PLANT AND ANIMAL ORGAN SYSTEM AND THEIR FUNCTION

REPRODUCTION – ability to produce another of their kind

 Asexual Reproduction – involve gametes or sex cells
 Budding – forming an outgrowth or bud
 Fragmentation – detached body parts
 Binary Fission – a parent organisms split into 2 daughter
 Vegetative Reproduction – plant part is used
 Spore Formation – spores (fern)
 Sexual Reproduction – involves the union of gametes
Female – egg (23 chromosomes)
Fertilization – zygotes (46 chromosomes)
Male – sperm (23 chromosomes)

DEVELOPMENT – plant cells are positionally fixed – not capable of movement

- animal cells are motile – capable of movement
 Developmental Difference
 Meiosis, plants produce spores first before forming the gametes
animals’ gametes are directly formed
 Morphogenesis (change in shape) – plants develop by going through longer
period than animals
 plants grow primarily by increasing size of their cell
animals grow because their cells increase in number

NUTRITION – process of providing or obtaining food (health, survival and growth)

Nutrients – obtained from various food sources: provide energy
Modes of Nutrition
 Autotrophic – manufacture their own nutrients
 Photoautotrophic – uses the energy from the sun
 Chemoautotrophic – uses chemical
 Heterotrophic - cannot make their own food (digestion)
 Saprophytic/Saprotrophic – dead decaying matter (fungi, bacteria)
 Parasitic – takes from other organisms
host – organism where food is taken parasite – organism that takes food
 Ectoparasitism – outside the body (head lice, fleas in dogs)
 Endoparasitism – live inside the body (roundworm, hookworm)
 Holozoic – organisms ingest solid or liquid foods
 Herbivorous – take only plants (sheep, rabbit, cows)
 Carnivorous – only animals (lions, tiger, sharks)
 Omnivorous – plant and animal (pig, hen, bears)
 GAS EXCHANGE
Animal – involves a system of parts and processes Plant – mainly occurs in the leaves
2 biological processes Photosynthesis – plants take in carbon dioxide from the air to make food
Cellular Respiration – plants take in oxygen to be used
 CELL MEMBRANE – used by unicellular organisms: diffusion
 SKIN – respiratory surface covered with thin and moist epithelial cells
 GILLS – greatly increase the surface area (aquatic organisms)
 TRACHEAL SYSTEMS – composed of series of respiratory tubes: spiracles
 LUNGS – ingrowths of the body wall: most complex respiratory organ of animals
GAS - important biological process that allows organisms to survive
- enters the leaves through specialized pores called stomata
Stomata – each contains guard cells that control the opening and closing of pores
- open when light strikes the leaves in the morning, close during the night
Roots and Stem – contributes but only with minimal effect
- Woody stems and mature roots are covered with an outer bark: cork cells
- Lenticels provide pathway for the gases
Transport/Circulation
All organisms should be able to transport important particles or molecules into their
bodies. They should also be able to remove wastes and other unwanted substances from them.
Plants Animal
Organ associated/ 2 main circulatory organs Circulatory organs and tissues
medium used for  XYLEM – transports water and Blood (function)
circulation nutrients a) transports gases and nutrients in
 PHLOEM – transport sugars the animal’s body
b) carries wastes out of the body
Supporting organs c) regulates the organism’s body
 TRACHEIDS – elongated cells temperature and pH level
d) helps in healing and prevention of
in the xylem
 SIEVE TUBES – elongated cells further damage (platelet formation)
e) plays an important role in the
in the phloem
immune system
Most invertebrates such as mollusks &
arthropods have hemolymph instead:
 Blood Vessels – tubular
structures carrying blood
 Heat – hollow muscular organ
that pumps blood
Circulation Process transpiration pull: evaporation of blood is forcefully pumped
water from the plant’s leaves throughout the body by the heart
Water transport xylem About 90% of water: blood plasma
Food transport phloem food in the form of glucose
Gas exchange diffused through a spaces mammals: oxygen and carbon dioxide
(stomata and lenticels) (transported out) is taken into the
bloodstream by combining with the
blood protein – hemoglobin
 REGULATION OF FLUIDS
FLUID REGULATION IN PLANTS
 Water: most important fluid.
 Photolysis: photochemical process - allows water molecules to split in the presence of light
Processes that play a role in water regulation:
 Osmosis – tendency of water to pass through the semipermeable membrane of plant cell
 Transpiration – process wherein water exits the plant through the stoma of the leaves
 Adhesion-cohesion property of water – allows the water to move up
adhesion – occurs because the water molecules cling to the xylem tissue
cohesion – occurs because the water molecules stick to one another
 Capillary Action – movement of liquid across a solid surface
FLUID REGULATION IN ANIMALS
 depends on their excretory system
 most water and minerals are lost by evaporation from the skin and lungs, excretion
Marine invertebrates
 has greater solute concentration: seawater may be toxic to them (lobster, starfishes)
Marine vertebrates
 lower concentration: excrete ions such as sodium and chloride (tuna, marine eels)
Freshwater vertebrates
 the body is hypertonic (arowanas, carps)
Terrestrial animals
 Excretory system removes the metabolic wastes and retains proper amounts of water,
salts and nutrients. Collect water and filter body fluids, eliminates excretory wastes
Animals Plants
Main organ for nervous Brain – controls all activities Root tip or Apex – unit of its
control Nerve nets – simple kind nervous system
- consist of individual nerve cells Numerous apices – plant nerve
that form a netlike arrangement
Channel where information travels Vascular strands – nerves
Chemical control hormones – important for hormone – needed for certain
growth and survival physiological processes

