Character Formation 2

Leadership, Decision Making, Management

and Administration
 CHAPTER 1,2& 3
Self-Leadership and the essential role that it plays in an organization's performance will be discussed
here. It is said that anyone can become a leader and make an impact. It actually takes a tremendous amount
of commitment and willingness to develop every day Leadership does not represent a one-time commitment
As a human it starts and ends at you. Also, if you are born with natural leadership traits, much work and
preparation is required.

"Personal leadership is not a singular experience It is, rather, the ongoing process of keeping your vision and
values before you and aligning your life to be congruent with those most important things”.
Stephen Covey
"Good government is no substitute for self-government."
Mahatma Gandhi
"First we make our habits then our habit make us.”
Charles Noble
Most leadership professors and experts in their leadership lectures often quote "leadership is self-
governance," which simply means an individual must lead himself first before he can lead others. He must
have the ability to deliberately control his own thoughts and actions to attain his personal goals or the goals
of the organization he leads. When he has foresight, he makes the right decisions and choices on his own and
shows commitment to achieving his goals, then he has skills in self-leadership. Apart from setting goals, self-
awareness is another aspect helping to make people great self-leaders.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SELF-LEADERSHIP

Self-leadership is the first stage, or leadership level Self leadership is of great importance to the staff
whether managers or ordinary subordinates.
1. Self-leadership allows leaders or senior officers, who undergo very little or no supervision, to prepare and
set targets on their own, as well as to control their own self to execute such plans.
2. For lower-level employees or subordinates, who cannot always be sure of the kind of governance or
leaders they may face in their careers, self-management enables them to become effective and efficient
workers under any leadership they may encounter, be it laissez faire, free-rule, democratic or autocratic
3. Self-leadership helps make individual decision makers proactive, focused, and autonomous People who do
not have a strong sense of self leadership tend to feel that they are not in control of themselves, frequently
lose concentration and easily get frustrated.

Thus, the effectiveness of organizational objectives accomplishment depends on the self-leadership

of both superiors and subordinates

DEVELOPMENT OF SELF LEADERSHIP

As mentioned earlier, everybody is a future leader Leadership is therefore not an inborn trait, but it is
developed to become a leader through learning and training people with a sincere interest. The following are
the ways of developing self-leadership.

1. Clarity of Purpose
 This means that each entity must have a vision and be able to set it up. Being your own leader, your
purpose or vision will be the foundation upon which you will build self-leadership. Without clearly planned
expectations or intent for your life, you will be at risk, attempting to fulfill the wishes or ideas of people for
your life and you will end up lost in the middle of nowhere.
2. Aim at Success and Take Reasonable Risks
Risk-taking is a necessary part of life Challenge yourself to take on challenging assignments. Do not
deter yourself or others from past failures rather concentrate on success. However, risks which are applicable
to your intent should be fairly measured.
3. Spend Time to Reflect on Your Life
Reflections can also mean letting others make an objective evaluation of you. Although you remain
the active doer of the things that you are doing, you may only see things from your viewpoint. Taking some
time off to think about life. Compare experience of current and present to hopes of the future You can never
notice those small defects until you pause to examine yourself.
4. Don't Tolerate Just Anything
You should not risk your dream You should learn to be intolerant to any suggestions or ideas that
don't suit your vision. This intolerance is not just toward others but also toward you. It involves not tolerating
negative factors such as laziness, anxiety and many others in your nature.

