Show that the set V of all polynomials of degree  n including the zero polynomials in F x is a vector
space over the field F under the addition and scalar multiplication.
Proof:
Let f , g  V . Then f and g are polynomials of degree  n .
 f  g and  f areof degree  n  f  g ,  f  V
The other axioms of a vector space can easily verify. Hence V is a vector space over F.

5. Define vector subspace. (NOV-DEC 2018)

Solution:
If V is a vector space over the field F. A subset W of V is called a subspace of V provided W is itself a
vector space over F under the operations of a vector addition and scalar multiplication on V.
6. Prove that union of two subspaces is not necessarily a subspace.
Solution:

20
 Let V3(F) be a vector space and W1 and W2 be its two subspaces whose elements are of the type (a,0,0)
and (0,b,0) respectively.
  (a1 ,0,0)  W1,   (0, b1,0)  W2
 ,   W1  W2
for any a, b  F
a  b  a (a1 ,0,0)  b(0, b1,0)
 (aa1 ,0,0)  (0, bb1 ,0)
Choose
 (aa1 , bb1 ,0)
but (aa1 , bb1 ,0)  W1 or (aa1 , bb1 ,0) W1  W2
 (aa1 , bb1 ,0)  W1  W2
W1  W2 is not closed under addition
W1  W2 is not subspace.
7. Determine whether the first vector can be expressed as a linear combination of the other two. (1, 2,-
3), (-3, 2, 1), (2,-1,-1).
Solution:
  (1, 2, 3), 1  (3, 2,1),  2  (2, 1, 1)
  a11  a2 2
(1, 2, 3)  a1 (3, 2,1)  a2 (2, 1, 1)
 (3a1 , 2a1 , a1 )  (2a2 ,  a2 ,  a2 )
 (3a1  2a2 , 2a1  a2 , a1  a2 )
1  3a1  2a2 ........(i )
2  2a1  a2 ..........(ii )
3  a1  a2 ...........(iii )
solving these three equations we get,
a1  5, a2  8
51  8 2  5(3, 2,1)  8(2, 1, 1)
 (15,10,5)  (16, 8, 8)
 (15  16, 10  8, 5  8)
 (1, 2, 3)  
Let  can be written as the linear combination ofα1 and α 2 .
8. Define linear independent and linear dependent.
Solution:
A subset S (finite or not) of a vector space is linearly dependent if their exist a finite number of distinct
vectors s α1, . . . αn in S and scalars a1, a2, a3, a4…..an not all zero, such that 𝑣 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 ∝𝑘 𝑥𝑘 .
A subset of a vector space is linearly independent if it is not linearly dependent.

9. Determine the first polynomial can be expressed as a linear combination of the other two
2 x3  11x 2  3x  2, x3  2 x 2  3x  1, 2 x3  x 2 3x  2 .
Solution:

21
 Let   2 x 3  11x 2  3 x  2, 1  x 3  2 x 2  3x  1,  2  2 x 3  x 2 3x  2
  a11  a2 2
  
2 x3  11x 2  3 x  2  a1 x3  2 x 2  3 x  1  a2 2 x 3  x 2  3 x  2 
equating the coefficients of same power
-2 = a1  2a2 ..........(1)
 11  2a1  a2 ........(2)
3  3a1  3a2 ...........(3)
2   a1  2a2 ............(4)
eliminating a1 from (2) and (5)
we get, a 2  3 and a1  4
  
a11  a2 2  4 x 3  2 x 2  3x  1  3 2 x 3  x 2  3x  2 
 (4  6) x 3  (8  3) x 2  (12  9) x  4  6
 2 x 3  11x 2  3 x  2

Hence α can be written as the linear combination of α1 and α2
10. Define basis.
Solution:
A set B (finite or not) of vectors in a vector space V is a basis for V if it is linearly independent and spans V.
11. What is the basis for the vector space R3.
Solution:
The vectors e 1 = (1, 0, 0), e 2 = (0, 1, 0), and e 3 = (0, 0, 1) constitute a basis for the vector space R3.
12. Prove that every non-zero singleton set is linearly independent for V=R.
Solution:
S= 0 is linearly independent
α.0=0 need not be α=0
α0
S is linearly dependent
S=   is linearly independent
α.f=0
Þα=0
S is linearly independent and it has a dimension.

13. Determine whether the following sets are linearly dependent of linearly independent.
 1 3   2 6  
 ,   in M 22 ( R)
  2 4   4 8 
Solution:
Set a linear combination of the matrices A, B equal to the zero matrix using unknown scalars a 1, a2 a1 A +
a2 B = 0, where

14. Is 1, 4, 6  , (1,5,8), (2,1,1), (1,1, 0) a linearly independent subset of R3? Justify your answer. (NOV-DEC
2018)
22
 Solution:
The basis of R3 is 1,0,0  ,(0,1,0),(0,0,1) which maxi med linear independent subset of R3 is. Therefore
dim (R3) = 3.
Therefore the given set of vectors is not linearly independent. Since for any vector space of dim n set of
n+ 1 vector cannot be linearly independent.

15. Define linear combination

Solution:
Vector v is a linear combination of distinct vectors x 1, . . . , xn if there exist scalars α1, . . . αn such that
𝑣 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 ∝𝑘 𝑥𝑘 linear combinations are finite sums. The linear combination 𝑣 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 ∝𝑘 𝑥𝑘 is trivial if
all the coefficients α1, . . . αn are zero. If at least one αk is different from zero, the linear combination is
nontrivial.

16. Provide the example of linear combination of the vectors (1, 1) and (1, −1).
Solution:
In R2 the vector (8, 2) is a linear combination of the vectors (1, 1) and (1, −1)
Because (8, 2) = 5(1, 1) + 3(1, −1).

17. Find the dimension of the vector space spanned by (1,-2, 3,-1) and (1, 1,-2, 3).
Solution:

u1  1, 2,3, 1 , u2  1,1, 2,3

let a1 1, 2,3, 1  a2 1,1, 2,3  0
a1  a2  0,  2a1  a2  0, 3a1  2a2  0,  a1  3a2  0
a2  a1, subsititute  2a1  a1  0  a1  0
u1, u2  is linearly independent.
hence dinension of vector space is 2.

PART-B

1. Prove that the set of all polynomials with real coefficients is a vector space over R with respect to
polynomial addition and usual multiplication of real numbers with a polynomial.
2. Let V  (a1, a2 ); a1, a2  F  , where F is a field. Define addition of elements of V coordinate (or) wise, for
c  F and (a1, a2 ) V , define c(a1, a2 )  (a1,0). is V a vector space over F with the operations? Justify your
answer.
3. The union of two subspaces W1 and W2 is a subspace if and only if one is contained in the other.
4. Prove that the following are vector spaces over the stated fields under usual operation 𝑉 =
{(𝑎 𝑏 ) /𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅} 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑅. (APL-MAY 2019)
𝑐 𝑑
5. Prove that the following are vector spaces over the stated fields under usual operation 𝑉 =
{(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)/𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 3𝑐 } 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑄.
6. If S,T are subsets of V(F) , then Prove that 𝐿(𝑆 ∪ 𝑇) = 𝐿(𝑆) + 𝐿(𝑇). (NOV-DEC 2018)
7. Let V be a finite dimensional inner product space. Let W be a subspace of V.
Then V is the direct sum of W and W  (i.e) V  W  W 

23
8. Let W1and W2 be a subspaces of a finite dimensional inner product space. Then
(i) W1  W2   W1   W2 
(ii) W1  W2   W1   W2 
9. The linear span L(S) of any subset S of a vector space V(F) is a subspace of V generated by S , Show that
L(S) ={𝑆}(NOV-DEC 2018)
10. If 𝑊1, 𝑊2 are two subspaces of a finite dimensional vector space 𝑉 then
dim (𝑊1 + 𝑊2) = dim 𝑊1 + 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑊2 − dim(𝑊1 ∩ 𝑊2) and hence deduce that if
𝑉 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2, then dim(𝑉) = dim 𝑊1 + 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑊2
11. If 𝑆 and T are subsets of a vector space 𝑉(𝐹), then prove that : (ii) 𝑆⊂𝑇 implies 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑆) ⊂𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑇)
(iii) 𝑆 is a subspace of 𝑉 if and only if 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑆) = 𝑆 (iv) 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑆))= 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑆) (v)
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑆∪𝑇)= 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑆) + 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑇)
12. Point out whether 𝑤 = (3,4,1) can be written as a linear combination of 𝑣1 = (1, −2,1) and 𝑣2 =
(−2, −1,1) in 𝑅3
UNIT-V
LINEAR TRANSFORMATION AND INNER PRODUCT SPACES
PART-A

1. State Rank – nullity theorem.

Solution:
Let V and W be vector spaces, and let T : V  W be linear. If V is finite-dimensional then
Nullity (T) + rank (T) = dim (V)
2. Suppose that T : R  R is linear and T (1,0)  (1,4) and T (1,1)  (2,5) find T (2,3) .
2 2

Solution:
Let S  (1,0) (1,1) is a basis.
  a11  a2 2
(2,3)  a1 (1,0)  a2 (1,1)........(1)
 (a1  a2 , a2 )
a1  a2  2, a2  3
a1  1
from (1)
T (2,3)   1 T (1,0)  3 T (1,1)
  1(1, 4)  3(2,5)
 (1, 4)  (6, 15)
T (2,3)  (5,11)
3. Show that the mapping T : R  R defined by T ( x, y )  ( x  3, 2 y ) is not linear.
2 2

Solution:
By definition of linear transformation is
(i) T(x + y) = T(x) + T(y)
(ii) T(cx) = cT(x)
Given T : R  R T ( x, y )  ( x  3, 2 y )
2 2

24
 x  (a1 , a2 ) y  (b1, b2 )
T ( x  y )  T ((a1 , a2 )  (b1, b2 ) )
 T (a1  b1 , a2  b2 )
T ( x  y )   a1  b1  3, 2(a2  b2 ) 
RHS
T ( x)  T ( y )  T (a1, a2 )  T (b1, b2 )
  a1  3, 2a2    b1  3, 2b2 
  a1  3  b1  3, 2a2  2b2 
  a1  b1  6, 2(a2  b2 
LHS  RHS
T is not linear.
4. If T : R  R defined by T ( x1, x2 )  ( x1  x2 , x1  x2 , x2 ) . Find the null space, range, rank and nullity.
2 3

Solution:
By the definition of null space
N (T )  x V / T ( x)  0
Let
x  ( x1 , x2 )
T ( x)  T ( x1 , x2 )  ( x1  x2 , x1  x2 , x2 )  0
 x1  x2  0, x1  x2  0, x2  0
 x1  0, x2  0
 x  (0,0)  R 2

 null space is zero vector.

dim( N (T ))  0
By definition of Range space of T

R(T )  y  T ( x)  R 3 / x  R 2 
dim(V )  R 2  2
By dimension theorem,
Nullity (T) + rank (T) = din (V)
0 + rank (T) = 2
Rank (T) = 2.
 1 1
5. Test the matrix A     M 22 ( R ) for diagonalizable.
 1 1
Solution:
Given that
 1 1 1  1
A   A  I   (1   ) 2  1
 1 1 1 1 
  2  2   (  2)  0
  0, 2. Since the two Eigen values are distinct it is

diagonalizable.

25
 6. Let T : R  R , defined by T (a1 , a2 )  (a1  3a2 ,0,2a1  4a2 ) then B1  (1,0),(0,1) and
2 3

B2  (1,0,0),(0,1,0),(0,0,1) . Find T 
Let v1  (1, 0), v2  (0,1), w1  (1, 0, 0), w2  (0,1, 0), and w3  (0, 0,1).
T (v1 )  T (1, 0)  (1, 0, 2)  1(1, 0, 0)  0(0,1, 0)  2(0, 0,1)  (1, 0, 0)  (0, 0, 0)  (0, 0, 2)
T (v2 )  T (1, 0)  (3, 0, 4)  3(1, 0, 0)  0(0,1, 0)  4(0, 0,1)  (3, 0, 0)  (0, 0, 0)  (0, 0, 4)
1 3
T B   0 0 
B2
1

 2 4 
7. What do you understand by orthogonal transformation?
Solution:

An orthogonal matrix is a square matrix whose columns and rows are orthogonal unit vectors (i.e., orthonormal
vectors), i.e. ... As a linear transformation, every special orthogonal matrix acts as a rotation.
8. Define inner product space
Solution:
Let V be a vector space over F. an inner product on V is a function that assigns, to every ordered pair of vectors x
and y in V, a scalar in F, denoted  x, y  , such that for all x,y and z in V and all c in F, the following axioms hold.
(i )  x  z , y    x , y    z , y 
(ii )  cx, y   c x, y 
(iii )  x, y    y , x 
(iv )  x, x   0 if x  0
9. Define Norm of a vector
Solution:
Let V be an inner product space. For x V , we define the norm or length of x by x   x, x .
10. State Cauchy-Schwarz inequality.
Solution:
 x, y  x . y where x, y V and c  F
11. Define orthogonal and orthonormal.
Solution:
Consider a set S  u , u , u ,.....u  of non-zero vectors in an inner product space V. S is called orthogonal if
1 2 3 r

each pair of vectors in S are orthogonal and S is called orthonormal if S is orthogonal and each vector in S has unit
length. That is
(i) Orthogonal:  ui , u j   0 for i  j

0 for i  j
(ii) Orthonormal:  ui , u j   
1 for i  j
12. What is Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process?
Solution:
Given a set of linearly independent vectors S  v1, v2 , v3 ,....vn  in a vector space V, generating the set of
orthogonal or orthonormal vectors is known as Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process.
13. Define minimal solution.
Solution:

26
 A solution S is Ax = b is called a minimal solution of s  u for all other solutions u.
14. Let u  (1,3,5), v  (4,5,5) in R3 find the inner product  u , v  .
Solution:
u  (1,3,5), v  (4,5,5)
 u, v   (1)(4)  (3)(5)  (5)(5)  4  15  25  44
15. State triangle inequality of Norm.
Solution:
x y  x  y
16. Let x  (2,1  i, i ) and y  (2  i , 2,1  2i ) be vectors in C3. Compute x , y and x  y .
Solution:
Given x  (2,1  i, i ) and y  (2  i , 2,1  2i )

   
2 2
x   x, x   (2) 2  (12  12 ) (02  12 )

 4  2 1  7

   
2 2
y   y, y   (2 2   1 )  22  (12  2 2 )
2

 5  4  5  14
x  y   x  y, x  y
 (4  i )(4  i )  (3  i )(3  i )  (1  3i )(1  3i )
 17  10  10  37
 3  1  1/ 2 
   
17. Check whether u1, u2 , u3an orthogonal is set where u1  1 , u2  2 , u3   2  .
     
 1 1  7 / 2 
     
Solution:
 1 7 
Given u1  (3,1,1); u2  ( 1, 2,1), u3   , 2, 
2 2 
 u1 , u2   (3)( 1)  (1)(2)  (1)(1)  3  2  1  0
1  7  3 7
 u1 , u3   (3)    (1)(2)  (1)   2 0
2  2  2 2
1  7 
 u2 , u3   ( 1)    (2)(2)  (1)  0
2  2 
u1, u2 , u3 is an orthogonal set.
18. Verify Cauchy-Schwarz inequality for u = (1,-1,3) and v = (2,0,-1).
Solution:
We know that the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality in

27
  u, v   u . v where x, y V and c  F
 u, v   (1)(2)  ( 1)(0)  (3)( 1)  2  3  1
 u , v   1  1
u   u, u  (1)(1)  ( 1)( 1)  (3)(3)  11
v   v, v   (2)(2)  (0)(0)  ( 1)( 1)  11
u . v  55
  u, v   u v
Hence, Cauchy-Schwarz inequality satisfied.
u  (1,0), v  (0,1)
 u, v   (1)(0)  (0)(1)  0
u   u, u  (1)(1)  (0)(0)  1  1
v   v, v   (0)(0)  (1)(1)  1  1
 u, v   0, u  v 1
S is an orthonormal basis.
PART-B

1. State and prove projection theorem. (NOV-DEC 2018)

2. Find an orthogonal basis of the inner product space R3(R) with standard inner product, given the basis
B  (1,1,0),(1, 1,1),(1,1,2)
Using Gram-Schmitt orthogonalisation process. Also find the Fourier
coefficients of the vector (2,1,3) relative to orthonormal basis. (NOV-DEC 2018)
1
3. Let V  P2 ( R) be the inner product space with inner product defined be  f , g    f (t ) g (t )dt . Starting
1

with the standard basis B  1, x, x 2  construct an orthonormal basis by Gram-Schmidt process. (APL-
MAY 2019)
4. Apply the Gram-Schmidt process to the given subset
S  (4, 3  2i, i, 1  4i),  1  5i, 5  4i,  3  5i, 7  2i  , (27  i,  7  6i,  15  25i,  7  6i)
x  (13  7i,  12  3i,  39  11i,  26  5i) of the inner product space V = C4. Ti obtain orthogonal basis
for span (S).
5. Let x  ( x1, x2 ) and y  ( y1 , y2 ) . Check whether  x, y   6 x1 y1  7 x2 y2 is an inner product or not?
6. Let x  ( x1 , x2 ) and y  ( y1, y2 ) . Check whether  x, y   x1 y1  2 x1 y2  2 x2 y1  5x2 y2 is an inner product
or not?
7. State and prove Schwartz’s inequality.
8. Consider the system 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4; 𝑥 – 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = −11; 𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 19; find the minimal solution
9. Let V be an inner product space, and suppose that x and y are orthogonal vectors in V. Prove that ‖𝑥 +
𝑦‖2 =‖𝑥‖2 + ‖𝑦‖2 .Deduce the Pythagorean theorem in 𝑅2.
(a) 𝑉 = 𝑅3, 𝑆 = {(1, 0,1), (0,1,1), (1,3,3)} 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑥 = (1,1,2)
(b) 𝑉 = 𝑅3, 𝑆 = {(1, 1,1), (0,1,1), (0,0,1)} 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑥 = (1,0,1)
(c) 𝑉 = 𝑃 (𝑅)with the inner product <𝑓(𝑥), 𝑔(𝑥) > = ∫ 1 𝑓(𝑡)𝑔(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 , 𝑆 = 2 0 {1, 𝑥, 𝑥2}, 𝑎𝑛𝑑ℎ(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 .
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 (d) 𝑉 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 (𝑠), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑆 = {(1, 𝑖, 0), (1 − 𝑖, 2,4𝑖)}𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑥 = (3 + 𝑖, 4𝑖, −1)
(e) 𝑉 = 𝑅𝑡 , 𝑆 = {(2, −1, −2,4), (−2,1, −5,5), (−1,3,7,11)}𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑥 = (−11,8, −4,18) (f) 𝑉 = 𝑅𝑡 , 𝑆 = {(1, −2, −1,3),
(3,6,3, −1), (1,4,2,8)}𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑥 = (−1,2,1,1)
10. State and prove dimension theorem. (or) State and prove dimension theorem. (APL-MAY 2019)
11. Let T : R 2  R 3 be defined by T (a1, a2 )  (a1  a2 ,0,2a1  a2 ) . Prove that T is linear. Examine
whether N (T ) and R(T ) are subspaces of R 2 and R 3 respectively. Find bases for N (T ) and R(T ) .
Compute the nullity and rank of T. Determine whether T is one to one or onto.
12. Let T : R 2  R 3 be defined by T ( x, y )  (2 x  y,3x  4 y, x ) . Find N (T ) and R(T ) , Is T is one to one ,
onto? Justify your answer.
13. Let  and  be the standard ordered basis for R n and R m respectively. Let T : R n  R m , compute
T  for T : R 2  R 3 defined by T (a1, a2 )  (2a1  a2 ,3a1  4a2 , a1 )
14. Verify that the transformation defined T ( x1 , x2 )  ( x1  x2 , x1  x2 , x2 ) are a line transformation from
R 2  R 3 . Find Null space, range, nullity and rank.
x
15. Let T : P2 ( R)  P3 ( R) be defined by T  f ( x)   2 f ' ( x)   3 f (t )dt Prove that T is linear.
0

16. Find bases for N (T) and R (T). Compute the nullity and rank of T. Determine whether T is one-one or
onto.

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 BM3491-BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION
LTPC3003

UNIT I ELECTRODE CONFIGURATIONS 9

Bio signals characteristics – Origin of bio potential and its propagation. Frequency and amplitude ranges.
Electrode configurations: Electrode-electrolyte interface, electrode–skin interface impedance, polarization effects
of electrode – non-polarizable electrodes. Unipolar and bipolar configuration, classification of electrodes.

UNIT II BIOSIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS 9

Bio signals characteristics – ECG-frequency and amplitude ranges – Einthoven’s triangle, standard 12 lead
system. EEG - EEG – 10-20 electrode system, unipolar, bipolar and average mode. EMG– unipolar and bipolar
mode. EMG - Electrode configuration -unipolar and bipolar mode.

UNIT III BIOAMPLIFIERS 9

Need for bio-amplifier - Differential bio-amplifier – Single ended amplifier - Band pass filtering, isolation
amplifiers – transformer and optical isolation - isolated DC amplifier and AC carrier amplifier. Chopper amplifier.
Power line interference

UNIT IV MEASUREMENT OF BIO SIGNALS 9

Temperature, respiration rate and pulse rate measurements. Blood Pressure - indirect methods: auscultatory
method, oscillometric method, direct methods: electronic manometer, Pressure amplifiers - systolic, diastolic,
mean detector circuit. Blood flow and cardiac output measurement: Indicator dilution, thermal dilution and dye
dilution method, Electromagnetic and ultrasound blood flow measurements

UNIT V BIOCHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS 9

Biochemical sensors - pH, pO2 and pCO2, Ion selective Field effect Transistor (ISFET),
Immunologically sensitive FET (IMFET), Blood glucose sensors. Blood gas analyzers, colorimeter, flame
photometer, spectrophotometer, blood cell counter, auto analyzer.

TOTAL:45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Leslie Cromwell, “Biomedical Instrumentation and measurement”, 2nd edition, Prentice hall of India, New
Delhi, 2015.
2. John G. Webster, “Medical Instrumentation Application and Design”, 4th edition, Wiley India Pvt Ltd, New
Delhi, 2015.
3. Khandpur R.S, “Handbook of Biomedical Instrumentation”, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2003.