IMMUNE SYSTEM
 protect the organism from diseases or other potentially damaging foreign bodies
 identifies threat and finds ways to fight them
Animals have multifaceted and complex immune system capable of protecting themselves
lymphocytes – specialized blood cells: destroy foreign bodies
Plants have no structured immune system: cannot defend themselves (bacteria, viruses, fungi)
receptors – identifies invader: triggers defense responses (cell wall production, thickening)
suicide – most common response to pathogens
pathogens feed on living tissues, the infected cells die
hypersensitive response– common short term response: killed or programmed death (apoptosis)
 SENSORY AND MOTOR MECHANISM
Animals – directly controlled by their nervous systems
Plants – give them the ability F to sense and response to their environment
Tropism – ability of plants to respond to a certain stimulus
Tropism exhibited by plants:
 Phototropism – movement in response to light (sunflower)
 Geotropism – movement in response to gravitational force
 Negative – plant part moves away
 Positive – plant part moves upward
 Hydrotropism – movement in response to water
 Thigmotropism – movement in response to chemical (flytrap)

FEEDBACK MECHANISM - serve to maintain balance

HOMEOSTASIS – body’ ability to maintain a constant internal environment
- helps the cells in the body to function optimally

STIMULUS RESPONSE MODEL – shows the events that happen

1. Stimulus – structure that produces the change
2. Receptor – structure that detects the change
3. Control Center – structure that determines the appropriate response to the stimulus
4. Effector – (organ, gland or tissues) instructed to adjust the amount of output
5. Response – outcome of the adjustment

Negative Feedback Mechanism

- allows the internal condition of the body to go back to its normal ideal state
- substances inside the body increases, the rate of process decreases

Positive Feedback Mechanism (childbirth)