SIMPLE WAYS TO LEAD YOURSELF

1. Know your Values and Stick to Them
The ones with real values and ethics are the most trustworthy leaders. Find ideals that reverberate
with your philosophy, temperament, and creeds to become an effective leader. People tend to be drawn
instinctively to somebody who has a dream, intent and dignity. One who treats people respectfully and is
empathetic to their needs. Make sure that you know what type of leader you want to become. Personal
beliefs in leadership core values, and the implementation of those values help leaders become successful.
2. Move Towards Purpose
You can't be a leader unless you have a clear intention to help you through the dark times. The aim at
the end of a tunnel is like a light, a hope that keeps us going. One has to spend time questioning the real
intent or inspiration behind being a leader. As a leader, you can inspire, guide, and encourage your
subordinates to achieve larger objectives. If you have a clear purpose, then you can make sure the team is
aligned with a common purpose.
3. Keep Improving Yourself
Great leaders are working hard to improve, expand and evolve into better versions of them. Whether
you've just started leading or you've been a veteran in your place make it a point to learn something new by
going back home.
4. Make Mistakes but Never Make the Same Mistake Twice
"All leaders make mistakes. They are a part of life. Successful leaders recognize their errors, learn
from them, and correct their faults " (John C. Maxwell).
The only thing that sets a leader different from a great leader is that he never makes the same
mistake twice. Note also that on the back of disappointment always comes the greatest successes. Trying new
stuff, and doing things that challenge your comfort zone, is important. You might end up making mistakes
whilst doing so. Everyone does. So over them there's no need to be ashamed.
5. Lead by Example
 None is easier than leading from the front. Not only is it a brave thing do but it is a very leading thing
Perhaps that's why they all find it toughest. The only thing that can turn you into a leader is when you begin
to act like one.
INFLUENCE OR INFLUENCED?
"Your job gives you authority Your behavior earns you respect"
Irwin Federman
If you influence others and provide direction and guidance, then you lead them Many of us only
assume that leaders are those individuals born with unique abilities or gifts or situations that are right. That's
not always the case, though, the fact is that everyone is prospective leader. That makes a person a good
leader is not just his skill and skills but primarily his character and attitude.
Leader must influence and should be influenced Everyone can influence somebody either for the
good or for bad Even the shyest person can influence at least 10,000 people in his or her lifetime While it is
up to everyone to determine how to use this leverage, this only means that anybody can be a leader A person
to be called a leader should have followers for him He has to direct his people to something which will bring
goodness, not harm Just as a good leader should it only takes skill, knowledge and compassion for an
individual to harness influence
Furthermore, if a person refuses to use this power at all and does not take a personal stance on issues
he or she can easily be convinced and the person would most likely end up being influenced as the one When
it comes to this, it seems that there are only two alternatives to be the influencer or the one affected.
"Leadership is practiced not so much in words as in attitude and in actions."
Harold S. Geneen
CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership is the practice of driving people to achieve goals. This plays an important role in success
and efficiency of subordinates Leaders do this by providing many means of shaping the actions of
subordinates. It's a process whereby an individual that influences others and guides the organization in a
manner that makes it more cohesive and coherent.
While leadership is learned, a leader's skills and knowledge can be influenced by his or her attributes
or traits, such as beliefs, values, ethics, and character Knowledge and skills contribute directly to the process
of leadership, while the other attributes give the leader certain characteristics that make him or her unique A
leader might have learned the skills in counseling others, but her traits will often play a great role in
determining how he counsels.

FOUR PRIMARY FACTORS OF LEADERSHIP (US Army, 1983)

1. Leader
An individual appointed as a leader must understand himself honestly, what he knows and what he
can do Take note that it is the followers that decide whether the leader is successful, not the leader or
anyone else. If they don't trust their leader, or lack confidence, they'll be uninspired. To be successful you
have to persuade your followers that you are worthy of being followed, not yourself or your superiors.
2. Followers
Different people expect different leadership styles A newly employed deserves more supervision than
an accomplished subordinate does. An individual without motivation needs a different approach than one
with a high motivation level You have to know your people, as a leader. The basic starting point is to have a
clear understanding of human nature such as needs, feelings and motivation You have to come to learn the
be know and do qualities of your people.
3. Communication
Being a leader, you lead by bidirectional communication. A great deal of that is nonverbal. For
example, when you "set an example," that shows your people you wouldn't ask them to do something you
wouldn't want to do What and how you interact either strengthens or destroys your relationship with your
followers.
4. Situation
Every situation is different Everything you do in one situation isn't automatically going to work in
another You have to use your discretion to determine the best course of action and the style of leadership
needed for each situation You may need to face a subordinate for inappropriate behavior, for example, but if
the confrontation is too late or too early, too harsh or too mild, then the outcomes may prove ineffective.
Take note also that the disorder typically affects a leader's actions more than its characteristics This is
because while traits can be impressively stable over a period of time, they have little consistency in situations
(Mischel, 1968)
THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
The theories below explain how people turn themselves into leaders. The first two demonstrate to a
small number of people the nature of leadership, while the third is the dominant theory today.
1. Trait Theory
Some personality traits may lead people naturally into leadership roles.
2. Great Events Theory
A crisis or important event can cause a person to rise to the occasion putting forth extraordinary
qualities of leadership in an ordinary person.
3. Transformational or Process Leadership Theory
Today, it is the widely accepted theory. People can opt for leadership People can learn the ability to
take leadership.
THE LEADER AND ITS ROLES

