MENDELIAN GENETICS Ex: human with A and B blood type alleles,

heterozygote is AB
Law of segregation: characters are determined by Epistasis: expression of one gene is affected by the
particulate factors, and factors exist in pairs in each expression of one or more independently inherited
organism genes
One parent transmits one member of a pair to
offspring  progeny gets one allele from mother
and one from father MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
Law of independent assortment: the alleles of 2+
different genes get sorted into gametes independently of Mitosis: one diploid (2n) cell  2 diploid daughter cells,
one another’ the allele a gamete receives for one gene exact copy of parent cell
does not influence the allele received for another Meiosis: one diploid (2n) germ cell  4 haploid
daughter cells, contains half the amount of genetic
Product rule: multiply probabilities for events that occur information as parent cell
independently of each other
Sum rule: add probabilities for mutually exclusive events
(either one or the other can occur, but not at the same
time)

Penetrance: the proportion of individuals whose

phenotype matches their genotype
Complete penetrance  everyone with a
particular genotype expresses corresponding
phenotype COUNT CHROMOSOMES BY CENTROMERES, NOT
Expressivity: occurs when one genotype produces CHROMATIDS
range of phenotypes
Ex: many people may have the same mutant Nondisjunction: either homologous chromosomes in
gene for a disease, but express different levels meiosis I or sister chromatids in meiosis II fail to
of severity of disease separately normally, results in abnormal distribution in
Polygenic traits: traits that are controlled by daughter cells
many genes + alleles, products continuum of Trisomy 21: 3 copies of chromosome 21
phenotypes XO: human female with only 1 X chromosome
Ex: height XXY: human male with 2 X chromosomes
Complementation: occurs when two organisms have
the same phenotype, but mutations in different genes
and therefore produce
different offspring

Mutation in the same

gene  no
complementation
Mutation in
different genes

complementation

Ex: deafness in
humans
LINKAGE AND RECOMBINATION

Linkage is the result of genes being on the same

chromosome; genes that are on different chromosomes
are unlinked

Recombinants: new combinations of alleles due to

Incomplete dominance: heterozygote displays crossing over
intermediate phenotype Physical exchange of parts between
Ex: flower with red and white alleles, homologous chromosomes, occurs during
heterozygote is pink prophase I (meiosis I)
Complete dominance: heterozygote displays both Non-recombinants: parental combinations of alleles
allelic phenotypes
Recombination frequency (RF): # of recombinants / total
progeny
1 map unit = 1% RF

Steps for solving three-factor crosses:

1) Determine parental and double crossover
phenotypes
2) Establish gene linkage/order on parental
chromosomes
3) Calculate map distance by looking at two genes
at a time
CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS

When the calculated X2 value is less than the critical

point (p = 0,05)  fail to reject the null
Degrees of freedom = # of potential phenotypes – 1

2
2 ( observed−expected)
X =Σ
expected