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. John Enderle, Susan Blanchard, Joseph Bronzino, “Introduction to Biomedical Engineering”, second edition,
Academic Press,2005.
2. Joseph J. Carr and John M. Brown, “Introduction to Biomedical Equipment Technology”, Pearson Education,
2004.

42
 UNIT-I ELECTRODE CONFIGURATIONS
Bio signals characteristics – Origin of bio potential and its propagation. Frequency and amplitude ranges.
Electrode configurations: Electrode-electrolyte interface, electrode–skin interface impedance, polarization
effects of electrode – non-polarizable electrodes. Unipolar and bipolar configuration, classification of electrodes.

PART-A

1. What is the origin of biopotentials?

The origins of these biopotentials can be traced to the electric activity at the cellular level.
The electric potential across a cell membrane is the result of different ionic concentrations that exist inside
and outside the cell. The electrochemical concentration gradient across a semi permeable membrane results
in the Nernst potential.

2. What is resting potential?

The cell membrane separates high concentrations of potassium ion and low concentrations of sodium ions
(along with other ions such as calcium in less significant proportions) inside a cell and just the opposite
outside a cell. This difference in ionic concentration across the cell membrane produces the resting
potential.

3. Define Conduction Velocity

Conduction velocity is defined as the rate at which an action potential moves down a fiber or is
propagated from cell to cell. It is also called as Nerve conduction rate.

4. Write down the Nernst equation of action potential.

An equation relating the potential across the membrane and the two concentrations of the ion is called Nernst
equation.
E =(-RT/Nf)ln(c1f1/c2f2)
Where, R gas constant(8.315 x 107 ergs/mole/degree Kelvin)
T - absolute Temperature, degrees Kelvin n – valence of the ion (the number of electrons added or removed
to ionize the atom) F – Faraday constant (96,500 coulombs) C1, C2 – two concentrations of the ion on the
two sides of the membrane f 1, f 2 – respective activity coefficients of the ion on the two sides of the
membrane.

5. Define Action potential?

Action potential is defined as the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse
along the membrane of a cell.

6. What is meant by sodium pump?

Sodium pump is an active process in which sodium ions are quickly transported to the outside of the cell
and the cell again becomes polarized and assumes its resting potential.

7. State all or none law in respect of cell bio potential.

Regardless of the method by which a cell is excited or the intensity of the stimulus, the action potential is
always the same for any given cell.

43
8. List the types of bioelectric potentials
Heart – ElectroCardioGram (ECG)
Brain – ElectroEncephaloGram (EEG)
Muscle – ElectroMyoGram (EMG)
Eye (Retina) – ElectroRetinoGram (ERG)
Eye (Cornea - Retina) – ElectroOculoGram (EOG)

9. Define electrode and list its types.

The device that convert ionic potential into electronic potential are called as electrode. The types of electrode
are a)Micro electrode b)Depth and needle electrode c)Surface electrode.

10. What are perfectly polarized and perfectly non polarized electrodes?
Electrodes in which no net transfer of charge occurs across the metal electrolyte interface is called perfectly
polarized electrode. Electrodes in which unhindered exchange of charge occurs across the metal electrolyte
interface is called perfectly non polarized electrode.

11. What are the types of electrodes used in bipolar measurement?

The types of electrodes used in bipolar measurement are a)Limb electrodes b)Floating Electrodes c)Skin electrodes
Name the electrodes used for recording EMG and ECG. Nov/Dec-2012
Electrodes used for recording EMG are a) Needle electrodes b)Surface electrodes
Electrodes used for recording ECG are d)Limb electrodes e)Floating Electrodes. f)
Pregelled disposable electrodes g)Pasteless electrodes

12. What type of reaction occurs between the electrode and the electrolyte?
Oxidation-reduction

13. Why is important to use the same electrode material when biopotentials are being recorded?
All the electrodes should be of the same material to achieve half-cell compensation in the differential
amplifier.
14. Draw the equivalent circuit of an electrode placed on the skin.

15. Draw the Equivalent circuit of a biopotential electrode

Ehc – half-cell potential, Rd and Cd – represent the impedance associated with the electrode-electrolyte
interface, Rs – series resistance

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16. Define Half cell potential?
In electrochemical cells, the electrical potential developed by the overall cell reaction; can be considered, for
calculation purposes, as the sum of the potential developed at the anode and the potential developed at the
cathode, each being a half-cell.

17. What are perfectly polatrizable electrodes?

Perfectly polarizable electrodes are those in which no actual charge crosses the electrode–
electrolyte interface when a current is applied. Of course, there has to be current across the interface, but
this current is a displacement current, and the electrode behaves as though it were a capacitor.

18. What are perfectly nonpolatrizable electrodes?

Perfectly nonpolarizable electrodes are those in which current passes freely across the electrode–
electrolyte interface, requiring no energy to make the transition. Thus, for perfectly nonpolarizable
electrodes there are no over potentials.

PART-B

1. Explain the origin of Biopotentials and its propagation?

2. Discuss the generation of Resting and Action potential.
3. With a neat diagram explain about electrode –electrolyte interface?
4. With a neat diagram explain about electrode –skin interface?
5. Briefly explain about a) half cell potential b) polarizations and its types
6. With suitable diagram list out the types of electrodes?
7. List out the types of microelectrodes and explain it with equivalent diagram?
8. Explain the recording problems with two electrodes?
9. Difference between polarizable and non polarization electrode?
10. Describe in detail about the Internal Electrodes.

UNIT II BIOSIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS

Bio signals characteristics – ECG-frequency and amplitude ranges – Einthoven’s triangle, standard 12 lead
system. EEG - EEG – 10-20 electrode system, unipolar, bipolar and average mode. EMG– unipolar and bipolar
mode. EMG - Electrode configuration -unipolar and bipolar mode.

PART-A
1. What is ECG?
Electrocardiography (ECG or EKG meaning heart[) is the process of recording the electrical activity of the
heart over a period of time using electrodes placed on a patient's body.

2. Define Einthoven triangle.

Einthoven's triangle is an imaginary formation of three limb leads in a triangle used in electrocardiography,
formed by the two shoulders and the pubis.
The shape forms an inverted equilateral triangle with the heart at the center that produces zero potential
when the voltages are summed. It is named after Willem Einthoven, who theorized its existence.

45
3. What are the standard 12 lead system?
Bipolar limb leads (frontal plane):
Lead I: RA (-) to LA (+) (Right Left, or lateral)
Lead II: RA (-) to LL (+) (Superior Inferior)
Lead III: LA (-) to LL (+) (Superior Inferior)
Augmented unipolar limb leads (frontal plane):
Lead aVR: RA (+) to [LA & LL] (-) (Rightward)
Lead aVL: LA (+) to [RA & LL] (-) (Leftward)
Lead aVF: LL (+) to [RA & LA] (-) (Inferior)
Unipolar (+) chest leads (horizontal plane):
Leads V1, V2, V3: (Posterior Anterior)
Leads V4, V5, V6 :(Right Left, or lateral)

4. What is evoked potential?

The external stimuli are detected by the sense organs which cause changes in the electrical activity of
the brain. Due to this, potential is developed in the brain as the response to external stimului like light, sound
etc. It is called as evoked potential.

5. Define latency as related to EMG.

Latency is defined as the elapsed time between the stimulating impulse and the muscle action potential. In
other words it is the time delay between stimulus and response.

6. What is Electroencephalography?
Electroencephalography (EEG) is a non-invasive method to record electrical activity of the brain along the
scalp. EEG measures voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current within the neurons of the brain.
7. Draw typical ECG waveform

8. What are the important bands of frequencies in EEG and state their importance.
Waves Frequency Observation
(Hz)
Delta( δ ) 0.5-4 These wave occur in deep sleep in premature babies and in very serious
organic brain disease
Theta( θ ) 4-8 These wave occurs during emotional stress in some adults particularly
during disappointment and frustration
Alpha (α) 8-13 They found in the normal persons when they are awake in a quiet,
resting state. During sleep they disappear.
Beta 13-30 It is observed when the person is alert active, busy, or anxious thinking,
(β) active concentration

46
9. What are the peak amplitude and frequency response for ECG, EEG and EMG.
Bioelectric potential Function Peak Amplitude Frequency Observation
response
(ECG) Records electrical 0.1 to 4mV 0.05 to 120 Hz Used to measure
activity of heart heart rate,
arrhythmia and
abnormalities
(EEG) Records electrical 1 to 200 μV 0.1 to 100 Hz Used to analysis
activity of brain evoked potential,
certain patterns,
frequency
response
(EMG) Records muscle 50μV to 1 mv 5 to 2000 Hz Used as indicator
potential of muscle action
for measuring
fatigue

10. What is 10-20 electrode system?

The 10–20 system or International 10–20 system is an internationally recognized method to
describe and apply the location of scalp electrodes in the context of an EEG test or experiment.
The "10" and "20" refer to the fact that the actual distances between adjacent electrodes are either
10% or 20% of the total front–back or right–left distance of the skull.

11. What is Tachycardia and Bradycardia?

A heart rate slower than 60 beats per minute is said to be Bradycardia and
A rate faster than 100 beats/minute is said to be tachycardia.

12. What is Electromyography?

This is a method for evaluating and recording physiologic properties of resting and contracting
muscles. It is used to detect the electrical potential generated by these muscle cells when they
contract as well as when they are at rest.

13. Draw the Einthoven triangle.

14. What is the importance of P wave?

Absent — sinus arrest, atrial fibrillation
Present — morphology and PR interval may suggest sinus, Atrial, junctional or even retrograde
from the ventricles.

15. What is Normal sinus rhythm?

Normal sinus rhythm is the rhythm of a healthy normal heart, where the sinus node triggers the
cardiac activation.

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16. What is Atrial flutter?
When the heart rate is sufficiently elevated so that the isoelectric interval between the end of T and
beginning of P disappears, the arrhythmia is called Atrial flutter.

17. What is First-degree atrioventricular block?

When the P-wave always precedes the QRS-complex but the PR-interval is prolonged over 0.2 s.

18. What is classification of Biosignals?

1. Bioelectric signals, i.e., ECG, EEG, and SEMG.
2. Bioacoustic signals, i.e., lung sound (LS), heart sounds (HS), and bowel sounds (BS).

PART-B
1. Explain the Biosignals characteristics of ECG signal?
2. Explain the Biosignals characteristics of EEG signal?
3. With suitable diagram briefly explain electrode placement of ECG?
4. With suitable diagram briefly explain electrode placement of EEG?
5. Explain the Biosignals characteristics of EMG signal?
6. With suitable diagram briefly explain electrode placement of EMG and conduction velocity?
7. Explain different lead connections in ECG?

UNIT III BIOAMPLIFIERS

Need for bio-amplifier - Differential bio-amplifier – Single ended amplifier - Band pass filtering, isolation
amplifiers – transformer and optical isolation - isolated DC amplifier and AC carrier amplifier. Chopper
amplifier. Power line interference

PART A
1. What is a Bioamplifier?
A Bioamplifier is an electrophysiological device, a variation of the instrumentation amplifier, used to gather
and increase the signal integrity of physiologic electrical activity for output to various sources. It may be
an independent unit, or integrated into the electrodes.

2. Give the specifications of bioamplifier used for measurement of ECG?

Low internal noise (<2 mV)
High Input Impedance (Zin> 10 MΩ)
Bandwidth ranging from 0.16–250 Hz
Bandwidth cutoffs (>18 dB/octave).
Notch filter (50 or 60 Hz, depending on country/region)
Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR > 107 dB)
Common mode input range (CMR ± 200 mV)
Static electricity shock protection (>2000 V).

3. What are the properties of an ideal amplifier?

Infinite Input Resistance, Ri-∞
Zero Ouput resistance, R0-0
Infinite Bandwidth, BW -∞

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4. What is CMRR?
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR):
The ratio between the amplitude of a common mode signal and the amplitude of a differential signal that
would produce the same output amplitude.

5. What are the basic requirements that a bio-potential amplifier?

The basic requirements that a bio-potential amplifier has to satisfy are:
a. the physiological process to be monitored should not be influenced in any way by the amplifier
b. the measured signal should not be distorted
c. the amplifier should provide the best possible separation of signal and interferences
d. the amplifier has to offer protection of the patient from any hazard of electrical shock

6. What is the importance of Driven Right Leg Circuit?

A Driven Right Leg Circuit or “DRL” circuit is an electric circuit that is often added to biological signal
amplifiers to reduce Common-mode interference.
Right Leg Driver circuitry is used to eliminate interference noise by actively canceling the
interference.

7. What is a band pass filter?

A band pass filter is an electronic device or circuit that allows signals between two specific frequencies to
pass, but that discriminates against signals at other frequencies.

8. What is Q factor of a band pass filter?

The Q-factor is the inverse of the fractional bandwidth.
A high-Q filter will have a narrow pass band and
A low-Q filter will have a wide pass band. These are respectively referred to as narrow-band and wide-band
filters.

9. What is an isolation amplifier?

Isolation amplifiers are a form of differential amplifier that allows measurement of small signals in the
presence of a high common mode voltage by providing electrical isolation and an electrical safety barrier.

10. Define the selection of single ended and differential amplifiers.

Single-ended. An unbalanced input, non-isolated. Suitable for measurements where common mode voltages
are zero, or extremely small. Very inexpensive.
Differential. A balanced input, non-isolated. Suitable for measurements where the sum of common mode and
normal mode voltages remains within the measurement range of the amplifier.

11. What is a carrier amplifier?

A direct-current amplifier in which the dc input signal is filtered by a low-passfilter, then used to
modulate a carrier so it can be amplified conventionally as an alternating-current signal; the amplified
dc output is obtained by rectifying and filtering the rectified carrier signal.

12. What is chopper amplifier?

A chopper circuit is used to break up the input signal so that it can be processed as if it were an AC signal,
then integrated back to a DC signal at the output. In this way, extremely small DC signals can be amplified.

13. Give the classifications of chopper amplifier?

On basis of input and output voltage levels:
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  Step-down chopper
o class A
o class C
o class D
o class E
 Step-up chopper
o class B

14. Give the classifications of chopper according to circuit operation?

On basis of circuit operation:
First quadrant
Two quadrant
Four quadrant

15. Give the classifications of chopper according to commutation method?

 On basis of commutation method:
o Voltage commutated
o Current commutated
o Load commutated
o Impulse commutated

16. What are the applications of choppers?

Variable-frequency drive
D.C. motor speed control
D.C. voltage boosting
Battery operated electric cars
Battery operated appliances
Battery chargers

17. What are the causes of power line noise?

Virtually all power-line noise, originating from utility company equipment, is caused by a spark or arcing
across some power-line related hardware.
A breakdown and ionization of air occurs, and current flows between two conductors in a gap. The gap
may be caused by broken, improperly installed or loose hardware.

18. What are the factors that decide resistance of the electrode-skin interface?
The resistance of the electrode-skin interface depends on:
Thickness of the skin layer,
The cleaning of the skin prior to the attachment of the electrodes,
The area of the electrode surface,
Temperature.

19. What is the frequency rating of movement artifact?

Movement artifacts – their frequency lies in the 0 to 10 Hz range. It don’t cause big problems.

20. What are the requirements of Basic amplifier?

 The physiological process to be monitored should not be influenced in any way by the amplifier
 The measured signal should be not distorted
 The amplifier should provide the best possible separation of signal and interferences
 The amplifier should offer protection of the patient from any hazard and electric shock
 The amplifier should be protected against damages due to high input voltages.
50
21. What are the 5 components of input signal to the amplifier?
Desired bio-potential
Undesired biopotentials
A power line interference signal and its harmonics
Interference signals generated by the tissue-electrode interface
Noise.

22. Write some of the household items found to cause interference?

 Door Bell Transformers
 Electric Blankets
 Electric Blankets
 Heating Pads (of all kinds)
 Recessed Ceiling Light Fixtures

PART B
1. What is meant by Bio-amplifier and why bio-amplifier is required?
2. List out the merits and demerits of Bio-amplifier?
3. Explain a) single ended bio-amplifier b) differential amplifier c) right leg driven ECG amplifier?
4. With neat circuit diagram explain the working principle of ECG amplifier
5. List out the types of isolation amplifier?
6. Explain about chopper amplifier with circuit diagram?
7. With suitable circuit diagram explain AC and DC carrier amplifier

UNIT IV MEASUREMENT OF BIO SIGNALS

Temperature, respiration rate and pulse rate measurements. Blood Pressure - indirect methods: auscultatory
method, oscillometric method, directs methods: electronic manometer, Pressure amplifiers - systolic, diastolic,
mean detector circuit. Blood flow and cardiac output measurement: Indicator dilution, thermal dilution and dye
dilution method, Electromagnetic and ultrasound blood flow measurements

PART-A
1. What is body temperature?
The normal body temperature of a person varies depending on gender, recent activity, food and fluid
consumption, time of day, and, in women, the stage of the menstrual cycle. Normal body temperature can
range from 97.8 degrees F (or Fahrenheit, equivalent to 36.5 degrees C, or Celsius) to 99 degrees F (37.2
degrees C) for a healthy adult.

2. What is the pulse rate?

The pulse rate is a measurement of the heart rate, or the number of times the heart beats per minute.

3. What is the respiration rate?

The respiration rate is the number of breaths a person takes per minute. The rate is usually measured when a
person is at rest and simply involves counting the number of breaths for one minute by counting how many
times the chest rises

51
4. What is blood pressure?
When the heart beats, it pumps blood round your body to give it the energy and oxygen it needs. As the blood
moves, it pushes against the sides of the blood vessels. The strength of this pushing is your blood pressure. If
your blood pressure is too high, it puts extra strain on your arteries (and your heart) and this may lead to heart
attacks and strokes.
5. Define Systolic pressure.
The highest pressure in the arteries, produced as a result of ventricular contraction is known as the SYSTOLIC
BLOOD PRESSURE.

6. What is diastolic pressure?

The lowest pressure in the arteries, produced as a result of ventricular relaxation is known as the DIASTOLIC
BLOOD PRESSURE.

7. What is the direct method of measuring blood pressure?

The direct method involves directly inserting a tube or catheter into a blood vessel.
The catheter is connected to a blood pressure transducer, which generates an electrical
signal.

8. What is hypotension?
Blood pressure that is too low is known as hypotension. Hypotension is a medical concern if it causes signs or
symptoms, such as dizziness, fainting, or in extreme cases, shock.

9. What is cardiac output?

Cardiac output is the volume of blood being pumped by the heart, in particular by a left or right ventricle in
the time interval of one minute.

Cardiac Output in mL/min = heart rate (beats/min) X stroke volume (mL/beat)

10. What is stroke volume?

The stroke volume is the volume of blood, in millilitres (mL), pumped out of the heart with each beat.

11. What are the different methods of measuring blood flow?

 Indicator (dye or thermal) intensity
 Electromagnetic induction
 Ultrasonic transmission and reflection
 Thermal convection
 Radiographic principle

12. What are the properties of dye used?

 Motionless,–
 Harmless–
 Measurable –
 Economical–
 Always intravascular

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13. What are the two types of ultrasonic blood flow-velocity meters?
There are basically two types of ultrasonic blood flow-velocity meters. The first type is the transit time
velocity meter and the second is the Doppler-shift type.

14. What is the principle of ultrasonic flow meter?

An ultrasonic flow meter is a type of flow meter that measures the velocity of a fluid with
ultrasound to calculate volume flow. Using ultrasonic transducers, the flow meter can measure the
average velocity along the path of an emitted beam of ultrasound, by averaging the difference in
measured transit time between the pulses of ultrasound propagating into and against the direction of
the flow or by measuring the frequency shift from the Doppler Effect.

15. State Doppler Effect?

The apparent shift in frequency of transmitted and received signal.

16. What is the principle of Doppler shift flow velocity meters?

It is a non-invasive technique to measure blood velocity in a particular vessel from the surface of the body. It
is based on the analysis of echo signals from the erythrocytes in the vascular structures.
Because of the Doppler effect, the frequency of these echo signals changes relative to the frequency which the
probe transmits. The Doppler frequency shift is a measure of the size and direction of the flow velocity.

17. What is Fick’s principle of measuring cardiac output?

It assumes that the rate at which oxygen is consumed is a function of the rate of blood flows and the rate of
oxygen picked up by the red blood cells. The Fick principle involves calculating the oxygen consumed over a
given period of time from measurement of the oxygen concentration of the venous blood and the arterial
blood.

18. Give the formula for calculating cardiac output in terms of liters /min.
M  60
Q l / min.
area under curve
where, M  Quantity of injected indicator in mg Q  Cardiac output  min.

19. What are the different types of Blood flow meter?

 Electromagnetic blood flow meter
 Ultrasonic blood flow meter
 Laser based Doppler blood flow meter
 NME Blood flow meter.

20. Give the different methods to measure cardiac output?

 Fick’s method
 Indicator Dilution Method
 Dye dilution method
 Thermal dilution method
 Impedance change method.

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 PART-B
1. Explain the working principle of blood pressure measurement?
2. With suitable diagram explain indirect blood pressure measurement?
3. With suitable diagram explain direct blood pressure measurement?
4. Briefly explain the working principle of respiratory rate measurement?
5. Explain the working principle of pulse rate measurement?
6. Explain the working principle of temperature measurement?
7. List out the different types of cardiac output and explain it with neat diagram?
8. List out the different types of blood flow measurement and explain it with neat diagram?

UNIT V BIOCHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS

Biochemical sensors - pH, pO2 and pCO2, Ion selective Field effect Transistor (ISFET),
Immunologically sensitive FET (IMFET), Blood glucose sensors. Blood gas analyzers, colorimeter, flame
photometer, spectrophotometer, blood cell counter, auto analyzer.

PART-A
1. What is Ph Measurement?
PH is thus a measure of hydrogen ion concentration, expressed logarithmically.
Specifically, it is the negative exponent (log) of the hydrogen ion concentration.
pH = –log (H+).

2. Give the Nernst equation.

The potential (E) of the glass electrode may be written by means of the Nernst
equation:
E = Eo–2.3036 RT/F .ΔpH
Where Eo= standard potential
R = gas constant
T = absolute temperature
F = Faraday constant
ΔpH = pH value deviation from 7

3. What is pCO2 Measurement?

The blood pCO2 is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide of blood taken anaerobically. It is expressed in
mmHg and is related to the percentage CO2 as follows:
pCO2 = Barometric pressure – water vapour pressure x%CO2/100

4. What is ISFET?
An ISFET is an ion-sensitive field-effect transistor used for measuring ion concentrations in solution; when
the ion concentration (such as H+, see pH scale) changes, the current through the transistor will change
accordingly.
Here, the solution is used as the gate electrode. A voltage between substrate and oxide surfaces arises due to
an ion sheath.