A leader sets the company or organization a specific vision, motivates employees, guides workers
through the cycle of work, and creates morale. They're made good leaders, not born. You will become a
successful leader if you have the will and the willpower. Good leaders grow through a cycle of self-study,
education, training and experience that never ends (Jago, 1982).
There are many things you have to be, learn and do to inspire your workers or subordinates into
higher levels of teamwork. These also do not come easily but are gained through ongoing research and study
Good leaders work and study constantly to develop their leadership skills, they do not rely on their past
achievements.
BOSS OR LEADER?
Although your role as a manager or supervisor gives you the authority to accomplish certain tasks and
objectives within the organization (Assigned Leadership), this power does not make you a leader, it simply
makes you a boss. Leadership differs in that it makes the followers want to achieve high goals (Emerging
Leadership), rather than simply ordering people around (Rowe, 2007) Thus, by your position, you get.
Assigned Leadership and you display Emergent Leadership by influencing people to do great things.
TOTAL LEADERSHIP
People want feedback from those leaders they respect and who have a good sense of direction. They
must be ethical, in order to gain respect. This provides a sense of direction by conveying a clear vision of the
future. When people decide to value you as a leader, they don't think of your qualities, but rather watch what
you're doing so they can assess who you really are. They use this insight to say if you are an upright and
trustworthy leader or a self-serving individual who exploits power to look good and get promoted.
Self-serving leaders are not as effective because their employees only obey them, not follow them.
They succeed in many areas because they present a good image to their superiors, but at the expense of their
workers. Honorable character and selfless service to your organization is good leadership. In the eyes of your
peoples the leadership is all you do that affects the aims and well-being of the organization
MOST IMPORTANT KEYS TO EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP (Lamb, McKee, 2004)
1. Trust and Confidence
2. Effective Communication
 Helping employees understand the overall business strategy of the organization.
 Helping workers understand how they help achieve the organizational goals.
 Sharing information with workers on how the organization is doing and how its own group of
employees is doing.
So, leaders need to be trustworthy and be able to convey a vision of where the organization needs to go.
LEADERSHIP PRINCIPLES
1. Know Yourself and Seek Self-Improvement
To seek self-improvement means to continually reinforce your attributes. This can be done by self-
study, formal classes, reflection, and interaction with others.
In knowing self and seeking self-improvement, leaders should:
a) Evaluate their selves by using the leadership traits and determine their strengths and weaknesses.
b) They have to understand their "be," "know," and "do," attributes
c) They must work to improve their weaknesses and utilize their strengths
d) By knowing their selves, and their experience and knowledge of group behavior, they can determine
the best way to deal with any given situation.
The strong, hard stand may be most successful with some leaders, and in certain circumstances, however,
the "big brother" approach may work better in other situations. In many way leaders would also improve
their own selves. Leaders could ask colleagues and superiors for an honest appraisal of their ability to lead.
That will help them identify their strengths and weaknesses.
2. Be Technically and Tactically Proficient
We can't give that which we don't have. We can't make the things we don't know right. Respect is the
leader's reward showing competence Thus, leaders must.
a) Know their job and have a solid familiarity with their subordinate’s tasks.
b) Demonstrate their ability to accomplish the mission.
Tactical and technical skills can be learned from on-the job training seminar and self-directed learning efforts,
as mentioned above.
3. Seek Responsibility and Take Responsibility for your Actions
Leaders must:
a) look for ways to drive the organization to new heights.
b) look aggressively for demanding tasks.
c) must use initiative and sound judgment when attempting to perform jobs which are not needed by
grade
d) not blame someone as they often prefer to do sooner or later when things go wrong. They will look at
the situation take corrective measures and move on to the next challenge.
Seeking responsibilities also means that leaders
a) should be held responsible for their actions.
b) are responsible for the results of the acts of their subordinates. Regardless of their subordinate’s
actions, they are held responsible for the decisions and their execution.
c) must issue all directions in their own name.
d) must stick to their beliefs and do what they believe to be right, but accept justified and constructive
criticism.
e) must now withdraw or demote for a failure that is the result of their own mistake
4. Make Sound and Timely Decisions
This principle suggests that leaders must:
a) use good problem-solving decision making, and planning tools.
b) estimate a situation quickly, and make a sound decision based on that estimate. Hesitation or a
reluctance to take a decision leads subordinates to lose confidence in their leadership skills. In effect,
loss of trust creates confusion and reluctance within the organization. They do not hesitate to
reconsider their decision until they make a decision and find it is the wrong one. Subordinates respect
the leader who immediately corrects errors, rather than attempting to direct through a poor decision.
c) establish a rational and organized thinking process through the practice of realistic situational
estimates
d) plan for any incident reasonably foreseeable when time and circumstance allow.
e) seek their subordinates ' advice and suggestions wherever possible before making the decisions.
f) announce decisions in time to allow the required plans to be made by subordinates.
g) encourage subordinates to actively predict and make plans.
h) make sure their policies and plans are familiar with them.
i) consider the effects of their actions on all organization's leaders
5. Set the Example