- allows the output enhance the original stimulus
- increase in substances also results in an increase in the rate of process
REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
High Temperature – heat-loss center is activated
 cause imbalance in the body: makes blood warmer
 sweat - vaporized by the body heat to lower the internal body temperature
 heat-loss mechanism protects the body from excessively high temperature
Low Temperature – heat promoting center is activated
 shivering – occurs to help muscles generate heat
 blood vessel constriction – allows blood to be diverted from the skin
REGULATION OF BODY FLUIDS
Water needs to be regulated inside the body
 Released from the body through sweat and urine.
 change in osmotic pressure is detected by osmoreceptors
 ADH – antidiuretic hormone
REGULATION OF GAS CONCENTRATION
 Carbon dioxide (produced as by-product) and Oxygen – two important gases
 both enter and exit the lungs and travel through the bloodstream
 OXYGEN - important for cellular respiration – maintains homeostasis
REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE
 pressure exerted by the blood against the walls of the blood vessels
 controlled by a homeostatic mechanism
 keeps blood flowing through all blood vessels so cells receive oxygen & nutrient
 high blood pressure – can damage blood vessel (vasodilatation artery)
 low blood pressure – organs will not receive adequate oxygen and nutrients
(vasoconstriction artery)
REGULATION OF GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION
Glucose is an important sugar in the body
Hormones play important roles regulating blood glucose levels
 INSULIN – hormone that facilitates glucose transport into the cell
 liver helps maintain blood glucose level by storing excess glucose as glycogen
 inhibits the increase of glucose in the blood
 GLUCAGON – hormone produced by the pancreas that raises glucose level
 liver breaks down the stored glycogen to be secreted as blood glucose
 promotes its production
MENDELIAN AND MODERN GENETICS
Genes – responsible for the traits or characteristics you inherited
- Units of heredity composed of DNA molecules that are transferred
Genetics – study of genes and how they affect heredity
Gregor Johann Mendel – father of modern genetics (Austrian monk, teacher and biologist)
  discovered the basic principles in the field of genetics - garden pea experiments
Important Terms
Allele one of two or more alternative forms of gene
Dominant trait trait that is expressed
Recessive trait trait that is masked
F1 generation 1st filial or 1st generation offspring
F2 generation gen produced by interbreeding individuals
Gamete sex cells
Genotype genetic composition of an individual
Phenotype observable characteristics of an individual
Heterozygous organisms that have 2 different alleles for the same trait
Homozygous organisms that have 2 identical alleles for a particular trait
Punnett square diagram used to predict an outcome
PROBABILITY AND GENETICS
Probability – branch of math: explains the likelihood that a particular event will occur
Punnett Square Experiment – possible gene combinations are presented
Monohybrid Cross – across between parents that differ in one trait
Dihybrid Cross – 2 contrasting traits between parents
MENDEL’S LAW OF INHERITANCE
 Mendel’s Law of Segregation
 describes what happens to the alleles during the formation of gametes
 each gametes has a pair of alleles for each trait
 each parent passes an allele at random to the offspring
 only upon gamete formation alleles is segregated
 Law of Independent Assortment (dihybrid cross)
 alleles segregate independently during the formation of gametes
 genes do not influence one another on how they sorted
 Law of Dominance
 trait is dominant if it is expressed
 some alleles are dominant, others are recessive
MODIFICATION OF CLASSIC RATIOS
 not all patterns of inheritance can be describe using Mendel’s laws
 offspring with heterozygous traits express traits that are intermediate
 some may have genes that contain more than 2 alleles
 non-Mendelian genetics
 Incomplete Dominance - when one allele is not completely dominant over the other
 Codominance - both alleles contribute to the phenotype of an organism
GENETIC RECOMBINATION
  process of recombining genes to produce offspring with trait different to the parent
Sex Linkage – special pattern of inheritance: applies to genes that are located on the
sex chromosomes (-determine if an individual is male or female)
females – 2 X chromosomes
males – X chromosome (mother) and Y chromosome (father)

GENETIC DISORDERS
 Color Vision Deficiency (CVD)
- inability to distinguish certain colors
- 3 human genes associated with color vision are located on the x chromosome
- mostly happens with males because they have only one X chromosome

 Hemophilia
- related to blood clotting
- gene that codes for an important protein necessary for blood clotting is missing
- people can bleed to death just having minor cuts
- suffer internal bleeding from bumps or bruises

 Duchene Muscular Dystrophy

- defective version of the gene that codes for a muscle protein
- suffers progressive weakening and loss of skeletal muscle: do not live normally
- males are mostly affected
- main symptom is muscle weakness accompanied by difficulties with motor skills