54
5. What is Immunologically Sensitive Field-Effect Transistors (IMFETs)
The Immunologically Sensitive Field-Effect Transistors (IMFETs) represent the amalgamation of the
technologies of Solid-state electronics and Immunodiagnostics. The immunosensor is fabricated by
immobilizing immunoagent, preferably, antibody on the gate region of an Ion-Sensitive Field Effect Transistor
(ISFET).

6. What is a Glucometer?
A glucose meter (or glucometer) is a medical device for determining the approximate concentration of
glucose in the blood. It can also be a strip of glucose paper dipped into a substance and measured to the
glucose chart.

7. What is a Blood gas analyzer?

Blood gas analyzers are designed to measure pH, pCO2 and pO2 from a single sample of whole blood. The
size of the sample may vary from 25 μl to a few hundred microlitres. The estimations take about 1 minute.

8. What are the disadvantages of colorimetric method?

The disadvantage is that a range of filters is required to cover different wavelength regions. Also the spectral
bandwidth of these filters is large in comparison with that of the absorption band being measured.

9. What is a spectrophotometer?
A spectrophotometer is an instrument which isolates monochromatic radiation in a more efficient and versatile
manner than color filters used in filter photometers. In these instruments, light from the source is made into a
parallel beam and passed to a prism or diffraction grating, where light of different wavelengths is dispersed at
different angles.

10. What is flame photometer?

The flame photometer is one of the most useful instruments in clinical analyses. This is due to the
suitability of the flame photometer for determining sodium, potassium and calcium, which are of
immense importance in the development of the living being and are indispensable for its
physiological functions.

11. What are the 3 essential parts of flame photometer?

(a) Emission System (b) Optical System (c) Recording System

12. Give the components of Emission system of flame photometer?

Emission System: Consists of the following:
(i) Fuel gases: and their regulation: comprising the fuel reservoir, compressors, pressure
regulators and pressure gauges.
(ii) Atomizer: consisting, in turn, of the sprayer and the atomization chamber, where the
aerosol is produced and fed into the flame.
(iii) Burner: receives the mixture of the combustion gases.
(iii) Flame: the true source of emission.

55
13. Draw the block diagram of flame photometer?

14. What are the uses of buffer solution?

Buffer Solutions: Buffer solutions are primarily used for (i) creation and maintenance of a desired, stabilized
pH in a solution and (ii) standardization of electrode chains for pH measurements.

15. Give the method of pO2 measurement?

The partial pressure of oxygen is usually measured with a polarographic electrode. There is a
characteristic polarizing voltage at which any element in solution is predominantly reduced and in the case of
oxygen, it is 0.6 to 0.9 V. In this voltage range, it is observed that the current flowing in the electrochemical
cell is proportional to the oxygen concentration in the solution.

16. What is meant by haematocrit value?

The percentage of cells in the blood is called the haematocrit value or packed cell volume (PCV). The
majority of the corpuscles in blood are red blood cells (erythrocytes), others being white blood cells
(leucocytes) and platelets (thrombocytes).

17. What are the types of blood cell?

1. Erythrocytes
2. Leucocytes
(a) Neutrophils
(b) Lymphocytes
(c) Eosinophils
(d) Basophils
(e) Monocytes
3. Thrombocytes

18. Mention any one method of counting blood cells.

The most common and routinely applied method of counting blood cells even today, particularly in small
laboratories, is the microscopic method in which the diluted sample is visually examined and the cells counted

19. What are Blood cell counters?

Blood cell counters, operating on the principle of conductivity change, which occurs each time a cell passes
through an orifice, are generally known as Coulter Counters. The technique is extremely useful for
determining the number and size of the particles suspended in an electrically conductive liquid.

56
 PART-B

1. Explain the measurement of pH measurement?

2. Explain the measurement of pO2 measurement?
3. Explain the measurement of pCO2 measurement?
4. Briefly explain the working principle of ISFET?
5. Briefly explain the working principle of IMFET?
6. With suitable diagram explain spectrophotometer?
7. List out the principle behind colorimeter and explain it?
8. Explain the different types of blood cell counter?
9. With simplified schematic diagram explain the working principle of auto analyzer?

57
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60
61
62
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64
 BM3402 ANALOG AND DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
LTPC3003
UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AND ITS APPLICATIONS 9
Operational amplifier –ideal characteristics, Performance Parameters, Linear and Nonlinear Circuits and their
analysis- voltage follower, Inverting amplifier, Non-inverting Amplifiers, Differentiator, Integrator, Voltage to
Current converter, Instrumentation amplifier, Low pass, High pass filter and band pass filters, Comparator,
Multivibrator and Schmitt trigger, Triangular wave generator.
UNIT II DIGITAL TO ANALOG AND ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTERS AND PLL 9
Analog switches, High speed sample and hold circuit and IC‘s, Types of D/A converter -Weighted resistor, R-2R
ladder DAC, D/A Accuracy and Resolution. A/D converter - Flash, Dual slope, Successive approximation, A/D
Accuracy and Resolution. Voltage controlled oscillator, Voltage to Frequency converters. PLL-Closed loop
analysis of PLL, Frequency multiplication/ division, FSK demodulator.
UNIT III THE BASIC GATES ANDCOMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUITS 9
Number Systems – Decimal, Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal, 1‘s and 2‘s complements, Codes – Binary, BCD, 84-2-
1, 2421, Excess 3, Biquinary, Gray, Alphanumeric codes, Boolean theorems, Logic gates, Universal gates, Sum
of products and product of sums, Minterms and Maxterms, Karnaugh map and Tabulation methods. Logic
families- TTL, MOS, CMOS, BiCMOS - Comparison of Logic families.
UNIT IV COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUITS 9
Problem formulation and design of combinational circuits - Code-Converters, Half and Full Adders, Binary
Parallel Adder – Carry look ahead Adder, BCD Adder, Magnitude Comparator, Decoder, Encoder, Priority
Encoder, Mux/Demux.
UNIT V SEQUENTIAL LOGIC CIRCUITS 9
Flip flops – SR, JK, T, D, Master/Slave FF, Triggering of FF, Analysis and design of clocked sequential circuits –
state minimization, state assignment, circuit implementation. Counters, Ripple Counters, Ring Counters. Types of
Registers, Serial In - Serial Out, Serial In - Parallel out, Parallel In -Serial Out, Parallel In - Parallel Out,
Universal Shift Register.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS
1. Sergio Franco, “Design with operational amplifiers and analog integrated circuits”, Mc Graw Hill Education,
3rd Edition, 2017
2. John.F.Wakerly, “Digital design principles and practices”, Pearson Education, 5th Edition, 2018
REFERENCES
1. Taub and Schilling, “Digital Integrated Electronics”, Mc Graw Hill, 2017.
2. Charles H.Roth, Jr, “Fundamentals of Logic Design”, Jaico Books, 7th Edition, 2013.
3. M. Morris Mano and Michael D.Ciletti, “Digital Design”, Pearson, 5th Edition, 2013.
4. S Salivahanan and V S Kanchana Bhaaskaran, Linear Integrated Circuits, McGraw Hill Education, 3rd Edition,
2018

65
 Unit-I

PART – A
1. Mention the advantages of integrated circuits.(APR /MAY 2010)
 Miniaturization and hence increased equipment density.
 Cost reduction due to batch processing.
 Increased system reliability due to the elimination of soldered joints.
 Improved functional performance.
 Matched devices.
 Increased operating speeds.
 Reduction in power consumption.
2. Mention the characteristics of an ideal op-amp.( MAY 2017)
 Open loop voltage gain is infinity.
 Input impedance is infinity.
 Output impedance is zero.
 Bandwidth is infinity.
 Zero offset.
3. Define slew rate and CMMR.(Nov /Dec 2010) (Apr /May 2011) (APR /MAY 2013)
 Slew rate : It is defined as the maximum rate of rate of change of output voltage
realize by a step input voltage .It is specified in V/µs,
Slew rate= output voltage change / time
 CMMR: The CMRR is defined as the ratio o the differential voltage gain to
common mode voltage gain and is generally expressed in terms of decibels.
CMRR=20 log db
4. What is differential amplifier?
A differential amplifier is an amplifier that amplifies the difference between two
voltages and rejects the average or common mode value of two voltage. It provides the
output voltage. Proportional to the difference between the input voltages.

5. Why is an active load used in an differential amplifier? (Nov /Dec 2010)

Active loads are used in bipolar differential amplifier circuits to increase the
differential mode gain by eliminating large loads resistance and parasitic capacitance.
6. What is Schmitt trigger?
The Schmitt trigger or the bistable multivibrator uses positive feedback
configuration with a loop gain greater than unity. The feedback elements is connected
between the output terminal and the non-inverting terminal that results the effect is called
hystersis.

66
7. What is the need for frequency compensation in practical op-amps?
Frequency compensation is needed when large bandwidth and lower closed loop gain
is desired. Compensating networks are used to control the phase shift and hence to improve
the stability.

8. Design an amplifier with a gain of -5 and input resistance of 5kΩ.

A=-Rf/R1
Rf=-AR1 =-(-5)(5)=25 kΩ

9. Assume slew rate of 741 is 0.5V/µs. What is the maximum and undistorted sine wave
that can be obtained for i) 12V peak ii)5V peak?
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 123-130

10. Assume IOS=400Na,RF=100kΩ and R1=1kΩ. Determine the maximum output offset
voltage.
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 145

11. Why IC 741 is not used for high frequency applications?( MAY 2015)
IC741 has a low slew rate because of the predominance of capacitance present in the
circuit at higher frequencies. As frequency increases the output gets distorted due to limited
slew rate.

12. What is current mirror? (APR /MAY 2010)

The circuit in which the output current is forced to equal the input current is
called ads current mirror circuit.

13. Define virtual ground of OP-Amp?

A virtual ground is a ground which acts like a ground. It is a point that is at the
fixed ground potential (0v),though it is not practically connected to the actual ground or
common terminal of the circuit.

67
 14. What are the limitations in a temperature compensated zener-reference source?
A power supply voltage of atleast 7 to 10 V is required to place the diode in the
breakdown region and that substantial noise is introduced in the circuit by the avalanching
diode.

15. List the features of instrumentation amplifier.

1. Very low output impedance
2. Large voltage gain
3. High CMRR
4. Low input offset
5. Flexibility
6. Low temperature drift

16. Draw the circuit diagram of differentiator and give its output equation. (APR /MAY
2010)

Output equation :

17. Give the schematic of op-amp based voltage to current converter.

18. Draw the circuit diagram of integrator.

68
 PART – B
1. Design a Widlar and wilson current source and obtain the expression for output current. Also
prove that widlar current source has better sensitivity than constant current source For
Widlar current source, VT ln( Ic1/ Ic2 ) = Ic2 R2 NOV 2016
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 68-72
2. Define slew rate . Explain the cause of slew rate and drive an expression for slew rate for an
op-amp voltage follower? NOV 2016
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 49,123
3. Design an active load for an emitter-coupled pair (differential amplifier) and perform a
detailed analysis to find its differential mode gain and the output resistance.

Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 50-58
4. Explain in detail about DC performance characteristics of Op-amp. MAY 2017
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No:104
5. Explain inverting and non-inverting amplifier of ideal op-amp.
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No:43,145
6. .Explain in detail about external frequency compensation in op-amp.
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No:119
7. Explain in detail about AC performance characteristics of Op-amp. MAY 2017
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No:111
8. Derive and explain the pole-zero compensation technique using Op-amp.
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No:120
9. Explain about input bias current and input offset voltage of op amp
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No:105

UNIT- II
PART – A

1. What is an antilog amplifier? Draw the circuit diagram of an antilog amplifier?

Log amplifier can be turned around to provide the antilog or exponential function which
is called the antilog amplifier which can be obtained by using a diode/transistor.

2. What is a function of current to voltage converter? Give an example? (APR /MAY 2010)
Current to voltage converter is a circuits which converts an input current source
proportional to output voltage. Ex: photo detector, photo transistor. It is also known as
current controlled voltage source (CCVS).

69
3. List the features of instrumentation amplifier.
 Very low output impedance
 Large voltage gain
 High CMRR
 Low input offset
 Flexibility
 Low temperature drift

4. Define capture range of PLL.

The range of frequencies over which the PLL can acquire lock with the input signal is
called as capture range.

5. Write the significance of Lock range of a PLL. MAY 2014

When PLL is in lock, it can trap freq changes in the incoming signal. The range of
frequencies over which the PLL can maintain lock with the incoming signal is called as
lock range.

6. What is an operational transconductance amplifier? MAY 2013

It is basically a voltage to current converter. The constant of proportional between
input and output is nothing but the transconmductance of the amplifier.
Relation between input and output is given by

=transconductance or gain of OT
=differential input +

7. Draw the relation between the capture range and lock range in a PLL. NOV 2013

The frequency range and is called capture range and frequency range and is
called lock range.

70
8. How do you convert a basic multiplier to a squaring and square root circuit? MAY 2017
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, by “A.P.Godse” page No: 4-59

9. Mention the application of analog multiplier.

Analog multiplier is an active network which is produces an output proportional
to the multiplication of two input and .based on the input it is divided into two
types voltage multiplier and current multiplier.

10. What is a four quadrant multiplier?

The four quadrant operation indicates that the output voltage is directly
proportional to the product of the two input voltages regardless of the polarity of the
inputs and such multipliers can be operated in all the four quadrants of operation
.
11. How VCO differ from Oscillators?
 Frequency modulation
 Tone generator
 FSK
 FM modulation
 Frequency generator and frequency multiplier.

12. What is a frequency synthesizer?

A frequency synthesizer is an electronic circuit that generates a range
of frequencies from a single reference frequency.

13. List the applications of analog multiplier. NOV 2014

 Multiplication
 Division
 Squaring
 Gain control stage
 Square root extraction
 Bandwidth control stage

14. Give the relation between the capture range and lock range in a PLL?
The frequency range and is called capture range and frequency range and
is called lock range .

71
15. Draw the basic functional diagram of a PLL? MAY 2015

16. Define pull out and Pull in range.

The maximum frequency range which breakdown the progressive phase lock is called
pull out range.
The total time taken by the PLL to establish a lock is called pull in time.

17. What is reference generator (RG)?

Reference generator is a linear device that generator the analog input signal for
the phase locked loop. Normally since wave generator are used as an input section to
generate the analog input signal.

18. Define conversion time of DAC.

It is a time required for conversion of analog digital into its digital equivalent. It is also
called setting time

19. List the application of analog to digital converter.

 Computer and scanner
 Digital signal processing
 Modem
 Music recording.

20. Compare binary ladder and R-2R Ladder type DAC.

BINARY LADDER R-2R LADDER

Wide range of resistor value is required Easily to build accurately with two metal
film resistors

It is unpractical to fabricate large value Easy to fabricate

of resistors
Finite resistance of the switch disturb Voltage remain constant with changing
the binary weighted relationship among input binary words
various currents

72
21. List out the direct type ADCs.
 Flash type converter
 Counter type converter
 Tracking or servo converter
 Successive approximation type converter

PART – B
1. Draw the circuit diagram of a second order Butterworth active low pass filter and derive
an expression for its transfer function and explain a second order low pass filter.
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 262
2. Explain the working of full precision rectifier MAY 2016
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 148
3. Design a differentiator to differentiate an input signal that varies in frequency from 10Hz
to about 1Khz MAY 2015
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 324
4. If a sine wave of 1v peak at 1000Hz is applied to the differentiator, draw its output
waveform Give the basic differentiator frequency response MAY 2016
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 199
5. Design a Schmitt trigger for UTP =0.5v and LTP=-0.5V
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 324
6. Discuss the need for an instrumentation amplifier? Give a detailed analysis for the same.
MAY 2017
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 141
7. Explain in detail about the logarithmic and anti logarithmic amplifier with neat circuit
diagram MAY 2016
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 155
8. Design a circuit to implement VO = 0.545V3+0.273V4-1.25V1-2V2.
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 148
9. Design a practical differentiator that will differentiate an input signal with the
fmax=150Hz.
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 164
10. Design a practical integrator circuit with a dc gain of 10 to integrate a square wave of
10 KHz
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 193.
11. Derive an antilog amplifier with neat diagram and also derive the temperature
compensated antilog amplifier.
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 155
12. Design a second order butterworth active high pass filter for a cut-off frequency of
5KHz.
Refer Linear Integrated Circuits, 2nd edition by “D. Roy Choudhury” page No: 268

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 UNIT III

PART – A

1. Where the digital systems are used?

Digital systems are used extensively in computation and data processing, control systems,
Communications and measurements. Since digital systems are capable of greater accuracy and
reliability than analog systems, many tasks formerly done by analog are now being performed
digitally.

2. What is the difference between analog and digital systems? (Aril /May 2015)
In a digital system the physical quantities or signals can assume only discrete values, while in
analog systems the physical quantities or signals vary continuously over a Specified range.

3. What is a binary number system and why are binary numbers used in digital systems?
The number system with base (or radix) two is known as the binary number system. Only two
symbols are used to represent the numbers in the system and these are 0 and 1.The outputs of the
switching devices used in digital systems assume only two different values. Hence it is natural to
use binary numbers internally in digital systems.

4. What is the difference between binary code and BCD? (Nov/Dec 2016)
Binary: (i).Any distinct element can be represented by a binary code.
(ii). No limitation for the minimum or maximum number of elements required for
Coding the element
BCD: (i) Only a decimal digit can be represented.
(ii) It is a four bit representation.

5. What is an Excess3 code?

The excess3 code is a non weighted code which is obtained from the 8-4-2-1 code
by adding 3(0011) to each of the codes.

6. What is a gray code and mention its advantages. (Nov/ Dec 2014)
A gray code is a non weighted code which has the property that the codes for
successive decimal digits differ in exactly one bit. The gray code is used in applications
where the normal sequence of binary numbers may produce an error during the transition
from one number to the next

7. What is meant by non-weighted codes?

Each bit has no positional value Example:
(i). Excess-3 code
ii).Gray code
iii).Five bit BCD

8. List the names of universal gates. Why it is named so?

NAND and NOR gates are universal gates. Because a combination of NAND gates
Or a combination of NOR gates can be used to perform functions of any of the basic
Logic gates.

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9. What is mean by Fan-out?
Number of logic gates at the next stage that can be loaded to a given logic gate output so that
voltages for each of the possible logic state remain within the defined limits

10. What is propagation delay? (Aril /May 2015)

Propagation delay for a logic output from a logic gate means the time interval between Change in
a defined reference point input voltage and reflection of its effect at the output. It can also be
defined as the time interval between changes in a defined logic level input and reflection of its
effect at the output logic level

11. What is noise margin?

It is the maximum noise voltage added to an input signal of a digital circuit that does not cause
an undesirable change in the circuit output. It is expressed in volts.

12. Represent the following number is one complement form i) +7&-7 ii) +15 & -15
a) (+7)10 = (0111)2 (-7)10 = (1000)2
b) (+15)10 = (01111)2 (-15)10 = (10000)2

13. Find 2’s complement for 01100100 and 10010010 (Aril /May 2014)
a) 01100100 1s complement- 10011011 2s complement- 10011100
b) 10010010 1s complement- 01101101 2s complement- 01101110

14. Applications of octal number system.

It is used for entering the binary data and displays certain information.
It is very important for efficient use in microprocessor.

15. What are Demerger’s theorems?

For any number of variables resemble in form the two variable case and can be derived by
successive substitutions similar to the method used in the above derivation. These theorems can
be generalized as follows (A+B+C)’ =(A+X) let B+C=X

16. Find the complement of the functions F1 and F2 by taking the9ir duals and
Complementing each literal (Nov /Dec 2015)
1. F1=x’yz’+x’yz’
The dual of F1 is (x’+y+z’)(x’+y’+z).
Complement each literal: (x+y’+z)(x+y+z’)=F1’
2. F2=x(Y’Z’+YZ)
The dual of F2 is x+(y’+z’)(y+z).
Complement each literal: (x+y’+z)(x+y+z’)=F1’

17. Classify the logic family by operation?

The Bipolar logic family is classified into Saturated logic, Unsaturated logic. The RTL, DTL,
TTL, I2L, HTL logic comes under the saturated logic family. The Scotty TTL, and ECL logic
comes under the unsaturated logic family.

18. Mention the classification of saturated bipolar logic families.

The bipolar logic family is classified as follows:
RTL- Resistor Transistor Logic, DTL- Diode Transistor logic, I2L- Integrated

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Injection Logic.TTL- Transistor Transistor Logic, ECL- Emitter Coupled Logic.

19. Mention the important characteristics of digital IC‟s?

Fan out, Power dissipation, Propagation Delay, Noise Margin, Fan In, Operating temperature,
Power supply requirements.

20. What is depletion mode& enhancement mode operation MOS?

If the channel is initially doped lightly with p-type impurity a conducting channel exists at zero
gate voltage and the device is said to operate in depletion mode. If the region beneath the gate is
left initially uncharged the gate field must induce a channel before current can flow

PART B

1. Discuss about TTL parameters.

2. Draw and explain the circuit diagram of CMOS NOR gate
3. Name and explain the characteristics of TTL family.
4. Explain the characteristics and implementation of the following digital logic families.
(a) CMOS (b) ECL (c) TTL
5. Describe the concept working and applications of the following memories:
(a)PLD(b)FPGA(c)EPROM
6. Explain the classifications of binary codes.
7. Explain about error detection and correction codes
8. Simplify the following using K-map and realize the reduced function using NAND
gates only. Σm(0,1,3,5,6,8,9,14,26,28,31)+ .Σd(4,13)
9. Simplify the following using K map and realize the reduced function using NAND
gates only. Σm(1,2,4,5,7,9,12,13)+ .Σd(3,8).
10. A digital system has 3 bits A,B and C as input. The output Y is 1 when two adjacent
bits or three equal to 1.
a. Draw the K-map for Y & minimize.
b. Realize the function using NAND gates.
11. (ABCD.1234)16= (?)8 = (?)10 = (?)2 = (?)BCD = (?)5
12. Perform the following conversion:
a. (10110001 101011.111 1000000110)2 =(?)8
b. (0.513)10 =(?)8
c. (0.6875)10 = (?)2
d. (10110001101011.11110010)2 =(?)16
13. Reduce the following using K-Map method. F =Σm(2,3,4,6,7,9,11,13) (16)
14. Convert the following numbers:
a. (A3B)16 = (? )10
b. (444.456)10 = ( ? )8
c. (59.57)8 = (?)2
d. (4097.188)10 = (?)2
15. Obtain the canonical SOP & POS of the following expression A+AB+BC
a. Explain weighted and non weighted binary codes with examples
b. Simplify the following Boolean expression to a minimum number of literals
i. ((ABC+A’B’)’ + BC)’
ii. ((AB)’+A’+AB)’ (10)

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16. Simplify the function F in SOP & POS Σm(3,4,13,15)+ .Σd(1,2,5,6,8,10)
17. Given X= 1010100 & Y= 1000011. Find X-Y & Y-X using 1’s & 2’s complement.
19. (a). Explain the formation inverter using CMOS and its operation.
(b).Discuss the characteristics of ECL circuit.
20. (a) Explain the working of two inputs CMOS NAND gate.
(b)Compare the performance of various logic families.