"We must become the change we want to see.” Mahatma Gandhi

Leaders of the organization must:
a) be a good role model for their employees. They must not only hear what they are expected to do, but
also see,
When subordinate advances by promotion through ranks, all too often he or she develops the mentality
of "doing as I say, not as I do." Nothing forces subordinates out faster. As a leader, your duty is to set by
personal example the expectations for your subordinates. If you have high personal expectations, then you
can reasonably expect the same from your subordinates. If your personal standards are not high, then you set
a double standard for your subordinates and you will quickly lose their respect and trust Know your image
represents your subordinates Examples are demonstrating leadership.
b) show their subordinates a desire to do the same things that they expect them to do.
c) be physically fit well groomed, and dressed appropriately Hold positive outlook Establish a desire to
compete by capitalizing on the strengths of its subordinates. The more complicated the situation, the
better the chance to show a calm and confident attitude.
d) behave themselves so that their personal habits are not open to criticism.
e) exercise initiative in their subordinates and foster the spirit of initiative.
f) avoid showing favoritism to any subordinate.
g) share risk and suffering with their subordinates to demonstrate their ability to bear their share of the
hardship.
h) develop the thought among their subordinates that they are the best officer for their position.
i) delegate authority and avoid over supervision to create leadership among its subordinates
6. Know Your People and Look Out for their Welfare.
 Leaders should:
a) know human nature, and the importance of caring genuinely for its subordinates. It is one of
the concepts, which is most important.
b) know their subordinates and their responses to different situations. The knowledge could save
lives. A subordinate who is anxious and lacks self-confidence should never be put in a position
where an important immediate decision is needed Knowledge of the personalities of
subordinates will allow the leader to decide how each subordinate is best handled and when
close supervision is required.
c) put the interests of their subordinates before theirs.
d) correct complaints and do away with discontent.
e) see the company or organization leaders and let them see him her, so that every subordinate
knows them and thinks they know them.
f) be accommodating,
g) get to know the subordinates under their control, and understand them.
h) let them see that they are ready to be completely prepared to perform any role that they can be
assigned.
i) be concern their selves with organization's leaders living conditions.
j) help their workers get the appropriate help from the personal resources that are available.
k) protect the well-being of their subordinates by strong hygiene and sanitation supervision.
l) determine what the mental disposition of their subordinate is, maintain communication with
their thoughts.
m) ensure bonuses are allocated equally and equitably. Encourage customized development.
n) provide ample time for leisure, and focus on participation.
o) share their subordinates' struggles so that they can understand their reactions better.
7. Keep Your Subordinates Informed
To promote efficiency and morale, a leader should:
a) inform the subordinates of all happenings in his organization and give reasons why things should be
done. This is done when time and well-being permit, of course. Informing the colleagues about the
situation makes them feel a part of the team Smart subordinates perform better, and can carry on
without your personal oversight if they are aware of the situation Know how to communicate with
superiors and other key people as well as with them.
The key to providing information is to ensure that subordinates have enough information to intelligently
do their job and encourage their commitment, passion, loyalty and convictions.
b) explain whenever possible why they have to do the activities and how they plan to do them.
c) assure their sell through regular inspections, that immediate subordinates pass on the information
necessary Be alert to detect the spread of rumors Stop rumors by replacing them with the truth.
d) create morale and esprit de corpse by publishing knowledge about the unit's achievements.
e) keep their subordinates aware of existing legislations and regulations concerning their salaries,
promotions, rights and other than confidential matters.
8. Develop a Sense of Responsibility in Your Subordinates
a) Leader should help develop good character qualities that will assist them in carrying out their
professional duties Another way to show your colleagues that you are involved in their well-being is
to provide them with the opportunity to develop their careers.
b) Assigning tasks and delegating the authority to carry out tasks fosters mutual trust and respect
between the leaders and subordinates. It also helps the subordinates to exercise responsibility and
give full cooperation in the execution of tasks You show confidence in your subordinates when you
properly delegate authority, and increase their desire for greater responsibilities. If you fail to
 delegate authority you point to a lack of leadership, and your subordinates may take it as a lack of
confidence in their abilities.
c) Operate through the Chain of command Provide clear thought-provoking directions Speak what to do
to your superiors, not how to. Hold them accountable for the outcomes, even if ultimate
responsibility remains yours Delegate sufficient authority to enable them to carry out the task.
d) Provide regular opportunities for your subordinates to perform duties usually performed by the next
higher ranks.
e) Be quick to acknowledge the achievements of your subordinates when they show initiative and
creativity Improve mistakes in judgment and action in a way that will make the subordinates try
harder.
f) Avoid public criticism or condemnation Give free advice and assistance when the subordinates need
it. Let your subordinates know that you will tolerate honest errors in return without punishment
teach them through critical and positive guidance.
g) Assign the subordinates to roles according to demonstrated or potential capability.
h) Be prompt in helping subordinates, and be fair Have confidence in each subordinate, until you are
convinced otherwise Willingly accept accountability, and ensure that your subordinates abide by the
same standard.
9. Ensure that Tasks are Understood, Supervised, and Accomplished
The secret to the obligation is communication. This idea is in the exercise of command necessary
Before you can expect the success of your subordinates they must first know what is expected of them. You
have to convey the directions clearly, in a concise way Speak at a level the colleagues are sure to understand
but not at such a low level that their intellect would be offended.