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 UNIT IV

PART – A
1. State the limitations of karnaugh map.
i) Generally it is limited to six variable map (i.e.,) more than six variable involving expression
are not reduced.
ii) The map method is restricted in its capability since they are useful for Simplifying only
Boolean expression represented in standard form.

2. What is a karnaugh map?

A karnaugh map or k map is a pictorial form of truth table, in which the map diagram is made up
of squares, with each squares representing one main term of the function.

3. What are called don’t care conditions? (Nov /Dec 2014)

In some logic circuits certain input conditions never occur, therefore the Corresponding output
never appears. In such cases the output level is not defined, it can be either high or low. These
output levels are indicated by ‘X’ or‘d’ in the truth tables and are called don’t care conditions or
incompletely specified functions.

4. What is a prime implicant?

A prime implicant is a product term obtained by combining the maximum possible Number of
adjacent squares in the map

5. What is an essential implicant?

If a min term is covered by only one prime implicant, the prime implicant is said to be Essential

6. Define combinational logic (Aril /May 2015)

When logic gates are connected together to produce a specified output for certain
specified combinations of input variables, with no storage involved, the resulting circuit is called
combinational logic.

7. Explain the design procedure for combinational circuits (Nov /Dec 2014)
The problem definition determines the number of available input variables & required O/P
variables. Assigning letter symbols to I/O variables Obtain simplified Boolean expression for
each O/P. Obtain the logic diagram.

8. Define half adder and full adder(Nov /Dec 2015)

The logic circuit that performs the addition of two bits is a half adder. The circuit that performs
the addition of three bits is a full adder.

9. Define Decoder?
A decoder is a multiple - input multiple output logic circuits that converts coded inputs into
coded outputs where the input and output codes are different.

10. What is binary decoder?

A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information from n input lines to a
maximum of 2n out puts lines.

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11. Define Encoder?
An encoder has 2n input lines and n output lines. In encoder the output lines generate the binary
code corresponding to the input value.

12. What is priority Encoder?

A priority encoder is an encoder circuit that includes the priority function. In priority Encoder, if
2 or more inputs are equal to 1 at the same time, the input having the highest priority will take
precedence.

13. Define multiplexer? (Nov /Dec 2015)

Multiplexer is a digital switch. If allows digital information from several sources to be routed
onto a single output line.

14. What do you mean by comparator?

A comparator is a special combinational circuit designed primarily to compare the Relative
magnitude of two binary numbers

15. Write down the steps in implementing a Boolean function with levels of NAND Gates?
(i) Simplify the function and express it in sum of products.

(ii) Draw a NAND gate for each product term of the expression that has at least two Literals.
The inputs to each NAND gate are the literals of the term. This constitutes a group of first
level gates. Draw a single gate using the AND-invert or the invert- OR graphic symbol in the
second level, with inputs coming from outputs of first level gates. A term with a single literal
requires an inverter in the first level. However if the single literal is complemented, it can be
connected directly to an input of the second level NAND gate.

16. Give the truth table of full adder.

INPUTS OUTPUTS

A B CIN COUT S

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 0 1

0 1 1 1 0

1 0 0 0 1

1 0 1 1 0

1 1 0 1 0

1 1 1 1 1

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17. What are select lines in MUX? (Aril /May 2016)
In electronics, a multiplexer (or mux) is a device that selects one of several analog or digital
input signals and forwards the selected input into a single line. A multiplexer of 2n inputs has n
select lines, which are used to select which input line to send to the output.

18. Which code is used for error detection?

It is the simplest technique for detecting and correcting errors. The MSB of an 8-bits word is
used as the parity bit and the remaining 7 bits are used as data or message bits. The parity of 8-
bits transmitted word can be either even parity or odd parity.

19. Which gates are called universal gates? Why? (Aril /May 2015)
That means we can implement a whole logic whatever you can implement using AND, OR, nvert
combination can be implement using NAND gates alone similarly NOR gates alone. Thus AND
and NOR for this reason are called universal gates. So I will quickly tell you why this is so.

20. Give an application for X-OR function

a) Uses in addition
b) Pseudo-random number generation
c) Correlation and sequence detection

PART B
1. Obtain the minimum SOP using QUINE- McCLUSKY method and verify using K-map
F=m0+m2+m4+m8+m9+m10+m11+m12+m13
2. Reduce the following using tabulation method.
F=m2+m3+m4+m6+m7+m9+m11+m13.
3. Reduce the Boolean function using k-map technique and implement using gates f (w,
x, y, z)=
Σm (0,1,4,8,9,10) which has the don’t cares condition d (w, x, y, z)= Σm (2,11).
4. (a)Design an 8421 to gray code converter. (b)Implement the Boolean function using
8:1 mux
F (A, B, C, D) =A’BD’+ACD+B’CD+A’C’D.
5. Design A Full Adder And A Full Subtractor.
6. A combinational circuit is defined by the following three Boolean functions F1 =
x’y’z’+xz
F2= xy’z’+x’y F3= x’y’z+xy. Design the circuit with a decoder and external gates.
7. Simplify the following Boolean function by using Tabulation method F (w, x, y, z) =Σm
(0, 1,
2, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15)
8. Use Boolean algebra to simplify the following expression and implement in NAND logic
f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(10,11,14,15)
9. Simplify the following Boolean functions by using K’Map in SOP & POS. F (w, x, y, z)
= Σm
(1, 3, , 6, 9, 11, 12, 14)
10. (a) Design a 2 bit magnitude comparator. (b) Explain the operation of 4 to 10
decoder.
11. Design a 4-bit binary to excess-3 converter using the unused combinations of the
code as

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 don’t care conditions. Represent the converter using logic diagram.
12. (a). Design and construct a full adder circuit using two half adders and a OR gate.
(b). Draw the logic diagram of 1 to 4 line DMUX.
13. Design a full adder circuit using only NOR gates
14. Design a code converter that converts a BCD to Excess- 3 code.
15. Design a combinational circuit that will converts a decimal digits from BCD to
Excess-3-
code.
16. Implement the following function using multiplexer. F(A,B,C)=Σ(1,3,5,6)
17. Implement the following function using multiplexer.
F(A,B,C,D)=Σ(1,3,4,11,12,13,14,15)
18. Design the circuit for full adder
19. (a) Implement the given function using multiplexer F(x, y, z) = Σ (0, 2, 6,7)
(b).Implement full subtractor using demultiplexer
20. Design the circuit of full adder. Also design it using only NAND and NOR gates

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 UNIT V
PART – A
1. What are the classifications of sequential circuits?
The sequential circuits are classified on the basis of timing of their signals into two types.They
are,1) Synchronous sequential circuit.
2) Asynchronous sequential circuit.

2. Define Flip flop & types. (Nov /Dec 2014) (Aril /May 2016)
The basic unit for storage is flip flop. A flip-flop maintains its output state either at 1 or 0 until
directed by an input signal to change its state.
There are various types of flip flops. Some of them are mentioned below they are,
a) RS flip-flop
b) SR flip-flop
c) D flip-flop
d) JK flip-flop
e) T flip-flop

3. What is the operation of RS flip-flop?

a) When R input is low and S input is high the Q output of flip-flop is set.
b) When R input is high and S input is low the Q output of flip-flop is reset.
c) When both the inputs R and S are low the output does not change
d) When both the inputs R and S are high the output is unpredictable.

4. What is the operation of D flip-flop? (Nov /Dec 2014)

In D flip-flop during the occurrence of clock pulse if D=1, the output Q is set and if D=0, the
output is reset.

5. What is the operation of JK flip-flop?

a) When K input is low and J input is high the Q output of flip-flop is set.
b) When K input is high and J input is low the Q output of flip-flop is reset.
c) When both the inputs K and J are low the output does not change
d) When both the inputs K and J are high it is possible to set or reset the
e) Flip-flop (ie) the output toggle on the next positive clock edge

6. What is the operation of T flip-flop?

T flip-flop is also known as Toggle flip-flop.
When T=0 there is no change in the output.
When T=1 the output switch to the complement state (ie) the output toggles.

7. Define race around condition.

In JK flip-flop output is fed back to the input. Therefore change in the output results
Change in the input. Due to this in the positive half of the clock pulse if both J and K are high
then output toggles continuously. This condition is called race around condition.

8. What is edge-triggered flip-flop? (Aril /May 2015)

The problem of race around condition can solved by edge triggering flip flop. The term
Edge triggering means that the flip-flop changes state either at the positive edge or negative edge
of the clock pulse and it is sensitive to its inputs only at this transition of the clock.

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9. What is a master-slave flip-flop?
A master-slave flip-flop consists of two flip-flops where one circuit serves as a master and the
other as a slave.

10. Explain the flip-flop excitation tables for RS FF.

In RS flip-flop there are four possible transitions from the present state to the next state.They are,
a) 00 transition: This can happen either when R=S=0 or when R=1 and S=0.
b) 01 transition: This can happen only when S=1 and R=0.
c) 10 transition: This can happen only when S=0 and R=1.
d) 11 transition: This can happen either when S=1 and R=0 or S=0 and R=0.

11. Explain the flip-flop excitation tables for JK flip-flop

In JK flip-flop also there are four possible transitions from present state to next state.They are,
e) _ 0_0 transition: This can happen when J=0 and K=1 or K=0.
f) _ 0_1 transition: This can happen either when J=1 and K=0 or when J=K=1.
g) _ 1_0 transition: This can happen either when J=0 and K=1 or when J=K=1.
h) _ 1_1 transition: This can happen when K=0 and J=0 or J=1.

12. Explain the flip-flop excitation tables for D flip-flop(Aril /May 2015)
In D flip-flop the next state is always equal to the D input and it is independent of the present
state. Therefore D must be 0 if Qn+1 has to 0, and if Qn+1 has to be 1 regardless the value of
Qn.

13. Explain the flip-flop excitation tables for T flip-flop

When input T=1 the state of the flip-flop is complemented; when T=0, the state of the Flip-flop
remains unchanged. Therefore, for 0_0 and 1_1 transitions T must be 0 and for 0_1 and 1_0
transitions must be 1.

14. Define sequential circuit? (Nov /Dec 2015)

In sequential circuits the output variables dependent not only on the present input Variables but
they also depend up on the past history of these input variables.

15. What do you mean by present state?

The information stored in the memory elements at any given time defines the present State of the
sequential circuit.

16. What do you mean by next state? (Nov /Dec 2015)

The present state and the external inputs determine the outputs and the next state of the
sequential circuit.

17. State the types of sequential circuits?

a. Synchronous sequential circuits
b. Asynchronous sequential circuits

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18. Define synchronous sequential circuit
In synchronous sequential circuits, signals can affect the memory elements only at discrete
instant of time.

19. Define Asynchronous sequential circuit?

In asynchronous sequential circuits change in input signals can affect memory element at any
instant of time.

20. What is race around condition? (Aril /May 2016)

In the JK latch, the output is feedback to the input, and therefore changes in the output results
change in the input. Due to this in the positive half of the clock pulse if J and K are both high
then output toggles continuously. This condition is known as race around condition.

PART B
1. Write a HDL code for state machine to BCD to ex–3 codes Converter.
2. Write a behavioral VHDL description of an S-R latch using a process
3. Write a HDL code for 8:1 MUX using behavioral model
4. Write the HDL description of the circuit specified by the Following Boolean equations

a. S = xy ‘+ x’ y
b. C =xy
5. (I) Write an HDL data flow description of a 4 bit adder subtractor of Unsigned
numbers use the conditional operator (II) Write the HDL gate level description of the
priority encoder.
6. (I) Write VHDL code for a full sub tractor using logic Equation
(II) Write a VHDL description of an S-R latch using a process
7. Write HDL for four bit binary counter and explain
8. a. Write HDL code for two to one line multiplexer with data flow description and
Behavioral
Description b. Write HDL for four bit adder.
9. Write HDL code for mod 6 counter
10. Explain RTL design using VHDL with the help of an example
11. Construct a VHDL module listing for a 16:1 mux that is based on assignment
statement. Use
a 4-bit select word s3 s2 s1 s0 to map the selected input pi(i=0….15) to the o/p
12. Explain the design procedure of RTL using VHDL
13. Write an HDL behavioral description of JK FF using if-else statement based on the
value of
present state
14. Write the VHDL code for mod 6 counter
15. Describe RTL in VHDL
16. a. Construct a VHDL module for a JK flipflop
b. Express how arithmetic and logic operations are expressed using RTL
17. Write notes on test bench and its types.

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 UNIT I INTRODUCTION
PART A
1. What is control system?
In a system, when output quantity is controlled by varying the input quantity, then it is
called as control system.
2. What are the two major types of control systems?
Open loop systems and closed loop system.
3. Give the comparison between open loop and closed loop system. Nov Dec 2014
Open loop system:
Any physical system which does not automatically correct the variation in its output is
called open loop system.
Closed loop system:
A system in which the output has an effect up on the input quantity in order to maintain
the desired output value are called closed loop system.

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4. What are the advantages of the closed loop control system?
May/June2012&Nov/Dec–2012
⮚ The closed loop system are accurate
⮚ The closed system are accurate even in the presence of nonlinearities
⮚ The closed loop system are less affected by the noise.
5. Define transfer function of the system. Nov/Dec.2010
The transfer function of a system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of
output to the Laplace transform of input with zero conditions
6. What are the components of control system?
Error detector 2) controller 3) open loop system 4) feedback
7. What are properties of signal flow graph?
⮚ Signal flow graph applies to the linear system
⮚ Signal travels along the branches only in the direction described by the arrows
of the branches
⮚ The equation based on which signal flow graph is drawn must be algebraic
equation in the form of effects as the function it causes.
8. Name any two dynamic model used to represent control systems. May/June2013
⮚ Physical model
⮚ Empirical model
9. Write the mason’s gain formula of signal flow graph. May/June2013& May/June2014
& Nov/Dec2014
1
T=∆∑𝑃𝐾 ∆𝐾
Where, 𝑃𝐾 = Forward path gain of kth forward path
K= No. of forward paths in the signal flow graph
= 1- (sum of individual loop gain) + ( sum of gain products of all possible
combination of 2 non touching loops) – (sum of gain products of all possible
combinations of 3 non touching loops) +…
10. What is control system of the human body?
Nervous System. The nervous system is made up of the brain, the spinal cord, and nerves.
One of the most important systems in your body, the nervous system is your body's control
system. It sends, receives, and processes nerve impulses throughout the body.
11. How does homeostasis control system work
Homeostasis is a state of balance inside the body, where the body systems work together to
keep it functioning normally. The endocrine system keeps this internal balancing act going
by releasing chemicals called hormones. The release of the hormones is controlled by
negative feedback mechanisms.
12. What is the comparator in physiological control system?
Comparator in physiological control system is the normal biological ranges eg. Body
temperature , Blood pressure measurement.

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13. Define transfer function. Nov Dec 2013
It is the ratio of Laplace transform of output to the Laplace transform of input, with the
initial conditions being zero.
14. Define linear system.
A system is said to be linear if it obeys the principle of super position and
principle of homogeneity.
15. Define time invariant system.
It is a system whose input-output characteristics do not change with time.
16. What is mathematical model of a system?
It is a model of the system which shows the relation between the input and output of a
system in the form of a mathematical equation/differential equation.

17. What is feedback? What type of feedback is employed in control system?

The Feedback is a control action in which the output is sampled and a proportional signal
is given back to the input for automatic correction of any changes in desired output.
18. Why negative feedback is preferred in control systems?
It improves the stability of the system.
19. State principle of superposition theorem. Or the principle of homogeneity
The principle of superposition and homogeneity states that if the system has responses
c1(t) and c2(t) for the inputs r1(t) and r2(t) respectively, then, the system response
to the linear combination of the individual outputs a1r1(t)+ a2r2(t) is given by linear
combination of the individual outputs a1c1(t)+a2c2(t), where a1anda2 are constants.
20. What is the need o f Physiological system modeling?
• Understanding the underlying system
• Testing bed for several hypotheses
Description
• Design verification
• Explore linear behavior / non-linear nature of the biological physics (going beyond
human senses)
• Predictions
• Functional limits
21. What is signal flow graph?
It is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations. By
taking Laplace transform, the time domain differential equations governing a control
system can be transferred to a set of algebraic equations in s-domain. The signal flow
graph which is in the form of a graphical representation can be constructed using
these equations.
22. Define non-touching loop.
The loops are said to be non-touching if they do not have any common nodes.
23. What is transmittance?
The transmittance is the gain acquired by the signal when it travels from one node to the
node in signal flow graph.
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24. What is block diagram?
A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed
by each component of the system and shows the flow of the signals.
25. What are the basic components of a block diagram?
The basic elements of a block diagram are block, branch points and summing point.
26. What are the characteristics of negative feedback? May/June2014
● Negative feedback opposes or subtracts from the input signals giving it many advantages
in the design and stabilization of control systems.
● Feedback reduces the overall gain of a system with the degree of reduction being related to
the systems open-loop gain.
● Negative feedback also has effects of reducing distortion, noise, and sensitivity to external
changes as well as improving system bandwidth and input and output impedances.
PARTB

1. ReducetheblockdiagramtoitscanonicalformandobtainC(s)R(s).Nov/Dec2010

2.UsingMason’sgainformula,findC/R of the signal flow graph shown in figure Nov/Dec2010

3. Give the comparison between block diagram and signal flow graph Nov/Dec2010

4. Obtain(S)|R(S) using block diagram reduction rules. May/June2012

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5. Compare the physiological control system with engineering control system.

6. Draw the block diagram representation of muscle stretch reflex system and explain

7. State Mason’s gain formula using Mason’s gain formula to find Nov/Dec2013

8. Use Mason’s gain formula to obtain C(s)/R(s)of the system shown below.(16)
Nov/Dec2013

9. Give the step by step procedure of determining transfer function using signal flow graph.
May/June2013

10. Discuss about the parametric and non-parametric estimation and also explain the
optimization approach to parameter estimation

11.Determine the overall transfer function C(S)/R(S) for the system shown in
fig.May/June2013

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12.Obtain the closed loop transfer function C(S)/R(S) of the system whose block diagram is
shown in fig. May/June2012

13. Write the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational system.
Obtain the transfer function of the system?
14. Compare the physiological control system with engineering control system

UNITII–TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

PARTA

1. What is meant by peak over shoot? Nov/Dec2010

Peak overshoot is defined as the ratio of maximum peak value measured from the
maximum value to final value.
2. What is meant by steady state error? Nov/Dec2010
The steady state error is defined as the value of error as time tends to infinity.
3. How a control system is classified depending on the value of damping?May2011
Damping ratio is defined as the ratio of actual damping to critical damping.
4. Why derivative controller is not used in control system?
May2011&May/June2012
The derivative controller produces a control action based on rare of change of error
signal and it does not produce corrective measures for any constant error. Hence
derivative controller is not used in control system.
5. What are transient and steady state response of a control system? Nov/Dec2012
The transient response is the response of the system when the system changes from one
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 state to another. The steady state response is the response of the system when it
approaches infinity.
6. With reference to time response of a control system, define peak time.
Nov/Dec2012
The time taken for the response to reach the peak value for the first time is peak time.
The time taken for response to raise from 0% to 100% for the very first time is rise
time.
7. List the advantages of generalized error coefficients. May/June2012
i. Steady state is function of time.
ii. Steady state can be determined from any type of input.
8. What is the effect of PI controller on the system performance? Nov/Dec 2013 &
2014
The effect of PD controller is to increase the damping ratio of the system and so the
peak overshoot is reduced.
9. What is meant by rise time? May/June2014
The time taken for response to rise from 0% to 100% for the very first time is rise time.
10. What are the various time domain specifications? Nov/Dec2014
The time domain specifications are
i. Delay time
ii. Rise time
iii. Peak time
iv. Peak overshoot
11. Define Settling time.
Settling time is defined as the time taken by the response to reach and stay within
specified error.
12. What is the need for a controller?
The controller is provided to modify the error signal for better control action.
13. What are the different types of
controllers?

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 i. Proportional controller
ii. PI controller
iii. PD controller
iv. PID controller
14. What is Proportional controller?
It is a device that produces a control signal which is proportional to the input error
signal.
15. What is PI controller?
It is a device that produces a control signal consisting of two terms - one proportional to
error signal and the other proportional to the integral of error signal.
16. What is PD controller?
PD controller is a proportional plus derivative controller which produces an output
signal consisting of two time - one proportional to error signal and other proportional to
the derivative of the signal.
17. What is the drawback of static coefficients?
The main drawback of static coefficient is that it does not show the variation of error
with time and input should be standard input.
18. What is step signal?
The step signal is a signal whose value changes from zero to A at t= 0 and remains
constant at A for t>0.
19. What is ramp signal?
The ramp signal is a signal whose value increases linearly with time from an initial
value of zero at t=0.the ramp signal resembles a constant velocity.
20. What is a parabolic signal?
The parabolic signal is a signal whose value varies as a square of time from an initial
value of zero at t=0.This parabolic signal represents constant acceleration input to the
signal.
21. What are the three constants associated with a steady state error?
Positional error constant

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 Velocity error constant
Acceleration error constant
PART-B
1. A unity feedback system is characterized by the open loop transfer function

G(s)= .