a) Before your subordinates begin a job, let them have the opportunity to ask questions or seek advice
Supervision is paramount. You cannot know if the assigned task is being done correctly without
supervision Subordinates view over supervision as abuse, and effectively halt their initiative.
b) Let subordinates use their own strategies, and then test their progress regularly.
c) Ensure that an order is required before the order is issued Use the chain of command established
Give clear concise and constructive orders through research and practice.
d) Encourage subordinates to ask questions about anything that they do not understand in your
instructions or directives.
e) Ask your subordinates if there is any question or confusion about the mission or task/s to be done.
f) Monitor the execution of your orders and ensure that your subordinates have the resources
necessary to carry out the tasks or assignment.
g) Vary the monitoring schedule and the points you emphasize during inspections Exercise care and
supervisory thinking
10. Train as a Team
Although a lot of so-called leaders call their organization department, section, a team, they're not
teams. They are just a group of people who do their job.
a) With perfection and teamwork as an aim, each waking hour subordinates should be trained and
developed, challenged and checked, corrected and encouraged.
b) Subordinates are measured in appearance bearing and attitude, self-improvement and most
importantly, performance.
c) There can be no reason for leaders failing to train their subordinates to the highest state of physical
condition and instructing them to be the very best in the arms profession.
d) Train with a reason and emphasize the core element of teamwork.
Cooperation is the secret to efficient operations Teamwork is important to the entire order from the
smallest unit As a leader you have to ensure that your subordinates work in synergy Train play, and act like a
team Be sure every subordinate knows his/her role and responsibilities within the context of the team.
 When team spirit is in existence, the most challenging tasks become much easier to achieve Teamwork a
bidirectional road Individual subordinates give their best and the team provides security, appreciation and a
sense of accomplishment to the subordinates in exchange
11. Employ Your Command In Accordance With Its Capabilities
You'll be able to employ the organization to its fullest ability by creating a team spirit Successful
execution of a mission depends on how well you know the strengths of your organization.
a) If the assigned role is one that the subordinates were not prepared to do, it is very likely to result in
failure Failures lower the morale and self-esteem of your organization.
b) Seek challenging tasks for your subordinates but be sure the team is equipped for them and is able to
complete the task successfully.
c) Do not volunteer the team for activities that they are not able to complete. The organization will not
only fail but your subordinates will think you're out for personal glory.
d) Keep yourself updated as to the operational effectiveness of the team Make sure subordinates are
given duties that are fair.
e) In an emergency, do not hesitate to demand the utmost.
f) Analyze all assigned tasks. If the means available to you are insufficient, notify the immediate
supervisor and request the appropriate support.
g) Assign duties to your subordinates equally.
h) Use your unit's full capabilities before you ask for help.
For Recitation 2 E.
SUPERVISION FOR LEADERS
Supervision maintains an understanding of the situation, and ensures proper implementation of plans
and policies (US Army Handbook, 1973) This involves giving guidance and reviewing the performance of a job.
There is a small supervisory unit There is over supervision (micro-management) on one side of the
band, and under supervision on the other side.
Over supervision stifles initiative creates resentment and decreases morale and motivation Under
supervision leads to miscommunication, lack of coordination and the subordinates' impression that the leader
is not concerned with Nonetheless, all workers will benefit from proper monitoring by seniors with more
knowledge and experience, who usually appear to more critically view the situation.
EVALUATION
Evaluating is part of supervising It is defined as evaluating the value, quality, or significance of people,
ideas, or things. This involves looking at the ways people accomplish a task This means receiving feedback and
understanding the feedback on how well everything is being done People require feedback to be able to
judge their performance Without it, they may continue to perform tasks poorly, or stop taking steps that
make their job perfect
Use the checklists to list the activities to be completed When it comes to recalling a list of items,
almost every one of us has bad memory List tasks by priorities
Example:
"A" - priorities must be done today
"B" - priorities must be done by tomorrow, and
"C" -priorities need to be followed up within a week.
Through following through on them double check the important things Strange things can happen if
you don't know them Paperwork gets lost, plans get changed, and people forget If you have a checks and
double checks system, you will find errors, have time to correct them, and mitigate any damage.
 It might seem like a waste of your time and energy following through, but in the long run this pays off
You'll be spending less time and efforts correcting long standing errors and omissions.
INSPIRING SUBORDINATES
It is much easier to get people to do something if they have the drive to do so Inspire means to
"breathe life in " And to do that, we have to have a life of our own.
Three main actions will aid you in accomplishing this:
1. Be Passionate
A trickle-down impact can arise in the organizations where there is a leader with great enthusiasm
about a project You have to devote yourself to the job that you do. Do not expect your people to be worked
up about it if you don't express the excitement.
2. Involve subordinates in the decision-making process
People involved in the decision-making process are much more deeply involved than those who
simply carry out the order of a manager Help them contribute, and inform them that you value their opinions
When it makes sense to do so, listen to them and integrate their suggestions
3. Know what your organization is about

"The Army is not made up of people The Army is people Every decision we make is a people Issue
General Creighton W. Abrams
The same is the organization It may be making a product or providing a service, but they are still men.
The primary responsibility of a leader is to grow people and encourage them to attain their full potential Your
people may come from various of backgrounds, but they all have goals they want to achieve Create a "people
setting" in which they can really be everything they can be to use what they're told or their minds wander If
you're lecturing for an hour, there's very little to recall.
Alternatively, give a brief lecture, explain (15 minutes or less), and then practice them Provide
feedback throughout the practice session until they are able to do it themselves If this is a large, complicated
task, break it down into short steps of learning.
THE SIX POINTS OF LEADERSHIP POWER
Power refers to the ability a person has to control another's actions such that he or she behaves
according to his or her wishes Such power is a capacity or potential as it means a potential that does not need
to be realized in order to be effective That is, there may be a power but it doesn't need to be used to be
successful.
The strength of leadership is much more than the use of force Leadership encourages others to
genuinely WANT to attain a goal, while dominance drives others to attain a target A superior police officer, for
example, has certain powers over enlisted personnel, but that power does not need to be used to be
successful. The mere knowledge that an enlisted person has of the power of an officer has some control over
him or her.
Below are French, Raven's (1959), Six Points of Leader Power These power points will help you to
assess the impact you and others have on achieving full negotiating skills
1. Coercive Power-Power that is based on fear.
A person with coercive power can make things hard for humans These are the people you wish to
avoid being angry with Employees who work under a coercive boss are unlikely to commit themselves, and
are more likely to resist the manager
2. Reward Power - Compliance achieved on the basis of the ability to distribute rewards which others find
important.
Might give people special benefits or incentives Trading favors with him or her might seem
beneficial.
3. Legitimate Power -The power a person receives in an organization's formal hierarchy as consequence of his
or her role.
The person has the right to expect you to comply with valid demands, given his or her status and your
job responsibilities.
4. Expert Power -Influence based on special skills or knowledge.
Experience and knowledge give the person respect. Expert’s influence is the most firmly and regularly
connected to productive output of subordinates.
5. Referent Power - Influence based on individual or desirable possession of wealth or personal traits
Sometimes this is seen as beauty, elegance, or appreciation You like the individual and you want to do things
for him or her.
6. Informational Power - Providing information to others which leads to thinking or acting in a new way.

SIGNIFICANCE OF SELF CONTROL IN LEADERSHIP

A cyclone has the power to cause heavily damage to crops, houses and even cities. It could pack a
wind of 125 280 km/h enough to create a widespread destruction. It is said that the cyclone derives its power
from its calm center.
Anonymous
"He who is slow to anger is better than the mighty and he who rules his spirit, than he who captures a city.”
Proverbs 16:32
For leadership the same principle holds true Leaders being influential individuals within the
organization and having the greatest impact on the lives of their people, must learn and exercise self-control
Leaders are gaining people's trust, power and respect when they exemplify self-control. The more power a
leader has, the greater the confidence, influence and respect people will have for him Will you have a calm
area like the cyclone? Have you been self-disciplined? Can one define your life as one of self-control?
LEADERSHIP TRAITS
"A leader is one who knows the way, goes the way, and shows the way
John C. Maxwell
If you describe a leader, he or she can prove to be a creator of difference between success and failure
good leader has a futuristic vision and knows how to A turn his visions into success stories in the real world
Whether you're just starting out as a leader, or have been leading for a while, you'll certainly benefit
from understanding the basic characteristics that all great leaders have The role of manager or boss
transcends productive and efficient leaders We also found a way to achieve the perfect blend of charm
passion and self- assurance It may seem as if some people are born with leadership skills, but with time and
practice the reality is most leadership characteristics can be trained adopted, and strengthened As we delve
into the list of effective leadership traits, you will learn the behaviors and attitudes of a good leader.
 Let us take a close look at some of the important qualities of leadership, which separate good leaders
from bad ones You must have all these qualities to become a good leader, but if you lack some of these
qualities, then you might struggle to make the mark in the leadership world
1. HONESTY AND INTEGRITY
"The supreme quality of leadership is unquestionably integrity. Without it, no real success is possible, no
matter whether it is on a section gang, a football field in an army, or in an office.”
Dwight D. Eisenhower, 34th President of United States
Honesty and integrity are two key ingredients that make for a good leader How can you expect
honesty from your followers when you yourself lack these qualities? Leaders flourish when they hold to their
core values and beliefs and this won't be possible without ethics
2. CONFIDENCE
You should be comfortable enough to be an effective leader and ensure people obey your orders If
your own decisions and values are uncertain, otherwise your subordinates will never obey you. You must be
oozing with confidence as a leader, display some assertiveness in order to gain the respect of your
subordinates. This doesn't mean you should be overconfident, but at least you should show the degree of
confidence needed to make sure your followers trust you as a leader.