Determine the steady state errors for Unit step, Unit ramp and Unit acceleration Unit.
Also determine damping ratio and natural frequency of the dominant roots. Nov/Dec2013

2. For a unity feedback control system the open loop transfer function
G(S)=10(S+2)/S2(S+1). Find(a) Position, velocity and acceleration error constants.(b)
The steady state error when the input is R(S) where R(S)=3/S–2/S2+1/3S3.
May/June2012

3. The open loop transfer function of a servo system with unity feedback system is G(S)
=10/ S(0.1S+1). Evaluate the static error constants of the system. Obtain the steady state
error of the system when subjected to an input given by the polynomial
r(t)=a0+a1t+a2/2t2. May/June2012

4. A second order system I given by Find its rise time, peak over shoot and
settling time if subjected to unit step input. Also calculate expression for its output
response. May/June2013

5. The unit impulse response of a unit feedback control system is given by c(t)=
(find the open loop transfer function. May/June2013.

6. A potential control system with velocity feedback is shown in fig. What is the response
of the system for unit step input? May/June2014

7. Calculate the following parameters for the system whose natural frequency of
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 oscillations is10rad/sec and damping factor is 0.707. Nov/Dec2014
a. Delay time
b. Rise time
c. Peak over shoot
d. Settling time

8. With the block diagram explain the concepts of PI and PD compensation. Nov/Dec2014

9. Determine the steady state errors for the following inputs 5u(t), 5tu(t), 5t 2u(t) to a system

whose open loop transfer function is given by G(s) = .Nov/Dec2014

10.(a)Derive the expressions and draw the response of first order system for unit step input.
(b)Draw the response of second order system for critically damped case and when input is
unit step.

11. Derive the expressions for Rise time, Peak time, and Peak over shoot.

12. Measurements conducted on a Servo mechanisms how the system response to be

c(t)=1+0.2ê 60t-1.2ê–10t.When subjected to a unit step. Obtain an expression for closed
loop transfer function.
13. A unity feedback control system has an open loop transfer function G(S)=10/S(S+2). Find
the rise time, percentage over shoot, peak time and settling Time.

14. A closed loop servo is represented by the differential equation, where c is the
displacement of the output shaft, r is the displacement of the input shaft and e = r-c.
Determine un damped natural frequency, damping ratio and percentage maximum over
shoot for unit step input.

15. (a)Obtain the response of second order under damped system with unit step input.
(b)Derive the response of un damped second order system for unit step input.

16. A second order system has 40% r peak over shoot and settling time of 2 sc for unit
step input. Find resonant peak gain and resonant freq.

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 UNIT III STABILITY ANALYSIS
PART A

1. STATE ROUTH’S CRITERION FOR STABILITY.

Routh’s criterion states that, the necessary and sufficient condition for the stability
is that, all the elements in the first column of the Routh’s array be positive. If the
condition is not met, the system is unstable, and the number of sign changes in the
elements of the first column of Routh’s array corresponds to the number of roots of
characteristic equation in the right half of the S-plane.

2. WHAT ARE THE CONDITIONS FOR A LINEAR TIME INVARIANT SYSTEM TO BE STABLE ?
A linear time- invariant system is stable if the following two notions of system
stability are satisfied.
I. When the system is by a bounded input, the output is bounded.
II. In the absence of the input, the output temds towards zero irrespective of
initial conditions.
3. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY ASYMPTOTIC STABILITY ?
In the absence of the input, the output tends towards zero(the equilibrium state of
the systems) irrespective of initial conditions. This stability is known as asymptotic
stability.

4. How the system is classified based on stability?

Based on the stability, the system can be classified as
Absolute stable system.
Conditionally stable system.
Unstable system.
Marginally stable or critically stable system.

5. DEFINE BIBO STABILITY.

A linear relaxed system is said to have BIBO stability if every bounded (finite) input
results in a bounded(finite) output.

6.WHAT IS MEANT BY UNSTABLE SYSTEM ?

A linear time invariant system is said to be unstable if
The system produces unbounded output for a bounded input. In
absence of the input, output nay not be returning to zero.

7. WHAT IS MEANT BY CRITICALLY OR MARGINALLY STABLE SYSTEM ?

A linear time invariant system is said to be critically or marginally stable, if for a
bounded input, its output oscillates with constant frequency and amplitude. Such
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 oscillations of output are called undamped oscillations or sustained oscillations.

8. WHAT IS THE NECESSARY CONDITION FOR STABILITY ?

The necessary condition for the stability is that all the co-efficient of the characteristic
polynomial be positive.
9. STATE THE REQUIREMENT FOR BIBO
STABILITY .
The requirement for BIBO stability is that

∫m(τ)dτ < α

Where m(τ) is the impulse response of the system.

10. STATE HURWITZ CRITERION .

The necessary and sufficient conditions to have all roots of the characteristic
equation in left half of the s-plane is that, the sub-determinants DK, k = 1,2,…..,m
obtained from Hurwitz‟s determinant must be positive.
11. DEFINE ABSOLUTE STABLE.
Absolutely stable with respect to a parameter of the system, if it is stable for all
values of this parameter.

12. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY RELATIVE STABILITY ?

Relative stability is a quantitative of how fast the transients die out in the system.
If it is stable for all values of this parameter.
13. WHAT IS ROUTH STABILITY CRITERION ?
ROUTH stability criterion states that, the necessary and sufficient conditions for
stability is that all of the elements in the first column of the routh‟s array be positive. If this
condition is not met, then the system is unstable, and the number of sign changes in the
elements of the first column corresponds to the number of roots of characteristic equation in
the right half of the S-plane.

14. WHAT IS AUXILIARY POLYNOMIAL?

In the construction of the Routh array, a row of all zero indicates the existence of an
even polynomial as a factor of the given characteristic equation. In an even polynomial, the
coefficient of auxilary polynomial are given by the elements of the row just above the row of
all zeros.

15. WHAT IS QUADRANTAL SYMMETRY?

The symmetry of roots with respect to both real and imaginary axis is called
quadrantal symmetry
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 16. GIVE AN APPLICATION OF ROUTH S TABILITY CRITERION,
The routh Stability criterion is frequently used for the determination of the condition
of stability of linear feedback control systems.

17. THE ROUTH-HURWITZ CRITERIA GIVES ABSOLUTE STABILITY. JUSTIFY YOUR ANSWER.
Basically Routh-Hurwitz is a time domain method. It only gives the indication about
the locations of the roots of the characteristic equation in the S-plane. It does not give the
information about the actual locations and the types of roots. As the actual
locations of the roots are unknown, it is impossible to calculate the parameters required
for the prediction of the relative stability. I.e. gain margin, phase margin etc.

18. IN THE ROUTH ARRAY WHAT CONCLUSION YOU CAN MAKE WHEN THERE IS A ROW OF
ALL ZEROS?
All zero row in routh array indicates the existence of an even polynomial as a factor
of the given characteristic equation. The even polynomial may have roots on imaginary axis.
19. WHAT IS LIMITEDLY STABLE SYSTEM ?
For a bounded input signal, if the output has constant amplitude oscillations, then
the system may be stable or unstable, under some limited constraints. Such a system is
called limitedly stable system.

20. HOW WILL YOU FIND THE ROOT LOCUS ON REAL AXIS ?
To find the root locus on real axis, choose a test point on the real axis. If the total
number of poles and zeros on the real axis to the right of this test point is odd number, then
the test point lies on the root locus. If it is even number means, then the test point does not
lie on the root locus.

PART B

1. Explain with examples the term stability in detail

2. A unity feedback control system has an open loop transfer function
G(s) = K/s(s2+4s+13). Sketch the root locus
3. With the help of Routh’s stability criterion find the stability of the following systems
represented by the characteristic equations: s4 + 8 s3 + 18 s2 + 16s + 5 = 0
4. With the help of Routh’s stability criterion find the stability of the following systems
represented by the characteristic equations:s6 + 2s5 + 8s4 + 12s3 + 20s2 + 16s + 16 = 0.
5. With the help of Routh’s stability criterion find the stability of the following systems
represented by the characteristic equations: s5 + s4 + 2 s3 + 2 s2 + 3s + 5 = 0.
6. With the help of Routh’s stability criterion find the stability of the following systems
represented by the characteristic equations: 9s5 -20s4 + 10 s3 - s2 - 9s - 10 = 0.
7. Determine the range of K for stability of unity feedback system whose open loop transfer

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 function is using Routh’s stability criterion G(S)H(S) = k/s(s+1)(s+2).
8. Explain the procedure for constructing root locus.
9. Sketch the root locus of the system whose open loop transfer function is
G(S)H(S) = k/s(s+2)(s+4).
10. Sketch the root locus of the system whose open loop transfer function is
G(S)H(S) = k/s(s2+4s+13).
11. Sketch the root locus of the system whose open loop transfer function is
G(S)H(S) = k/s(s2+6s+10).

UNIT IV FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

PART A

1. List the advantages of Nichol’s chart? Nov/Dec2010.

The advantages are:
i) It is used to find the closed loop frequency response from open loop
frequency response. ii) Frequency domain specifications can be
determined from Nichols chart.
ii) The gain of the system can be adjusted to satisfy the given specification.
2. What are the specifications used in frequency domain analysis? Nov/Dec2010
The frequency domain specifications are
i. Resonant peak.
ii.Resonant frequency.
3. What is meant by corner frequency in frequency response analysis? May2011
The frequency at which the two asymptotic meet in a magnitude plot is called Corner
frequency.
4. What is mean by corner frequency in frequency response analysis? Nov/Dec2012.
The frequency at which the two asymptotic meet in a magnitude plot is called Corner
frequency.
5. What is Nichol’s chart? Nov/Dec2012.
The chart consisting if M & N loci in the log magnitude versus phase diagram is called
Nichols chart.
6. Define Gain and Phase margin ?Nov/Dec2013Nov/Dec2014
The Phase margin is the amount of phase lag at the gain cross over frequency required

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 to bring system to the verge of instability.
The Gain Margin, kg is defined as the reciprocal of the magnitude of the open loop
transfer function at phase cross over frequency.
7. What are the constant M and N circle? Nov/Dec2013.
The magnitude of closed loop transfer function with unit feedback can be shown for
every value of M. These circles are called M circles.
8. What is corner frequency? May/June2014
The frequency at which the two asymptotic meet in a magnitude plot is called Corner
frequency.
9. Define Resonant Peak (∆r) and Resonant frequency (∆f)
The maximum value of the magnitude of closed loop transfer function is called
Resonant Peak.
The frequency at which resonant peak occurs is called resonant frequency.
10. What is Bandwidth?
The Bandwidth is the range of frequencies for which the system gain is more than 3 dB.
The bandwidth is a measure of the ability of a feedback system to reproduce the input
signal noise rejection characteristics and rise time.
11. Define Cut off rate.
The slope of the log-magnitude curve near the cut-off is called cut-off rate. The cut off
rate indicates the ability to distinguish the signal from noise.
12. What is Bode plot?
The Bode plot is the frequency response plot of the transfer function of a system. A
Bode plot consists of two graphs. One is the plot of magnitude of sinusoidal transfer
function versus log ∆. The other is a plot of the phase angle of a sinusoidal function
versus log ∆.
13. What are the main advantages of Bode plot?
The main advantages are:
i. Multiplication of magnitude can be into addition.
ii. A simple method for sketching an approximate log curve is available.

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iii. It is based on asymptotic approximation. Such approximation is sufficient if rough
information on the frequency response characteristic is needed.
iv. The phase angle curves can be easily drawn if a template for the phase angle curve of
1+ j∆ is available.
14. What are two contours of Nichols chart?
Nichols chart of M and N contours, superimposed on ordinary graph. The M contours
are the magnitude of closed loop system in decibels and the N contours are the phase
angle locus of closed loop system.
15. What are the three types of compensators?
i. Lag compensator
ii. Lead compensator
iii. Lag-Lead compensator.
16. What are the uses of lead compensator?
Speeds up the transient response
Increases the margin of stability of a system
Increases the system error constant to a limited extent.
17. What is the use of lag compensator?
Improve the steady state behavior of a system, while nearly preserving its transient
response.
18. When lag lead compensator is required?
The lag lead compensator is required when both the transient and steady state response
of a system has to be improved.
19. What is a compensator?
A device inserted into the system for the purpose of satisfying the specifications is
called as a compensator.
20. What is frequency response?

A frequency response is the steady state response of a system when the input to the
system is a sinusoidal signal.

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 PART-B
1. Plot the Bode diagram for the following transfer function and obtain the gain and phase
cross over frequencies. G(S) =KS2 / (1+0.2S)(1+0.02S). Determine the value of K for a
gain cross over frequency of 5rad/sec. Nov/Dec2010
2. The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is given by G(s)=

Sketch the polar plot and determine the gain margin and phase margin.
Nov/Dec2010

3. Given G(s)=K .find K for following two cases. a) Gain margin

Equal to 6db b) Phase margin equal to 45 . May 2011 & Nov/Dec2012.

4. The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is G(s)=
.Design a suitable Lead Lag compensator so as to meet the following specifications:
-1
Static velocity error constant . Phase margin equal to 50 and Gain margin
10db. May2011.

5. For the following transfer function G(s)= . Sketch the bode magnitude plot by
showing slope contributions from each pole and zero. May/June2012

6. Consider a unity feedback open loop transfer function G(s)= . Draw the
Bode Plot and find the phase and gain cross over frequencies, phase and gain margin and
stability of the system. May/June2013.
For the following transfer function draw bode plot and obtain gain cross over

frequency. G(s)= .(16)Nov/Dec2013.

8. The open loop transfer function of a system is given by G(s)H(s) = Draw

the Bode plot and determine Gain margin and Phase margin. May/June2014

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 UNIT V
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL SYSTEM ANALYSIS
PART A

1. Write note on static analysis of physiological systems?

Steady-state measurements are generally easier to make in physiological systems. It is
useful to conduct an analysis that can demonstrate how the static characteristics of the
various components lead to the steady-state behavior of the overall system.

2. Draw the simplified model of cardiac output regulation and explain?

Cardiac output is calculated by multiplying the stroke volume by the heart rate. Stroke
volume is determined by preload, contractility, and afterload. The normal range for
cardiac output is about 4 to 8 L/min, but it can vary depending on the body's metabolic
needs
3. What are the effects of feedback in a closed loop system?
the overall gain may increase or decrease depending on the value of (1+GH). If the
value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases.
4. Write note on Starling’s Law of cardiac regulation?
According to Starling's law of the heart, a change in preload, approximated by the end
diastolic volume and determined by the venous return of blood to the heart, directly
results in a change in stroke volume, defining myocardial function.
5. Write note on different system elements in physiological models?
Physiological systems are dynamical systems and then generally described
mathematically by differential equations. A model in physiology is usually constructed
using a basic and natural law intimately tied to many other interdisciplinary areas, such
as biophysics, and biochemistry, and involves electrical and mechanical analogues.
6. Draw and explain capacitance in Chemical and Fluidic Systems.
The capacitance C of a tank is defined as the change in quantity of stored
liquid. necessary to cause a unit change in the potential (head). The potential is the.
quantity that indicates the energy level of the system.
7. Draw and explain capacitance in Mechanical and Thermal Systems.
Thermal capacitance is simply the product of the mass of an object and its specific heat.
Energy can be stored in a heat exchanger. Mass capacitance is the accumulation of
mass. In other words, input does not always equal output.
8. Write note on linear model of muscle mechanics?

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 9. Draw and explain Resistance in Mechanical and Thermal Systems.
Thermal resistance is defined as the ratio of the temperature difference between the two
faces of a material to the rate of heat flow per unit area.
10. Draw and explain Resistance in Chemical and Fluidic Systems.
Fluid resistance refers to the forces a fluid places on a moving object in the opposite
direction to the movement, also known as drag.
11. Write note on linear model of respiratory mechanics?
The thoracic wall expands outward and the diaphragm flexes downwards, creating a
negative pressure that pulls air into the lungs. As air is sucked in the pressure in the
chest (intrathoracic pressure) rises until the lungs have excess pressure leading to the
passive phase.
12. Write note on superposition principle in representation of linear systems?
The superposition principle, also known as superposition property, states that, for all
linear systems, the net response caused by two or more stimuli is the sum of the
responses that would have been caused by each stimulus individually.
13. Explain in brief about the Transfer function representation of Linear system
The transfer function is a convenient representation of a linear time invari- ant
dynamical system. Mathematically the transfer function is a function of complex
variables. For finite dimensional systems the transfer function is simply a rational
function of a complex variable.

PART B
1. Explain in detail with neat diagram about muscle stretch reflex?
2. Explain in detail about various steps involves in determination of the steady-state operating
point?
3. Explain with neat diagram about the regulation of cardiac output?
4. Explain in detail about the process involved in regulation of Glucose with neat diagram?
5. Define Ventilation? Explain the regulation of chemicals in Ventilation?
6. Explain the Closed loop and open loop scheme of room temperature regulation in detail with
neat block diagram?

119
7. Explain with any one example about linear models of physiological systems?
8. Explain in detail about the relationship between the lumped-parameter and distributed-
parameters models of passive cable of an nerve fiber?
9. Explain in detail about the models with combinations of system elements?
10. Describe the Generalized physiological system properties?

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BM3401 SIGNAL PROCESSING LTPC3024

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
 To understand about the continuous time and discrete time signals and systems.
 To learn the analysis of LTI systems using Laplace and Z transform.
 To represent the signal in frequency domain using FFT.
 To gain knowledge about the design of IIR and FIR filters.

UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS 9

Classification of systems: Continuous, discrete, linear, causal, stability, dynamic, recursive,
time variance; classification of signals: continuous and discrete, energy and power;
mathematical representation of signals; spectral density; sampling techniques, quantization,
quantization error, Nyquist rate, aliasing effect.

UNIT II ANALYSIS OF LTI SYSTEMS 9

Fourier Series - Fourier Transform and Properties, Analysis of Continuous Time LTI Systems –
Z Transform - Properties of ROC– Inverse Z Transform – DTFT - Analysis of Discrete Time
LTI Systems

UNIT III DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM 9

DFT and its properties, magnitude and phase representation-Linear Convolution- Correlation-
Circular Convolution, Overlap-add and overlap-save methods. FFT - Decimation in Time
Algorithm, Decimation in Frequency Algorithm. Use of FFT in Linear Filtering.

UNIT IV INFINITE IMPULSE RESPONSE FILTERS 9

Analog filters – Butterworth filters, Chebyshev Type I filters (upto 3rd order), Analog
Transformation of prototype LPF to BPF /BSF/ HPF. Transformation of analog filters into
equivalent digital filters using Impulse invariant method and Bilinear Z transform method -
Realization structures for IIR filters – direct, cascade and parallel forms.

UNIT V FINITE IMPULSE RESPONSE FILTERS & MULTIRATE SIGNAL

PROCESSING 9
Design of linear phase FIR filters - windowing and Frequency sampling methods. Realization
structures for FIR filters – Transversal and Linear phase structures, Comparison of FIR and
IIR. Introduction to DSP processors. Introduction to Multirate signal Processing – Decimation
and Interpolation.

130
COURSE OUTCOMES:
CO1: To classify the continuous time and discrete time signals and systems.
CO2: To analyze the signals in both continuous time and discrete time
CO3: To apply DFT for the analysis of digital signals & systems
CO4: To design IIR filter to process real world signals.
CO5: To design FIR filter to process real world signals.

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Allan V.Oppenheim, S.Wilsky and S.H.Nawab, “Signals and Systems”, Pearson, Indian
Reprint,2nd Edition, 2015.

2. John G Proakis and Manolakis, “Digital Signal Processing Principles, Algorithms and
Applications”, Pearson, 4 th Edition, 2014.

REFERENCES:
1. S. Haykin and B. Van Veen, "Signals and Systems", Wiley, 2 nd Edition, 2007

2. B. P. Lathi, “Principles of Linear Systems and Signals”, Oxford, 2nd Edition, 2009.

3. Emmanuel Ifeachor, Barrie Jervis, “Digital Signal Processing- A practical approach”,

Pearson, 2nd Edition, 2002.

4. M. H. Hayes, “Digital Signal Processing, Schaum’s outlines”, Tata McGraw Hill, 2nd
Edition,2011

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 UNIT I – I FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
1. Define Signal.
A Signal is defined as any physical quantity that varies with time, space or any other
independent variables.
2. Define a system.
A System is a physical device (i.e., hardware) or algorithm (i.e., software) that
performs an operation on the signal.
3. What are the steps involved in digital signal processing?
 Converting the analog signal to digital signal, this is performed by A/D converter.
 Processing Digital signal by digital system.
 Converting the digital signal to analog signal, this is performed by D/A converter.
4. Give some applications of DSP?
 Speech processing – Speech compression & decompression for voice storage system
 Communication – Elimination of noise by filtering and echo cancellation.
 Bio-Medical – Spectrum analysis of ECG,EEG etc.
5. Write the classifications of DT Signals.
 Energy & Power signals.
 Periodic & Non periodic signals.
 Even & Odd signals.
6. What is an Energy and Power signal?
Energy signal:
A finite energy signal is periodic sequence, which has a finite energy but zero average
power.
Power signal:
An Infinite energy signal with finite average power is called a power signal.
7. What is Discrete Time Systems?
The function of DTS is to process a given input sequence to generate output sequence. In
practical discrete time systems, all signals are digital signals, and operations on such signals
also lead to digital signals. Such discrete time systems are called digital filter.
8. Write the Various classifications of Discrete-Time systems.
 Linear & Non linear system.
 Causal & Non Causal system.
 Stable & Un stable system.
 Static & Dynamic systems.
9. Define Linear system
A system is said to be linear system if it satisfies Super position principle. Let us consider
x1(n) & x2(n) be the two input sequences & y1(n) & y2(n) are the responses
respectively,T[ax1(n) + bx2(n)] = a y1(n) + by2(n)

10. Define Static & Dynamic systems

When the output of the system depends only on the present input sample, then it is called
static system, if the system depends past values of input then it is called dynamic system
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11. Define causal system.
When the output of the system depends only on the present and past input sample, then it is
called causal system, if the system depends on future values of input then it is called non-
causal system

12. Define Shift-Invariant system.

If y(n) is the response to an input x(n), then the response to an input
X(n) = x(n-n0) then y(n) = y(n-n0)
When the system satisfies above condition then it is said to shift in variant, otherwise
it is variant.
13. Define impulse and unit step signal.
Impulse signal I(n):
The impulse signal is defined as a signal having unit magnitude at n = 0 and zero for other
values of n.
I(n) = 1; n = 0
0; n ≠ 0
Unit step signal u(n):
The unit step signal is defined as a signal having unit magnitude for all values of n ≥ 0
u(n) = 1; n ≥ 0
0; n < 0
14. What are FIR and IIR systems?
The impulse response of a system consist of infinite number of samples are called IIR
system & the impulse response of a system consist finite number of samples are called FIR
system.
15. What are the basic elements used to construct the block diagram of discrete time
system?
The basic elements used to construct the block diagram of discrete time Systems are
Adder, Constant multiplier &Unit delay element.
16. What is ROC in Z-Transform?
The values of z for which z – transform converges is called region of convergence (ROC).
The z-transform has an infinite power series; hence it is necessary to mention the ROC
along with z-transform.
17. List any four properties of Z-Transform.
Linearity, Time Shifting, Frequency shift or Frequency translation, Time reversal
18. What are the different methods of evaluating inverse z-transform?
 Partial fraction expansion
 Power series expansion
 Contour integration (Residue method)
19. Define sampling theorem.
A continuous time signal can be represented in its samples and recovered back if the
sampling frequency Fs ≥ 2B. Here ‘Fs’ is the sampling frequency and ‘B’ is the maximum
frequency present in the signal.
20. Check the linearity and stability of g(n),
 Since square root is nonlinear, the system is nonlinear.
 As long as x(n) is bounded, its square root is bounded. Hence this system is stable.
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21. What are the properties of convolution?
 Commutative property x(n) * h(n) = h(n) * x(n)
 Associative property [x(n) * h1(n)]*h2(n) = x(n)*[h1(n) * h2(n)]
 Distributive property x(n) *[ h1(n)+h2(n)] = [x(n)*h1(n)]+[x(n) * h2(n)]

22. Define Truncation.

Truncating is the sequence by multiplying with window function to get the finite value.
23. What is meant by interpolation?
It is also referred as Up Sampling, That is increasing the sampling rate.
24. Define DSP.
It is defined as changing or analyzing information which is measured as Discrete Time
Sequences.
25. Define a Casual System.
 The casual system generates the output depending upon present and past inputs only. A
Casual System is Non Anticipatory.
26. Check if the system described by the difference equation y(n) = ay(n-1) + x(n) with
y(0) = 1 is stable. (Apr / May 2015)
The given system is stable when a < infinite.
27. Differentiate between Energy and Power Signals. (Apr / May 2015)
 Energy signals are time limited while power signals can exist over infinite time.
 Non periodic signals are energy signals while power signals are periodic.
 Power of an energy signal is zero and the energy of a power signals is infinite.

PART-B

1. For each of the following systems, determine whether the system is stable,
causal, linear and time invariant
a. y(n) = e x(n)
b. y(n) = ax(n) +b
c. y(n) = Σnk=n0 x(k)
e. y(n) = n x (n)
f. y(n) = x(-n+2)
g. y(n) = nx(n)
h. y(n) = x(n) +C
i. y(n) = x(n) – x(n-1)
j. y(n) = x(-n)
l. y(n) = g(n) x(n)
m. y(n) = x(n2)
n. y(n) = x2(n)
o. y(n) = cos x(n)

2. Compute the linear convolution of h(n) = {1,2,1} and x(n) ={1,-3,0,2,2}

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3. Explain the concept of Energy and Power signals and determine whether the
following are energy or power signals
a. x(n) = (1/3)n u(n)
b. x(n) = sin (π / 4)n

4. The unit sample response h(n) of a system is represented by

h(n) = n2u(n+1) – 3 u(n) +2n u(n-1) for -5≤ n ≤5. Plot the unit sample response.

5. State and prove sampling theorem. How do you recover continuous signals from its
samples? Discuss the various parameters involved in sampling and reconstruction.

6. What is the input x(n) that will generate an output sequence

y(n) = {1,5,10,11,8,4,1} for a system with impulse response h(n) = {1,2,1}
7. Check whether the system defined by h(n) = [5 (1/2)n +4(1/3)n] u(n) is stable?
8. Explain the analog to digital conversion process and reconstruction of analog
signal from digital signal.
9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of digital signal processing compared
with analog signal processing?
10. Classify and explain different types of signals.
11. Explain the various elementary discrete time signals.
12. Explain the different types of mathematical operations that can be performed on a
discrete time signal.
13. Explain the different types of representation of discrete time signals.
14. Determine whether the systems having the following impulse responses are
causal and stable
a. h(n) = 2n u(-n) b. h(n) = sin nπ / 2 c. h(n) = sin nπ + δ (n)
d. h(n) = e2n u(n-1)
15. For the given discrete time signal
x(n) = { -0.5,0.5, for n = -2, -1
1, n=0
3, 2, 0.4 n > 0}
Sketch following a) x (n-3), b) x (3-n) c) x (2n) d) x (n/2) e) [x (n) + x (-n)] / 2
16. Find the convolution of x (n) = an u (n), a < 1 with h(n) = 1for 0 ≤ n ≤ N-1
17. Draw the analog, discrete, quantized and digital signal with an example.
18. Explain the properties of linearity and stability of discrete time systems with
examples.
19. Impulse response of linear time invariant system is h (n) = {1, 2, 1,-1}.

UNIT II – ANALYSIS OF LTI SYSTEMS

1. Define DTFT.
Let us consider the discrete time signal x(n).Its DTFT is denoted as X(w).It is given as
X(w)= x(n)e-jwn
2. State the condition for existence of DTFT?
The conditions are
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  If x(n)is absolutely summable then |x(n)|<
 If x(n) is not absolutely summable then it should have finite energy for DTFT to exit.
3. List the properties of DTFT.
Periodicity, Linearity, Time shift, Frequency shift, Scaling, Differentiation in frequency
domain, Time reversal, Convolution, Multiplication in time domain, Parseval’s theorem
4. What is the DTFT of unit sample?
The DTFT of unit sample is 1 for all values of w.
5. Define DFT.
DFT is defined as X(w)= x(n)e-jwn. Here x(n) is the discrete time sequence X(w) is the
Fourier transform of x(n).
6. Define Twiddle factor.
The Twiddle factor is defined as WN=e-j2 /N
7. Define Zero padding.
The method of appending zero in the given sequence is called as Zero padding.
8. Define circularly even sequence.
A Sequence is said to be circularly even if it is symmetric about the point zero on the
circle. x(N-n)=x(n),1<=n<=N-1.
9. Define circularly odd sequence.
A Sequence is said to be circularly odd if it is anti symmetric about point x(0) on the circle
10. Define circularly folded sequences.
A circularly folded sequence is represented as x((-n))N. It is obtained by plotting x(n)
in clockwise direction along the circle.
11. State circular convolution.
This property states that multiplication of two DFT is equal to circular convolution of
their sequence in time domain.
12. State Parseval’s theorem.
Consider the complex valued sequences x(n) and y(n).If x(n)y*(n)=1/N X(k)Y*(k)
13. Define Z transform.
The Z transform of a discrete time signal x(n) is denoted by X(z) and is given by X(z)=
x(n)Z-n.
14. Define ROC.
The value of Z for which the Z transform converged is called region of convergence.

15. Find Z transform of x(n)={1,2,3,4}

x(n) = {1,2,3,4}
X(z) = x(n)z-n
= 1+2z-1+3z-2+4z-3.
= 1+2/z+3/z2+4/z3.
16. State the convolution property of Z transform.
The convolution property states that the convolution of two sequences in time domain
is equivalent to multiplication of their Z transforms.
17. What z transform of (n-m)?
By time shifting property
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 Z[A (n-m)]=AZ-m sin Z[ (n)] =1
18. State initial value theorem.
If x(n) is causal sequence then its initial value is given by x(0)=lim X(z)
19. List the methods of obtaining inverse Z transform.
Inverse z transform can be obtained by using
 Partial fraction expansion.
 Contour integration
 Power series expansion
 .Convolution.
20. Obtain the inverse z transform of X(z)=1/z-a,|z|>|a|
Given X(z)=z-1/1-az-1 , By time shifting property X(n)=an.u(n-1)
21. Define Zeros
The Zeros of the system H(z) are the values of z for which H(z) = 0.
22. Define Poles.
The Poles of the System H(z) are the values of z for which H(z) = a
23. What is the need for Z Transform?
Z Transform is used for analysis the both periodic and non periodic signals.
24. What is meant by ROC?
The region of convergence (ROC) is defined as the set of all values of z for which X(z)
converges.
25. Define System Function.
 The ratio between z transform of output signal y(z) to z transform of input signal x(z) is
called system function of the particular system.
26. Determine the Z transform of x(n) = an. (Apr / May 2015)
z / (z-a)

Part-B
1. Determine the Z-transform and ROC of
a. x(n) = rn cos ωn u(n)
b. x(n) = n2an u(n)
c. x(n) = -1/3 (-1/4)n u(n) – 4/3 (2)n u(-n-1)
d. x(n) = an u(n) + bn u(n) + cn u(-n-1) , |a | < | b| < |c|
e. x(n) = cos ωn u(n)

2. Find the inverse Z-transform of

a. X(z) = z (z+1) / (z-0.5)3
b. X(z) = 1+3z-1 / 1 + 3z-1 + 2z-2
c. H(z) = 1 / [1 - 3z-1 + 0.5z-2] |z | > 1
d. X(z) = [z (z2- 4z +5)] / [(z-3) (z-2) ( z-1)] for ROC |2 | < | z| < |3|,
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 |z| > 3, |z|< 1

3. Determine the system function and pole zero pattern for the system described by
difference equation y (n) -0.6 y(n-1) +0.5 y(n-2) = x(n) – 0.7 x(n-2).
4. Determine the pole –zero plot for the system described by the difference equation y(n)
– 3/4 y(n-1) +1/8 y(n-2) = x(n) – x(n-1)
5. Explain the properties of Z-transform.
6. Perform the convolution of the following two sequences using Z-transforms.
x(n) = 0.2n u(n) and h(n) = (0.3)n u(n)
7. A causal LTI system has an impulse response h(n) for which the Z-transform is given
by H(z) = (1+z-1) / [(1 + 1/2z-1) (1 + 1/4z-1). What is the ROC of H (z)? Is the system
stable? Find the Z-transform X (z) of an input x (n) that will produce the output y(n)
= -1/3 (-1/4)n u(n) – 4/3 (2)n u(-n-1).Find the impulse response h(n) of the system.
8. Solve the difference equation y(n) -3y(n-1) – 4y(n-2) = 0, n ≥ 0 ,y(-1) = 5
9. Compute the response of the system y(n) = 0.7 y(n-1)-0.12y(n-2) +x(n-1)+x(n-2) to the
input x(n) = n u(n)
10. What is ROC? Explain with an example.
11. A causal LTI IIR digital filter is characterized by a constant co-efficient difference
equation given by y(n) = x(n-1)-1.2x(n-2)+x(n-3)+1.3 y(n-1) – 1.04 y(n-2)+0.222y(n-3),
obtain its transfer function.
12. Determine the system function and impulse response of the system described by the
difference equation y(n) = x(n) +2x(n-1)- 4x(n-2) + x(n-3)
13. Solve the difference equation y(n) - 4y(n-1) - +4 y(n-2) = x(n) – x(n-1) with the initial
condition y(-1) = y(-2) = 1
14. Find the impulse response of the system described by the difference equation y(n) = 0.7
y(n-1) -0.1 y(n-2) +2 x(n) – x(n-2)
15. Determine the z- transform and ROC of the signal x(n) = [ 3 ( 2n) – 4 (3n)] u(n).

UNIT III DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM

1. What are the basic operations on signals?
The basic operations on signals are
 Time shifting
 Time reversal
 Time scaling
 Amplitude scaling
 Signal addition
 Signal multiplication

2. How are signals classified?

Signals are classified according to their characteristics. Some of them are:
 Continuous- time and discrete-time signals
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 Deterministic and random signals
 Periodic and aperiodic signals
 Energy and power signals
 Even and odd signals
 Causal and non-causal signals

3. Distinguish between deterministic and random signals.

A deterministic signal is a signal exhibiting no uncertainty of its magnitude and phase at
any given instant of time. It can be represented by a mathematical equation.
Whereas a random signal is a signal characterized by uncertainty about its occurrence. It
cannot be represented by a mathematical equation.

4. Distinguish between energy and power signals.

An energy signal is one whose total energy E = finite value and whose average power
P = 0, whereas a power signal is the one whose average power P = finite value and total
energy E = ∞.

5. What is the relation between impulse, step, ramp and parabolic signals?
The relation between impulse, step, ramp and parabolic functions is as follows: Step function
is the integration of impulse function, ramp function is the integration of step function, and
parabolic function is the integration of ramp function.Ramp function is the derivative
function, step function is the derivative of ramp function and impulse function is the
derivative of step function.

6. What are the different types of representing discrete-time signals?

There are four different types of representation of discrete-time signals. They are:
 Graphical representation
 Functional representation
 Tabular representation
 Sequence representation

7. How are systems classified?

 Continuous-time and discrete-time systems
 Lumped parameter and distributed parameter systems
 Static and dynamic systems
 Causal and non-causal systems
 Time-invariant and time varying systems
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 Stable and unstable systems
 Invertible and non-invertible system

8. Define – Continuous− Time system & Discrete− Time system

A continuous – time system is a system which transforms continuous-time input
signals into continuous-time output signals.
A discrete – time system is a system which transforms discrete -time input signals
into discrete -time output signals.

9. Define – Static System and Dynamic System

A static or memory- less system is a system in which the response at any instant is due to
present input alone. i.e. for a static or memory-less system, the output at any instant t ( or
n) depends only on the input applied at that instant t ( or n) but not on the past or
future values of input. A dynamic or memory system is a system in which the response
at any instant depends upon past or future inputs.

10. Define – Time-invariant System

A time - invariant (or shift-invariant) system is a system whose input / output characteristics
do not change with time, i.e. a system for which a time shift in the input results in a
corresponding time shift in the output.

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11. What are the conditions for a system to be LTI system? (Nov / Dec -13)

The conditions for a system to be LTI system are,

i. the system must possesses Linearity and
ii. time invariant property
Linearity: An LTI system is a system that possesses the important property of
superposition that is the output of the system to a weighted sum of inputs is equal to the
weighted sum of the outputs corresponding to each of the individual inputs.
Time Invariant: A system is said to be time-invariant if its input-output
characteristics do not change with time.

12. What is the limitation of Fourier series? Does Fourier transform overcome this?
The limitation of Fourier series is: it is applicable only to periodic signals. It
cannot be applied to aperiodic signals. Fourier transform overcomes this limitation because
Fourier transform is applicable to aperiodic as well as periodic signals.

13. What are the merits of Fourier transform?

The merits of Fourier transform are
 The Fourier transform is the most useful tool for analyzing signals.
 The original time function can be uniquely recovered from it i.e inverse
Fourier transform is unique
 Convolution integrals can be evaluated using Fourier transform.

14. What is the use of Fourier transform?

The Fourier transform is an extremely useful mathematical tool and is used in the analysis
of LTI systems, cryptography, signal analysis, signal processing, astronomy etc. Several
applications ranging from radar to spread spectrum communication employ Fourier
transform.

15. What is meant by correlation?

Correlation is an operation between signals and it gives us the degree of similarity between
the two signals. Correlation is of two types: cross correlation and autocorrelation. Cross
correlation is a measure of similarity between one signal and time delayed version of
another signal. Autocorrelation is a measure of similarity between a signal and time
delayed version of same signal.

16. State Parseval‟s power theorem.

The Parseval’s power theorem defines the power of a signal in terms of its Fourier series
coefficients. It states that the power of a signal is equal to the sum of square of the
magnitudes of various harmonics present in the discrete spectrum.

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 17. Write the condition for the LTI system to be causal and stable. ( Nov / Dec 2006)
The condition for causality in a LTI system is :
The system output should depend on present and past inputs but not future inputs.
A system is said to be bounded input bounded output if and only if every
bounded input produced bounded output.

18. Give some applications of discrete-time Fourier transform.

The applications of discrete-time Fourier transform are as follows
 The frequency response of LTI system is given by the Fourier transform of the
impulse response of the system.
 The ratio of the Fourier transform of the output to the Fourier transform of input
is called the transfer function of the system.
 The response of an LTI system can be easily computed using the
convolution property of Fourier transform.

19. List the difference between Fourier transform of discrete-time signal and
analog signal.
 The Fourier transform of analog signal consists of a spectrum with frequency
range −∞ to +∞, but the Fourier transform of discrete-time signal is unique in the
range –π to +π. ( or 0 to 2π), and also it is periodic with periodicity of 2π.
 The Fourier transform of analog signal involves integration, but Fourier
transform of discrete-time signal involves summation.

20. What do you mean by Bit reversal and in-place computation? (NOV/DEC2011)
Bit Reversal: In DIT-FFT the input sequence has to be stored in a shuffled order. The
output sequence to be in a natural order.
In-place Computation: Two input nodes cross each other to the two output nodes.
These nodes are memory location at the input nodes a and b are stored and thye
outputs A+B and A-b are calculated. The same memory location is used to store the
new values in place of the input values.

21. What are the differences and similarities between DIF and DIT algorithms?
(APR/MAY 2011)
Differences:
 For DIT, the input is bit reversal while the output is in natural order, whereas for
DIF, the input is in natural order while the output is bit reversed.
 The DIF butterfly is slightly different from the DIT butterfly, the difference
being that the complex multiplication takes place after the add-subtract operation in
DIF.

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 Similarities:
Both algorithms require same number of operations to compute the DFT. Bot algorithms
can be done in place and both need to perform bit reversal at some place during the
computation.

22. Distinguish between DFT and DTFT. (APR/MAY 2013)

S.No DFT DTFT
1. Obtained by performing sampling Sampling is performed only in
operation in both the time time domain.
and frequency domains.
Discrete frequency spectrum
2. Continuous function of ω

23. What are the uses of zero padding? (APR/MAY 2011)

The method of appending zero in the given sequence is called as Zero padding.
Let the sequence x (n) has a length L. If we want to find the N point DFT (N>L) of
the sequence x (n). This is known as zero padding. The uses of padding a sequence
with zeros are
(i) We can get ‘better display’ of the frequency spectrum.
(ii) With zero padding, the DFT can be used in linear filtering.

24. Draw the basic butterfly flow graph for the computation in the DIT – FFT
Algorithm.

25. Why FFT is needed?

FFT is based on divide and conquer algorithm where you divide the signal into two
smaller signals, compute the DFT of the two smaller signals and join them to get the DFT
of the larger signal. The order of complexity of DFT is O(n^2) while that of FFTis
O(n.logn) hence, FFT is faster than DFT.

143
 26. What is decimation in time algorithm?
Decimation in time algorithm is used to calculate the DFT of a N point sequence. The idea
to break the N point sequence into two sequence, the DFT s of which can be combined to
give the DFT of the original N point sequence. Initially the N Point sequence is divided
into two N/2 point sequence, even and odd members of x(n). the N/2 point DFT of these
two sequences are evaluated and combined to give N point DFT. Similarly the N/2 point
DFT s can be expressed as a combination of N/4 point DFTs. This process is continued
until 2 point DFT are left. This algorithm is called as DIT because the sequence x(n) is
often split into smaller subsequences.

27. What is the speed improvement factor in calculating 64 point DFT of a sequence
using direct computation and FFT algorithm?
The number of complex multiplication required using direct computation is
N2 = 64 2 = 4096
The number of complex multiplications required using FFT is
N/2 log2 N= 64/2log 2 N = 192
Speed improvement factor = 4096/192 = 21.33

28. Distinguish between linear and circular convolution of two sequences.

S.No. Linear Convolution
If x(n) is a sequence of L number
of samples and h(n) with M
1. number of samples, after
convolution y(n) will contain
N=L+M-1 samples
Linear convolution can be used to
2.
find the response of a linear filter
Zero padding is not necessary to
3. find the response of a linear
filtering
Circular Convolution
If x(n) s a sequence of L Number of
samples and h(n) with M samples, after
convolution y(n) will contain
N=max(L,M) samples
Circular convolution cannot be used to
find the response of a linear filter
Zero padding is necessary to find the
response of the filter

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29. What do you understand by the terms: Signal and Signal Processing.
A signal is defined as any physical quantity that varies with time, space or any other
independent variable
Signal processing is an operation that changes the characteristics of a signal. These
characteristics include the amplitude shape, phase and frequency content of a signal.

30. Define linear system and give example.

A linear system is one that satisfies the principle of superposition according to which an
output of the system is weighted sum of inputs is equal to the corresponding weighted sum of
the outputs to each of the individual system
If y1(n)= T[x1(n) and y2(n)=T[x2(n)] for a linear system
T[a1x1(n)+a2x2(n)]=a1T[x1(n)]+a2T[x2(n)]
Example : y(n)=nx(n)
31. What is LTI system?
An LTI system is one which possesses two of the basic properties using linearity and time
variance. An LTI system obeys superposition principles which states that the output of the
system to a weigtht sum of inputs are equal to the corresponding weighted sum of the
outputs to each of the individual inputs. Time variance: if the input –output relation of a
system does not vary with tiem then the system is said to be time invariant.
32. What is FFT?
A fast Fourier transform (FFT) is an algorithm that samples a signal over a period of time
(or space) and divides it into its frequency components. An FFT
algorithm computes the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of a sequence, or its inverse
(IFFT). Fourier analysis converts a signal from its original domain to a
representation in the frequency domain and vice versa. An FFT rapidly computes such
transformations by factorizing the DFT matrix into a product of sparse (mostly zero)
factors As a result, it manages to reduce the complexity of computing the DFT.