3. INSPIRE OTHERS
"If your actions inspire others to dream more, learn more, do more and become more, you are a leader”.
John Quincy Adams
Probably the hardest thing a leader has to do is persuade others to comply It can only be so if by
setting a good example you inspire your followers. They look up to you when the going gets tough, and see
how you react to the situation They'll follow you, when you handle it well. As a leader, you should think
positive and your actions will make this positive approach clear When you succeed in empowering your
subordinates, you can easily resolve every obstacle now and in the future
4. COMMITMENT AND PASSION
The team looks up to you and you'll have to be enthusiastic about that too if you want them to give
their all If your team sees you’re getting your hands dirty, they'll give their best too It will also help you gain
your subordinates confidence and instill new energy in your team members, which will make them perform
better When they believe you are not fully committed or lack motivation, then inspiring your followers to
achieve the goal would be an uphill task for you as a leader
5. GOOD COMMUNICATOR
As a leader you have to communicate your vision clearly to your team and tell them the plan for
achieving the goal, it will be very difficult for you to get the results you want if you don’t. You can never be a
good leader because you can't effectively express your message to your team Words have the potential to get
people motivated and make them do the unthinkable. If you are making effective use of them, you can also
achieve better results.
6. DECISION MAKING CAPABILITIES
A leader should have the ability to take the right decision at the right time in addition to having a
futuristic vision Leaders take actions that have a profound impact on the people A leader should think long
and hard before taking a decision but stand by it once the decision is made. Although most leaders make their
own decisions, it is highly recommended that you consult key stakeholders before you make a decision After
all, they will benefit from your decisions or suffer from them
7. ACCOUNTABILITY
 "A good leader takes little more than his share of the blame and little less than his share of the credit”.
Arnold H. Glasow
Make sure each of the subordinate is responsible for what they do Give them a pat on the back if they
do well but when they fail make them realize their mistakes and work together to improve Holding them to
account for their actions will create a sense of duty among your subordinates and they will be more serious
about the organization
8. DELEGATION AND EMPOWERMENT
You just can't do it all, right Focusing on key responsibilities is vital to a leader while leaving the rest
to others Empower and delegate the duties to your followers When you try to micromanage your
subordinates, a lack of trust will grow and more importantly, you won't be able to focus on important things,
as you should Delegate the subordinate's duties and see how they do Provide them with all the resources and
support they need to attain the target and give them an opportunity to bear responsibility.
9. CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION

"Innovation distinguishes between a leader and a follower.”

Steve Jobs
In order to get ahead to today's fast-paced environment, a leader must be creative and innovative at
the same time. That helps you and your team stand out from the crowd, is creative thinking and relentless
creativity. Think about coming up with unique ideas out of the box and transforming those ideas and goals
into reality
10. EMPATHY
As Leaders, empathy with your followers will grow Don't adopt a dictatorial style, and utterly lack
empathy You'll fail to connect more directly with your followers Knowing the followers' issues, and
experiencing their pain, is the first step towards becoming effective leaders Even that is not enough until you
work hard and provide the appropriate solution for your followers
LEADERSHIP STYLES AND THEIR PROS AND CONS
Below are the leadership styles Lewin, Khas defined et al Read each style carefully and discuss their
advantages and disadvantages over the lines given below
1. TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP
This strategy is strongly disciplinary, and is often called a leadership style of "telling. The leader gives
instructions to the members of his team and then uses various incentives and punishments to either
appreciate or punish what they do in response Leaders give praise for a job well done or for a group member
to perform a department-wide mission hated because they missed a deadline.
Pro:
Con:
If you often use the threat of having to stay late when you need to inspire your team and you are
continually brainstorming clever ways to acknowledge solid work, you might be a transactional leader.
2. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
With this style of leadership, by empowering their workers to change, leaders are trying to enhance
or transform the individual or group into which they lead Such leaders are working at making changes and
finding new ways to get things done And as a result, by their ideas or insights into how something should be
improved or adjusted for their own work, they encourage and motivate others Under transformational
leaders, people have plenty of flexibility, as well as plenty of breathing space to innovate and think outside
the box
Pro:
Con:
When you look at every single existing process with a discerning eye and a strong sense that it might
be better, you could be a transformational leader You also encourage other people to get out of their comfort
zones and reach their own boundaries. You will burst with pride whenever you see a member of a team
achieve something previously thought impossible.
3. SERVANT LEADERSHIP
"Leaders are the ones who are willing to give up something of their own for us. Their time, their energy, their
money, maybe even the food off their plate. When it matters, leaders choose to eat last, "
Simon Sinek
Servant leaders work with this traditional motto: "Serve first and lead." Instead of thinking about how
to inspire people to follow their lead, they channel most of their energies into seeking ways to help others.
They make other people's needs a priority over their own. Besides being natural leaders, those who
follow the paradigm of servant leadership don't try to hold a white-knuckle grip of their own rank or strength.
Instead, they focus on the advancement and growth of the people who follow them.
Pro:
Con:
You might be a chief servant if you're known to say, "What can I do to help?" So you attach great
importance to avoiding roadblocks so helping others get things done. When you are asked you never think
twice about helping out, because you know that when you return, your own to-do list will still be there.