145
33. What is decimation in Frequency algorithm?
DIF algothim is a popular form of FFT. In this algorithm, the output sequence X(k) is
divided into smaller and smaller subsequences, that is why the name decimation in
frequency. Initially the input sequence is divided into two sequences consisting of the
first N/2 samples of x(n) and the last N/2 samples of x(n) respectively.
f(n)=x1(n+x2(n) and g(n)=x1(n-x2(n)]wNn
The n/2 point DFT is even membered and odd membered respectively and above procedure
is iterated to express each N/2 point DFT as the combination of two N/2 point DFTs. This
process continued until we are left with 2 point DFT

34. What is Zero Padding? What are its uses?

Let the sequence x(n)has a length of L. If we want to find the N point DFT (N>L)of
the sequence x(n), we have to add (N-L) zeros to the sequence x(n). This is known as zero
padding. The uses of padding a sequence with zeros are:

(i) We can get better display of the frequency spectrum

(ii) With zero padding, the DFT can be used in linear filtering
35. Define Circular Convolution.
Let x1(n) and x2(n) are finite duration sequence both the length N with DFTs X1(K) and
X2(K). if X3(K)=X1(K) X2(K) then the sequence x3(n) can be obtained by the circular
convolution defined as
X3(n)=∑ x1(m)x2(n-m)N
36. What are energy and power signal?
The energy of a discrete signal is defined as a signal only if the energy obeys the relation
0<E<∞. For energy signal P=0. The average power of a discrete time signal is given as
below

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37. What is twiddle factor?
A twiddle factor, in fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithms, is any of the
trigonometric constant coefficients that are multiplied by the data in the course of the
algorithm.

38. State the difference between overlap save method and overlap add method.
S.No. Overlap save method
1 In this method the size of the
input data block in N=L+M-1
2 Each data block consists of the
last M-1 data points of the previous
block followed by L new data
points
3 In each output block M-1 points
are corrupted due to aliasing as
circular convolution is employed
4 To form the output sequence the
first M-1 data points are discarded
in each output lock and the
remaining data are fitted together
Overlap add method
In this method the size of the
input data block is L
Each data block is L points
and we append M-1 zeros
to compute N point DFT
In this no corruption due to
aliasing as linear
convolution is performed
using circular convolution
To form the output sequence,
the last M-1 points from
each output block is added
to m-1 pints of the
succeeding block

PART-B
1. Apply Radix -2 DIT-FFT for the sequence x(n)={1,2,3,4,4,3,2,1).
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: Example – 4.6

2. Solve DFT for the sequence x(n)={1,1,1,1,1,1,0,0}.

Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book

p.no.: Example – 3.3

147
3. Do the linear convolution of finite duration sequence using overlap save and overlap add
method x(n)={1,2,-1,2,3,-2,-3,-1,1,2,-1} and h(n)={1,2}.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: Example - 3.21
4. Do the circular convolution of the following sequence
x(n)={ 1,1,2,1} and h(n)={1,2,3,4) using DFT and IDFT.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: Example - 3.16
5. Explain and prove the different properties of DFT in detail.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: 3.25
6. Do circular convolution of x1(n)={1,1,1,1,0,0,0,0} and
x2(n)=sin(3πn/8); 0≤n≤7 using matrix method.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: Example - 3.25

7. Apply Radix -2 DIF-FFT for the sequence x(n)={1,2,3,4,4,3,2,1).

Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: Example – 4.8

8. Solve the 8 point DFT for the sequence x(n)=1; for 0≤n≤2; 0; otherwise
and plot magnitude and phase plot for the same.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: Example-3.13
9. Perform the linear convolution of finite duration sequence using overlap save and
overlap add method x(n)={3,-1,0,1,3,2,0,1,2,1} and h(n)={1,1,1}.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: Example - 3.20

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10. Perform IDFT for the sequence X(K)={5,0,1-j,0,1,0,1+j,0}.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: Example - 3.4
11. Do the circular convolution of x1(n)={1,2,3,4} and x2(n)={1,2,2,1} using
concentric circle method and the same verify using matrix method.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: Example - 3.14
12. Explain (i) static and dynamic systems (ii) Causal and Non-causal systems
(iii)Linear and non-linear systems.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: - 3.52
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FORMULA

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150
 UNIT IV INFINITE IMPULSE RESPONSE FILTERS

1. Define bilinear transformation method of designing IIR filter? (APR/MAY 2015,

NOV/DEC2013)
The bilinear transformation is conformal mapping that transforms the s-plane to z-plane.
In this mapping the imaginary axis of s-plane is mapped into the unit circle in z-plane, The
left half of s-plane is mapped into interior of unit circle in z-plane and the right half of s-
plane is mapped into exterior of unit circle in z-plane.

2. Draw the direct form realization of IIR system. (APR/MAY 2015)

3. Mention the properties of Butterworth filter. (NOV/DEC 2013)

 All pole design
 The filter order N specify the filter
 Magnitude is maximally flat at the origin.
4. What are the properties of Chebyshev filter? (APR/MAY 2016)
The magnitude response is equiripple in the passband and monotonic in the stopband. The
chebyshev type-1 filters are all pole designs.
The magnitude response approaches the ideal response as the value of N increases.

5. Discuss the need for prewarping. (APR/MAY 2016)

In IIR filter using bilinear transformation,the conversion of specified digital frequemcy to
analog frequency.Prewarping is the method of introducing nonlinearly in frequency
relationship to compensate warping effect.
6. What is meant by impulse invariant method? (NOV/DEC 2016)
The transformation of analog filter to digital filter without modifying the impulse
response of the filter is called impulse invariant transformation.

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 7. Distinguish between analog and digital filters. (NOV/DEC 2014,2016)
Digital filter Analog filter
i) Operates on digital samples of the i) Operates on analog signals.
signal. ii) It is governed by linear difference
ii) It is governed by linear difference equation.
equation.
iii) It consists of adders, multipliers and iii) It consists of electrical components
delays implemented in digital logic. like resistors, capacitors and
iv) In digital filters the filter coefficients inductors. iv) In digital filters the

8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of digital filter?(NOV/DEC 2014)

Advantages of digital filters
High thermal stability due to absence of resistors, inductors and capacitors.
Increasing the length of the registers can enhance the performance characteristics like
accuracy, dynamic range, stability and tolerance.
The digital filters are programmable. Multiplexing
and adaptive filtering are possible. Disadvantages of
digital filters
The bandwidth of the discrete signal is limited by the sampling frequency.
The performance of the digital filter depends on the hardware used to implement the
filter.
9. How analog poles are mapped to digital poles in impulse invariant
transformation?(NOV/DEC 2014)
In impulse invariant transformation the mapping of analog to digital poles are as
follows,The analog poles on the left half of s-plane are mapped into the interior of unit
circle in z-plane. The analog poles on the imaginary axis of s-plane are mapped into the
unit circle in the z-plane. The analog poles on the right half of s-plane are mapped into the
exterior of unit circle in z-plane.

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10. Compare the Butterworth and Chebyshev Type-1 filters.

Butterworth Chebyshev Type - 1

i. All pole design. i. All pole design.
ii. The poles lie on a circle in s-plane. ii. The poles lie on a ellipse in s-plane.
iii. The magnitude response is iii. The magnitude response is equiripple
maximally flat at the origin and in passband and monotonically
monotonically decreasing function of decreasing in the stopband.
Ω. iv. The normalized magnitude response
iv. The normalized magnitude response has a value of 1 / root (1+ε2) at the
has a value of 1 / root 2 at the cutoff cutoff frequency Ωc.
frequency Ωc. v. A large number of parameters has to
v. Only few parameters has to be be calculated to determine the transfer
calculated to determine the transfer function.

11. Give any two properties of Butterworth filter.

1. The magnitude response of the Butterworth filter decreases monotonically as the
frequency Ω increases from 0 to ∞.
2. The magnitude response of the Butterworth filter closely approximates the ideal
response as the order N increases.
3. The poles of the Butterworth filter lie on a circle.
12. What are the properties of chebyshev filter?
1. The magnitude response of the chebyshev filter exhibits ripples either in pass band
or in stop band according to type.
2. The poles of the chebyshev filter lie on an ellipse.
13. Distinguish between Butterworth and chebyshev filter.
1.The magnitude response of the Butterworth filter decreases monotonically as the
frequency Ω increases from 0 to ∞, whereas The magnitude response of the chebyshev filter
exhibits ripples either in pass band or in stop band.
2.The transition band is more in Butterworth filter compared to chebyshev filter.
3.The poles of the Butterworth filter lie on a circle whereas the poles of the
chebyshev filter is lie on an ellipse.

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 14. What is bilinear transform?
The bilinear transform is a mapping that transform the left half of S-plane into the unit
circle in the Z-plane only once, thus avoiding aliasing of frequency components. the
mapping from the s-plane to the z-plane in bilinear transformation

15. What is Known as Warping effect?

The relationship between the analog and digital frequency in BLT is given by
For smaller values of w, there exist a linear relation between w and Ω; for larger values
of w, the relation is non linear, this non linearity introduces distortion in the frequency
access. This is known as warping effect

16. Why impulse invariant method is not preferred in the design of IIR filter other
than LPF?
In impulse invariance method, the mapping from s plane to z plane is many to one, i.e.,
all the poles in the s plane between the intervals (2k-1)π/T to(2k+1)π/T (for k
=0,1,2…) map into the entire z plane. Thus there is an infinite number of poles that map
to the same location in the z plane, producing aliasing effect. Due to spectrum aliasing the
impulse invariance method is in appropriate for desigining high pass filters. That is
why the impulse invariance method is not preferred in the design of IIR filter other than
lowpass filter.

17. State the advantages & disadvantages of bilinear transformation.

Adv:
It avoids aliasing in frequency components.
The transformation of stable analog filter results in a stable digital filter.
Dis-advt.:
Due to nonlinear relation between ω and Ω distortion occurs in frequency domain of
digital filter

18. Define IIR filter.

Infinite impulse response (IIR) filters. IIR filters are the most efficient type of filter to
implement in DSP (digital signal processing). They are usually provided as
"biquad"filters. Recursive type output depends on the present input, past input & output
samples
A recursive filter has feedback from output to input, and in general its output is a function
of the previous output samples and the present and past input samples as described by the
following equation. when a recursive filter is excited by an impulse, the output persists
forever

19. Mention the procedures for digitizing the transfer function of an analog filter?
 Impulse Invariant Method
 Bilinear Transformation Method
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 20. How one can design digital filters from analog filters?
 Map the desired digital filter specifications into those for an equivalent analog
filter
 Derive the analog transfer function for the analog prototype
 Transform the transfer function of the analog prototype into an equivalent
digital filter transfer function.

21. What is Known as Pre-Warping effect?

For large frequency values the non linear compression that occurs in the mapping of Ω
to w is more apparent .This compression causes the transfer function at high Ω frequency to
be highly distorted when it is translate to the w domain. This compression is being
compensated by introducing a prescaling or prewarpping to Ω frequency scale. For
bilinear transform Ω scale is converted into Ω* scale (i.e)

22. Why impulse invariant method is not preferred in the design of IIR filter other
than LPF?
In impulse invariance method, the mapping from s plane to z plane is many to one,
i.e.all the poles in the s plane between the intervals (2k-1)π/T to(2k+1)π/T (for
k=0,1,2…) map into the entire z plane. Thus there is an infinite number of poles that
map to the same location in the z plane, producing aliasing effect. Due to spectrum aliasing
the impulse invariance method is in appropriate for desigining high pass filters. That
is why the impulse invariance method is not preferred in the design of IIR filter other than
lowpass filter.

23. List the steps of designing Chebyshev filter.

 From the given specification, find the order N and round it off to the next highest
integer
 Find the values of a and b using the formula (write formula)
 Calculate the poles of the chebychev filter and find denominator polynomial
 Find the numerator term, depends onN
 Find the final transfer function
 Write the expression for order of Chebyshev filter.
 The order of Chebyshev filter is given by

24. State the properties of Bilinear Transformation.

 The mapping for the BLT is a one to one mapping; that is for every point of z, there
is exactly one corresponding point s, and vice versa
155
  The jΩ axis maps on the unit circle, | z |= 1, the left half of the s plane maps to the
interior of the unit circle, |z|=1 the right half of the s plane maps to the exterior of
the unit circle, |z|=1

25. Draw general structure of direct form I and direct form II IIR filters.
DF – I DF-II

26. Compare Butterworth and Chebyshev analog filter.

Butterworth filter
 The Magnitude response of Butterworth filter decreases monotonically as the
frequency increases.
 The Transition width is more
 The order of butterworth filter is more, thus it requires more elements to construct and
is expensive.
 The Poles of the butterworth filter lies along the circle.
 Magnitude response is flat at ω=0 thus it is known as maximally flat filter.

156
 27. Chebyshev Filter
 The Magnitude response of Chebyshev filter will not decrease monotonically with
frequency because it exhibits ripples in pass band or stop band.
 The Transition width is very small
 For the same specifications the order of the filter is small and is less complex and
inexpensive.
 The poles of chebyshev filter lies along the ellipse.
 Magnitude response produces ripples in the pass band or stop band thus it is known as
equripple filter.
Part – B
1. Obtain the Direct form I, II cascade and parallel form of realization of LTI system
governed by
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.:5.106 Example – 5.44 (MODEL)
2. Obtain the Direct form I, II cascade and parallel form of realization of LTI system
governed by
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: 5.68 Example – 5.27
3. Write down the steps to design digital filter using bilinear transformation technique and
using this design a HPF with Pass band cutoff frequency of 1000 Hz & down 10 dB at
350 Hz the sampling frequency is 5000 Hz
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
4. p.no.: 5.49 Example – 5.17
5. Design an analog butterworth filter for the following specefications
0.9  H ( j)  1 for 0    0.2
0  H ( j)  0.2 for 0.4    
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: 5.15 Example – 5.5
6. Design Chebyshev filter for the following specefciations; αp=3dB and αs=16 dB; fp=1
KHz and fs= 2 KHz
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: 5.24 Example – 5.6

157
7. Obtain an analog Chebyshev filter transfer function that satisfies the constraints
1
 H ( j)  1 for 0    2
2
0  H ( j)  0.1 for  4
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: 5.25 Example – 5.7
8. Design a Buttterworth filter for the following specification

 H (e jw )  1 for 0  w  
1
2 2
3
0  H (e jw )  0.2 for   w  
4
by using bilinear transformation and assume sampling period T = 1 sec
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: 5.24 Example – 5.6
9. Design a Third order Butterworth digital filter using impulse invariant technique. Assume
Sampling period T=1 Sec
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: 5.41 Example – 5.13
10. Design an analog Butterworth filter that has αp= 2 dB and αs=10 dB with fp= 20 rad/sec
and fs=30 rad/sec.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: 5.14 Example – 5.4
11. Apply Impulse invariance technique for the following transfer function by assuming
T=1sec and find H(z); H (s)  2
(s  1)(s  2)
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: 5.40 Example – 5.11
12. Derive the transfer function of third order butterworth filter
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book p.no.: 57

13. Apply bilinear transformation for the following transfer function by assuming T=1sec
and find H(z); H (s)  2
(s  1)(s  2)
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by P.Ramesh Babu; book
p.no.: 5.49 Example – 5.16

158
 FORMUL
A

UNIT V FINITE IMPULSE RESPONSE FILTERS & MULTIRATE SIGNAL

PROCESSING

1. Distinguish between FIR and IIR filters.

S.No. FIR filter IIR filter

1. These filters can be easily designed to have These filters do not have linear
perfectly linear phase. phase.
2. FIR filters can be realized recursively and IIR filters can be realized
non-recursively. Greater flexibility to control recursively.
3. the shape of their magnitude response. Less flexibility,usually limited
Errors due to roundoff noise are less severe in
to kind of filters.
FIR filters, mainly because feedback is not
4. used. The roundoff noise in IIR filters
are more.

2. What are the properties of FIR filter?

1. FIR filter is always stable.
2. A realizable filter can always be obtained.
3. FIR filter has a linear phase response.

3. What are the advantages of FIR filters?

 Linear phase FIR filter can be easily designed.
 Efficient realization of FIR filter exist as both recursive and

159
 nonrecursive structures.
 FIR filters realized nonrecursively are always stable.

4. What are the disadvantages of FIR filters?

 The duration of impulse response should be large to realize sharp cutoff
filters.
 The non-integral delay can lead to problems in some signal processing
applications.

5. What is the necessary and sufficient condition for the linear phase characteristic of an
FIR filter?
The necessary and sufficient condition for the linear phase characteristic of an FIR
filter is that the phase function should be a linear function of w, which in turn requires
constant phase and group delay.

6. What are the conditions to be satisfied for constant phase delay in linear phase FIR
filters?
The conditions for constant phase delay are
Phase delay, α = (N-1)/2 (i.e., phase delay is constant)
Impulse response, h(n) = -h(N-1-n) (i.e., impulse response is antisymmetric)

7. What is Gibb‟s phenomenon (or Gibb‟s Oscillation)?

In FIR filter design by Fourier series method the infinite duration impulse response
is truncated to finite duration impulse response. The abrupt truncation of impulse response
introduces oscillations in the pass band and stop band. This effect is known as Gibb’s
phenomenon (or Gibb’s Oscillation).

8. What are the desirable characteristics of the frequency response of window

function?
The desirable characteristics of the frequency response of window function are

 The width of the main lobe should be small and it should contain as much of the total
energy as possible.
 The side lobes should decrease in energy rapidly as w tends to π.

9. What are the drawback in FIR filter design using windows and frequency sampling
method? How it is overcome?
The FIR filter design using windows and frequency sampling method does not have
Precise control over the critical frequencies such as wp and ws. This drawback can be
overcome by designing FIR filter using Chebyshev approximation technique. In this
technique an error function is used to approximate the ideal frequency response, in order
to satisfy the desired specifications.

160
10. Write the characteristic features of rectangular window.
 The main lobe width is equal to 4π/N.
 The maximum side lobe magnitude is –13dB.
 The side lobes magnitude does not decrease significantly with increasing w.

11. List the features of FIR filter designed using rectangular window.
 The width of the transition region is related to the width of the
main lobe of window spectrum.
 Gibb’s oscillations are noticed in the pass band and stop band.
The attenuation in the stop band is constant and cannot be varied.

12. Why Gibb‟s oscillations are developed in rectangular window and how it can be
eliminated or reduced?
 The Gibb’s oscillations in rectangular window are due to the
sharp transitions from 1 to 0 at the edges of window sequence.
 These oscillations can be eliminated or reduced by replacing the
sharp transition by gradual transition. This is the motivation for
development of triangular and cosine windows.

13. List the characteristics of FIR filters designed using windows.

 The width of the transition band depends on the type of window.
 The width of the transition band can be made narrow by increasing the
value of N
 Where N is the length of the window sequence.
 The attenuation in the stop band is fixed for a given window,
except in case of Kaiser Window where it is variable.

14. Compare the rectangular window and hamming window.

Rectangular window Hamming Window

i) The width of main lobe in window i) The width of main lobe in window
spectrum is 4π/N spectrum is 8π/N
ii) The maximum side lobe magnitude ii) The maximum side lobe
in window spectrum is – magnitude in window spectrum is –
13dB. 31dB.

iii) In window spectrum the side lobe
magnitude slightly decreases with
increasing w.
iv) In FIR filter designed using rectangular
window the minimum stop band
attenuation is 22dB.
iii) In window spectrum the side
lobe magnitude decreases with
increasing w.
iv) In FIR filter designed using
hamming window the minimum stop
band attenuation is 44dB.

161
15.Write the steps involved in FIR filter design
 Choose the desired frequency response Hd (w)
 Take the inverse Fourier transform and obtain Hd (n)
 Convert the infinite duration sequence Hd (n) to h (n)
 Take Z transform of h(n) to get H(Z)

16. List the well known design technique for linear phase FIR filter design?
• Fourier series method and window method
• Frequency sampling method.
• Optimal filter design method.

17. What are the features of FIR filter? NOV/DEC 2009

1. FIR filter is always stable.
2. A realizable filter can always be obtained.
3. FIR filter has a linear phase response.

18. What are the desirable characteristics of the windows?(APRIL/MAY 2007)

The desirable characteristics of the window are
1. The central lobe of the frequency response of the window should contain most of the
energy and should be narrow.
2. The highest side lobe level of the frequency response should be small.
3. The side’s lobes of the frequency response should decrease in energy rapidly as w
tends to π.
19. What are the disadvantages of Fourier series method? In designing FIR filter using
Fourier series method the infinite duration impulse response is truncated at
n= (N-1/2).Direct truncation of the series will lead to fixed percentage overshoots and
undershoots before and after an approximated discontinuity in the frequency response
20. What are the disadvantages of Fourier series method?
In designing FIR filter using Fourier series method the infinite duration impulse response is truncated at
n= (N-1/2).Direct truncation of the series will lead to fixed percentage overshoots and undershoots
before and after an approximated discontinuity in the frequency response.

162
21. What are the classifications of Digital Signal Processors?
They are classified into
General purpose digital signal processor
Special Purpose digital signal processor

22. What are the factors that influence selection of DSPs?

 Architectural features
 Execution speed Type of arithmetic word Length

23. Write short notes on general purpose DSP processors

General-purpose digital signal processors are basically high speed
microprocessors with hard ware architecture and instruction set optimized for
DSP operations. These processors make extensive use of parallelism, Harvard
architecture, pipelining and dedicated hardware whenever possible to perform time consuming
operations.

24. List the types of special purpose DSP processors.

 There are two types of special purpose
DSP processor
 Hardware designed for efficient execution of specific DSP algorithms such as
digital filter, FFT.
 Hardware designed for specific applications, for example
telecommunication, digital audio.

25. What are the types of MAC is available?

There are two types MAC’S available
1. Dedicated & integrated
2. Separate multiplier and integrated unit

26. What is meant by pipeline technique?

The pipeline technique is used to allow overall instruction executions to overlap. That is
where all four phases operate in parallel. By adapting this technique, execute n speed is
increased.

27. What are four phases available in pipeline technique?

The four phases are
(i) Fetch
(ii) Decode
(iii)Read
(iv) Execution

163
 PART-B
1. (a)Design an ideal low pass FIR filter with a frequency response.
Hd (ejω) = 1 for - ≤ω≤

= 0 for ≤ω≤π

Find the values of h(n) for N= 11. Find H(z) and plot magnitude response.
Refer : John G. Proakis and Dimitris G.Manolakis, “Digital Signal Processing Page .No.:623

2. Determine the co-efficient of linear phase FIR filter of length N = 15 has a

symmetric unit sample response and frequency response that satisfies the conditions.
H = 1 for k= 0,1,2,3

= 0.4 k=4
= 0 for k= 5,6,7
Refer : John G. Proakis and Dimitris G.Manolakis, “Digital Signal Processing Page .No.:630
3. Design an ideal Hilbert transformer with a frequency response
Hd (ejω) = j for -π ≤ ω ≤ 0
= -j for 0≤ω≤π
Using Rectangular window for N=11, plot the frequency response.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by A.Nagoor kani; bookp.no.: 6.44
4. Explain various addressing modes of a digital signal processor.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by Ramesh Babu/ Internet & PPT material

5. Draw the functional block diagram of a digital signal processor and explain.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by Ramesh Babu/ Internet & PPT material

6. Explain & Distinguish Fixed and Floating point architecture principles

Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by Ramesh Babu/ Internet & PPT material

7. Explain any two application examples in DSP processors

Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by Ramesh Babu/ Internet & PPT material

164
8. Design an ideal high pass filter with
Hd (ejw) = 1 for π/4 ≤ ω ≤ π
= 0 for ω ≤ π/4
Using Hanning window for N=11.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by A.Nagoor kani; bookp.no.: 6.46

9. Using a rectangular window technique design a low pass filter with pass band gain of
unity, cutoff frequency of 1000 Hz and working at a sampling frequency of 5 kHz. The
length of the impulse response should be 7.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by A.Nagoor kani; bookp.no.: 6.41

10. i) Derive the frequency response of a linear phase FIR filter when impulse
Responses Antisymmetric & order N is odd
ii) Explain design of FIR filter by frequency sampling technique
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by A.Nagoor kani; bookp.no.: 6.79

11. Explain the need for the use of window sequences in the design of FIR filter.
Describe the window sequences generally used and compare their properties
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by A.Nagoor kani; bookp.no.: 6.79

12. An FIR filter is given by the difference equation

y(n)=2x(n)+4/5 x(n-1)+3/2 x(n-2)+2/3 x(n-3) Determine its Realization structure.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by A.Nagoor kani; bookp.no.: 6.9

13. Realize the system function H (z) = 1  1 z 1  z 2  1 z 3  z 4  1 z 5  1 z 6

2 3 4 3 2
by linear phase FIR structure.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by A.Nagoor kani; bookp.no.: 6.8
14. Discuss about any three window functions used in the design of FIR filters.
Text book: “Digital Signal Processing” by A.Nagoor kani; bookp.no.: 6.40

165
FORMULA

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 Reg. No. :

Question Paper Code : 40451

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2021.

Fifth Semester

Electronics and Communication Engineering

EC 8553 –– DISCRETE-TIME SIGNAL PROCESSING

(Common to : Biomedical Engineering/Computer And Communication Engineering/

Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering/Medical Electronics)

(Regulations 2017)

Time : Three hours Maximum : 100 marks

Answer ALL questions.

PART A — (10  2 = 20 marks) 



1. Compute the circular convolution for the given sequence x n   1,2,5,6 and
hn   1,0,1,2 .

2. The number of points is given by N=64. Compute the number of complex

multiplications and additions required to perform DFT and FFT.

3. Calculate the Butterworth polynomial of a Low pass filter with order N=3 and cut
off frequency of  c=1 rad/sec.

4. Give the significance of impulse invariant method.

5. Define Gibbs Phenomenon.

6. Draw the direct form realization for the following linear phase filter
hn   1,2,3,4,3,2,1 .

7. What do you infer from overflow error?

8. Differentiate between fixed point and floating point number representation.

177
9. What is the need for pipelining in digital signal processors?

10. What is the difference between Harvard and Von Newman architecture?

PART B — (5  13 = 65 marks)

11. (a) Compute 8-point DFT of a sequence x(n) = {1, 3, 6, 8, –3, –7, –9, 1}. Use
DIT-FFT algorithm. Also compare DIT-FFT and DIF Algorithms.
Or

(b) Find the output y(n) for the given input sequence x(n) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 1, 11, 8, 9, 12, 14, –8, 3, 6, 44} and h(n)={1, 2, 1} Using overlap add
method. Also give the comparison between overlap add and overlap save
method.

12. (a) Design an analog Chebyshev Type-I LPF that has -3dB passband
attenuation at 4.8kHz and –16dB stopband attenuation at 6kHz. Use
bilinear transformation and find its digital filter transfer function H(z)
with period T = 1 sec.
Or

(b) Obtain the direct form-I, direct form-II, cascade and parallel structure for the
following system.

yn  1  yn  2   x n   x n  1

3 1 1
yn  
4 8 3

13. (a) Determine the filter coefficients h(n) of a linear phase FIR filter of length
15 which has a symmetric unit sample response and a frequency
response that satisfies the condition.

 2k  1, k  0,1,2, 3

H r   .
 15  0, k  4,5,6,7

Or

(b) Design an FIR linear phase digital filter approximating the ideal
frequency response.

 
1 for | | 
H d   
 6

0 for | | 
 6

Determine the coefficients of a 25-tap filter using hamming window.

2 40451

178
14. (a) Explain in detail about the three quantization error with relevant
mathematical expressions.
Or
(b) Discuss in detail about limit cycle oscillations due to product
quantization and summation with an example.

15. (a) With neat function block diagram, elaborate in detail about any one of
the latest DSP architectures.

Or
(b) Explain how programming is done in digital signal processors. Also explain any
one application.

PART C — (1  15 = 15 marks)

16. (a) Design an analog Butterworth LPF that has –2dB passband attenuation at
3.184 Hz and –10dB stopband attenuation at 4.78 Hz. Analyse how HPF is designed
from LPF.

Or
(b) Design a linear phase FIR filter using Fourier series method. Analyze any one
real time application of FIR filter.

————––––——

3 40451
179
 GE 3451 Environmental science and sustainability
UNIT – I- Environment and Biodiversity
PART–A
1) State the significance and scope of environmental education.

 The people will understand the concept of “need of development without

destruction of environment.
 The people can gain the knowledge of different types of environments and the
effects of different environmental hazards.
2) Define the term Environmental studies and environmental engineering.

Environment: The total Living and non-living things around us influencing one
another.
Environmental Studies: The process of educating the people for preserving quality
environment.
3) What is food chain?

The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem.

ProducerPrimary ConsumerSecondary consumerTertiary consumer

4) What is food web?

The interlinking pattern of various food chains.

5) Define ecosystem.

The interaction of living and nonliving component present in the environment is called
ecosystem.
6) What are Autotrophs?

Living component that can manufacture their own food. Ex. Plants and Algae.

7) What are heterotrophs?

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 The living components that are Depends Producer for their food. Rat, Rabbits, Deer, Cow,
etc.,
8) What is ecological succession?

The progressive replacement of one type of community by another in a given area is called
ecological succession.

9) What is ecological pyramid?

The graphical representation of structure and functions of an ecosystem. Ex. Pyramid in

number, Mass, Energy

10) Define biodiversity and its types.

Variety of species present in a given habitat is called biodiversity.

a. Genetic diversity – Variation with in a species

b. Species diversity – Variation between different species

c. Ecosystem diversity – Variation between different ecosystem

11) Define Endangered species.

A plant (or) animal (or) micro organism which is in immediate danger of biological
extinction. Ex. Tiger, Desert Cat, Indian Rhino.
Endemic species – Species found in particular area Ex Kangaroo

12) RED data book

The book which gives the information about the list of endangered species. It gives

warning signal for that species.Define

Point richness – The place at which large no of species can be found.

13) Define Hot spot.

The place which have high endemic species.

Ex (a) Eastern Himalayas (b) Western Ghats

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 UNIT – II - Environmental Pollution
1. Define pollution.

“The unfavorable alteration of our surroundings” is called pollution.

2. Define Air pollution.

Air pollution may be defined as the presence of impurities in excessive quantity and

duration to cause adverse effects on plants, animals, human beings and materials.

3. Define water pollution.

Water pollution is defined as any physical, chemical or biological change in quality

of water that has a harmful effect on living organisms or makes the water unsuitable

for needs.

4. Define soil pollution.

Soil pollution is defined as the introduction of substances, biological organisms, or

energy into the soil, resulting in a change of the soil quality, which is likely to affect

the normal use of the soil or endangering public health and the living environment.

5. Define thermal pollution.

Thermal pollution is defined as the addition of excess of undesirable heat to water

that makes it harmful to man, animal or aquatic life.

6. Define hazardous wastes

Wastes like chemicals, radioactive or biological substances which contribute to an

increase in mortality are called hazardous wastes.

a. The important natural source is space, which emit cosmic rays.

b. Soil, rocks, air, water, food, radioactive radan – 222.

7. Define photochemical smog.

The brownish smoke like appearance that frequently on clear, sunny days with

significant amounts of automobile traffic.

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8. Define floods.

Whenever the magnitude of water flow exceeds the carrying capacity of the channel

within its banks the excess of water over flows on the surroundings causes floods.

9. Explain cyclone management

Satellite images are used by meteorological departments for forecasting the weather

conditions which reveal the strength and intensity of the storm.

a. Radar system is used to detect the cyclone and its being used for cyclone

warning

b. For observing the exact location of cyclone every half an hour satellite pictures

are analyzed.

10. How does earthquake occurs

The earth’s crust has several tectonic plates of solid rock. These plates move slowly

along their boundaries. When friction prevents these plates from slipping stress develops

and results in sudden fractures along the fault lines within the plates. This causes

earthquakes and the violent vibrations in the earth.

11. Define the term Tsunami

A tsunami is a large wave that are generated in a water body when the sea floor is

deformed by seismic activity. This activity displaces the overlying water in the

ocean.

12. Define hazardous waste management .

The collection, treatment and disposal of waste materials that can cause substantial harm
to human health (or) to the environment
13. Define hazardous wastes.
Wastes like toxic chemicals, radioactive substances which increases the death rate and
causes serious illness human health and environment.

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13. Define E- waste and E waste management(electronic waste)
E-waste is electrical (or) electronic devices waste.

E- Waste Management

A process to collect e-waste, recover and recycle material by safe methods, dispose

of e-waste by suitable techniques to reduce impacts on environment.

14. What is OHASMS?

An Occupational Health and Safety Management System (OHSMS) is a
fundamental part of an organization's risk management strategy.

15. Write Environmental Protection Acts.

Both central and state government in India have implemented a number of
environment protection Act few of them
 Water (Prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1974
 Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
 Air ( Prevention and control of) Pollution Act, 1981
 Environment (protection) Act, 1986

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 UNIT – III –Renewable Sources of Energy

1) What is energy management?

The Planning and operation of energy production and energy consumption units as well as
energy distribution and storage.
2) What is energy conservation?
The practice of using less energy inorder to lower the costs and reduce environmental
impact.
3) What is the problem of using hydrogen as a new energy sources?
 Storage and handling of hydrogen gas is dangerous.
 Infrastructure to refuel these vehicles.
 Highly inflammable and explosive in nature.
 Safe handling is required.
4) What is the significance of OTE?
 OTE is continuous, renewable and pollution free.
 Electric power generated by OTE can be used to production hydrogen.
 Ocean energy is cheaper and efficient.
 It is environmental friendly
 Operational and Maintenance cost are low.
5) What is tidal energy?
Tidal energy is power produced by the natural ocean waters during the rise and fall
of tides.
6) Give some importance application of GTE.
 GTE is used for space heating and cooling.
 GTE is used to generate electricity.
 It is also used for industrial process heat.
 It is used for desalination of geothermal water and heavy water production
7) What is biomass energy?
Plants (or) animals used as sources of energy. Biomass is burned directly for
heating, cooling and industrial purpose
8) What are (non-conventional) renewable energy?
The energy that can be regenerate again and againis called renewable energy.

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 Examples:
Solar energy – conversion of sun light into current by using p and n type semi conductors.
Wind energy - The equipment used to convert the wind into current
Tidal energy - High tide of sea water is used to rotate the turbine which produces current.
Geothermal energy - High temperature present inside the earth (Rotate turbine to produce
current)
Ocean Thermal energy - Temperature difference between the surface and deeper level
of sea.

UNIT – IV- Social Issues and the Environment

1) Define the term sustainable development.
Meeting the needs of the present, without compromising the requirement of future
generations.
2) What is development?
The process of the creates growth progress, positive change in economic, environmental
and social component without damaging the resources of the environment.

3) NGO – Nongovernment organization – to create awareness about environment and improve

the life style
4) Write short note on types of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) (Y)
The total market value of goods and services produced within a country, during the
specified period of time usually 1 year(12 months).

I. Normal GDP– total value of all goods and services produced at current market
prices
II. Real GDP – the sum of all goods and services produced at constant prices
III. Actual GDP – real time measurement of all outputs at any interval (or) any
given time.
5) How will you calculate GDP?
The expenditure approach calculates the GDP by the following formulae.

GDP (Y) = {Private consumption(C) + ( Gross private investment +

Government investment)(I) + Government spending(G) +
( Exports(X)+ Imports(M))}

Y = C + I + G + (X - M)
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6) What is climate change?
The long-term shifts in temperatures and weather pattern.
7) Define sustainability.
Meeting the needs of the present, without compromising the requirement of
future generations.

8) Write the needs of sustainability.

 It is key to preserving our planet.
 Helps to reduce pollution and conserve resources.
 Creates jobs and stimulates the economy.
 Improves public health.
 Protects biodiversity.
 Protects the natural environment.
 Reduces and reuses the resources and also minimizes the waste.
 Used for life-cycle analysis.

9) Effects of Environment problem.

a. Global warming (or) Green House effect - Increase the temperature (increase CO2)
of earth
b. Acid rain – Atmosphere SO2, NO2 are reacted with water to form acid rain
c. Ozone layer depletion (Hole) – Formation of hole in ozone layer due to CFC, BFC
Dobson unit – Unit ozone layer (1 DU = 0.01mm thickness)
d. Nuclear accident – Breakage of nuclear power plant
e. Nuclear Holocaust – Destruction of biodiversity by nuclear accident
f. Nuclear winter – black smog during nuclear accident decrease the temperature
10) Define carbon credit.
Carbon credit is tradable permit (or) certificate that represents the rights to emit a set
amount of CO2 (or) 1 tone of CO2 (or) the equivalent amount of green house gas.

11) What are the types of carbon credits?

i) Voluntary Emissions Reduction (VER) – Voluntary market for credits.
ii) Certified Emission Reduction (CER) – Created through a regulatory
frame work.

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 12) Define carbon footprint.
Total amount of greenhouse gases (CO2& CH4) produced direct or indirect.

13) What are the causes of carbon footprint?

 Consumption
 Transportation
 House hold energy
 Food

14) What is environmental management?

A set of practices and processes that enable to reduce the environmental impacts and
increasing the operating efficiency of both private and public organizations.

15) Define CDM (Clean Development Mechanism).

The process of Reducing CO2 and HFC emission to environment.

UNIT- V – Sustainability practices

1) What is zero waste.

Zero waste is a set of principles, focused on waste prevention, that encourages the
reuse, reduce and recycle (3R technique).

2) What are the benefits of zero waste?

 Reduces our climate impacts.

 Conserve resources and minimizes pollution.
 Promotes social equity.
 Creates jobs.
3) Define R concept.

The principles of reducing, reusing and recycling resources and products is called 3R
concept. It saves energy, money, raw materials and reduces pollution.

4) Give any 5 importance of 3R.

 The most effective way to reduce the amount of solid waste produced.
 The resources like water and energy can be saved.
 Helps families to save money.

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  Recycling produces less pollution than manufacture of new materials.
 Proper disposal and recycling will prevent the soil contamination.
 Less cost than the disposal methods like landfilling.

5) Define circular economy.

A new production and consumption model that ensures sustainable growth over
time. It reduces the consumption of raw materials, recover waste by recycling and give a
second life as a new product.

6) What is ISO?

An International Organization for Standardization. It provides standards and

guidelines for a variety of businesses and purposes and publishes technical reports.It is
composed by representatives from various standard organizations
7) What is ISI4000?

The family of standard is to promote effective environmental management systems in

organizations.
This exists to help organizations to
 Minimize how their operations negatively affect the environment.
 Comply with applicable laws, regulations and other environmentally oriented
requirements.
 Continually improve with above.
8) What is material life cycle assessment?

A process of evaluating the efforts of a material on the environment over the entire
period of its life, thereby increasing resource use efficiency and decreasing liabilities.

9) What is EIA.

A formal process of predicting the environmental consequences of any

development projects.
It is used to determine the potential environmental, social, health effects and economic
impacts of the proposed development projects prior to decision making.

10) What is sustainable habitat?

An ecosystem that produces food and shelter for people and other organisms
without affects resources that is no external waste is produced.

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11) What is green building?

Buildings constructed with an efficient method that produces less impact on the
environment and climate and requires less cost to maintain. It preserves natural resources
and improve quality of life.

12) What are green materials? Give examples.

The building construction materials that have low impact on the environment due to
properties of non-toxic, organic and recycling.
Examples: Naturally occurring materials like wood, ceramics, glass, clay, sand,
stone, etc.,

13) Define energy efficiency.

The use of less energy to perform the same task (or) produce the same result. Energy

efficient buildings use less energy to cool, heat and run electronics appliances.

14) How do you calculate energy efficiency?

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Energy efficiency (η) = × 100 %
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑊 𝑜𝑢𝑡
η= × 100 %
𝑊 𝑖𝑛

15) What is sustainable transport? Give example.

Any mode of transportation that has low impact (green) on the environment is
called sustainable transport.
Examples: Walking, Cycling, Car sharing, Transit, Green vehicles (electric).

16) What is sustainable energy?

The energy which meets the needs of present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.

17) What is Energy and Carbon cycle?

Energy Cycle
The interactions between energy sources within Earth’s environment. It can lead to
significant changes in long-term climate behaviour.

Carbon cycle
The movement of carbon (or) carbon compounds continuously from the
atmosphere to the Earth and then back into the atmosphere.

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 18) What is carbon emission?

The release of greenhouse gases and their precursors into the atmosphere over a
specified area and period of time.

19) Define carbon sequestration.

The process of capturing and storing atmospheric CO2 which reduces the amount of
CO2 in the atmosphere to reduce global climate change.
Examples: 25% captured by forests, 30% absorbed by upper layer of Ocean and 45%
sequestered by naturally.

20) What is green engineering?

The design, commercialization, products and processes that minimizes pollution, promotes
sustainability and human health without affecting environment.
Examples: Biodegradable cups and straws.

21) What is sustainable urbanization?

The movement of human population from rural areas to urban areas for better
education, communication, health, employment, etc., without compromising the needs of
future generations.

22) What are the rules to develop a sustainable urbanization?

The urbanization can be made into sustainable by

 Sustainable transportation.
 Sustainable development.
 Applying ecological design.
 Improving water and energy efficiency.
 Using low-impact materials.
 Climate change mitigation.

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 PART-B & C
UNIT – I- Environment and Biodiversity
1) ***Explain the structural features and functions of ecosystem (any one) Forest, Aquatic
etc.
2) Briefly explain the energy flow through ecosystem (Food web, Food Chain).
3) Explain in detail about Ecological succession and ecological pyramid.
4) ***Describe the term hot spot of biodiversity.
5) ***Discuss the status of India as a mega diversity nation of biodiversity.
6) Discuss the endangered and endemic species of India.
7) Discuss the Biodiversity at global, national and local level.
8) ***Write short note on
(a) Value of Biodiversity (b) Threats to Biodiversity
9) ***Write a short note on Ex-situ and Insitu Conservation of Bio-diversity.

UNIT – II - Environmental Pollution

1) ***Explain the sources, effects and control measures of Air pollution.
2) ***Explain the sources, effects and control measures of Water pollution.
3) ***Explain the sources, effects and control measures of Noise pollution.
4) Explain the sources, effects and control measures of Soil pollution.
5) ***Discuss in detail about Solid wastemanagement.
6) ***Discuss in detail about e –waste management.
7) ***Discuss in detail about Hazardous waste management.
8) What is Occupational Health and Safety Management System (OHASMS)?. Explain
any one case study.
9) ***Explain the following Act (Functions of State Board and Central Board)
(a) Water Act (b) Forest Act (c) Air Act (d) Environment Act

UNIT – III – Renewable sources of energy

1) Explain the principle and various step involved in the energy management.
2) What are the objectives, principle and importance of e waste management?
3) Write Short note on new energy sources.
4) Explain application of hydrogen energy.
5) Explain the application of ocean thermal energy (OTE).
6) Write the application of geothermal energy (GTE).
7) Write short note on Tidal energy.

UNIT – IV- Sustainability and management

1) Explain the types, characteristics and step of development.
2) What is GDP? How is calculated? Explain its merits.
3) Define sustainability? What is the need of sustainability.
4) Explain the economic and social challenges of sustainability.
5) Explain the various aspects and relationship of sustainability.
6) Explain the causes and characteristics of unsustainably.
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7) Write notes on
a. Millennium Development Goals
b. Sustainability protocols
8) Write notes on concept, goal and aim of sustainable development.
9) Explain the sustainable development targets.
10) What are the causes, effects and possible solution of climate change?
11) What is meant by carbon credit? Explain its types and merits.
12) Explain the sources, causes and remedy measure of carbon foot print.
13) What is environmental management? Explain the various steps of environment
management.
14) Explain the objectives and principles of environmental management.

UNIT- V- Sustainability Practices

1) What is Zero waste? Explain its concept and principles.
2) What is R concept? Explain its concept and advantage and disadvantage of R concept.
3) What is circular economy? Explain its concept steps involved in achieving a circular
economy.
4) What are ISO and ISO14000 series? List out any five ISO14000 series standards.
5) What is life cycle assessment? Explain the various step involved in life cycle assessment.
6) What is environment impact assessment (EIA)? Explain the objectives and benefits of EIA.
7) What is sustainable habitat? Explain its characteristics and objectives of it.
8) What is green building? Explain its criteria and features.
9) What is energy efficiency? Explain methods of achieving energy efficiency? How to
calculate it.
10) What is sustainable transport? Explain the key elements of sustainable transport.
11) What is sustainable energy (non-conventional energy) sources of energy.
12) What is energy cycle? Explain the carbon cycle with a neat diagram.
13) What is carbon emission? Explain its types and remedy.
14) Define carbon sequestration. Explain the various types’ carbon sequestration.
15) Explain the principle, goal and benefits of green engineering.
16) Write notes on socio-economical change on sustainable urbanization.

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