Pro:
Con:
4. DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP
You could also hear this style of leadership referred to as "participatory leadership Members manage
organizations and programs as well, a democracy.
Even though these leaders on the organizational hierarchy are statistically higher, they prioritize
working together and actively engaging their colleagues in the decision-making process. Democratic leaders
respect other people's ideas and feedback, and encourage discussion of those inputs. We don't carry on
orders from above, but take a much more inclusive approach to doing things.

Pro:
Con:
If you think the best meetings are the ones where everyone has a fair chance to weigh in, you might
be a democratic leader. You could not remember the last time you made an important decision without at
least one other person getting input.

5. AUTOCRATIC LEADERSHIP
On the contrary to democratic leadership there is autocratic leadership. You might think of that as an
alternative to "my way or the highway. Autocratic leaders see themselves as having absolute power and
making decisions on their subordinates' behalf. They decide not just what needs to be done, but how to
accomplish certain tasks too.
Pro:
Con:
You may be an autocratic leader if you think that group meetings and brainstorming just slow things
down, so it's easier if you make important decisions on your own and if you hate them when workers
challenge your decisions. That's final when you've said something

6. BUREAUCRATIC LEADERSHIP
To put it another way, bureaucratic leadership goes "by the book." With this style of leadership, there
is a specified collection of boxes to check to be a true leader, Bureaucratic officials, for example, possess
hierarchical authority. A power comes from a formal position or title rather than from the unique
characteristics or characteristics they hold. They also have a set list of duties, as well as clear rules and
procedures for how they will handle and make decisions for others. They just have to follow the path set out
for them.

Pro:
Con:
You may be a bureaucratic leader if you often find yourself questioning how your predecessor has
treated those situations that you want to make sure you follow the agreed protocol. You also seek assurance
that whenever you are charged with something different, you are doing things right.

7. LAISSEZ-FAIRE LEADERSHIP
This is a French word that translates to "leave it be" which sums up this hands-off leadership
approach accurately. Micromanagement is just the opposite. Laissez-faire leaders have the tools and services
required to do so. But then they step back and let their team members make decisions, solve problems and
get their work done without having to worry about their every move being obsessively watched by the leader.

Pro:
Con:
You could be a laissez-faire leader if in project status update meeting you hardly do any of the
conversations. Alternatively, members of your team are the ones who fill you in where things are. You're
really only focused on two key points in most events and projects: the beginning and the end.

8. CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP
Charismatic leaders have charismatic personalities, and a great deal of determination to achieve their
goals. Such leaders use eloquent communication and persuasion to unite a team around a cause, instead of
promoting actions by strict instructions. You will spell out their dream clearly and get other people excited
about the same target.

Pro:
Con:
You could be a charismatic leader if you're known to give outstanding styles of presentations of "rally
the troops.

ETHICS IN LEADERSHIP
"An ethical leader is someone who lives and dies for integrity. Doing the right thing, even when it hurts, is the
ethical leader's mantra."
Heather R. Younger Founder of Customer Fanatix

Ethics is about the types of values and morals that a person or a community finds acceptable or
necessary. In addition, ethics is concerned with the morality and actions of individuals. They look to leaders
when it comes to ethics to lead on ethics and take responsibility for both good and bad results.
Ethically leading leaders are role models, promoting the value of ethical standards, keeping their
people accountable for those principles, and crucially-designing environments in which others work and live.
As mentioned below, it has been shown that ethical leadership produces a variety of positive results, and
reduces the risk of many negative results. Thus, leadership can be the most effective tool in an ethical system
designed to support ethical behavior.
Ethical leadership is leadership motivated by respect for ethical beliefs and values, and other people's
integrity and rights (Watts, 2008). It is therefore related to values such as honesty, sincerity, care, beauty and
fairness (Brown, M. et al, 2005).

HOW TO BECOME AN ETHICAL LEADER?

a. Define and Align Your Values

Consider the morals you were raised with:

 "Treat others how you want to be treated"
  "Always say "thank you,"
 "Help those who are struggling," etc.
But as you evolve, and as society progresses, traditions alter, often causing changing values. Ask yourself
what matters to you as a person, and then align that with your leadership goals. It not only reflects your
honesty in describing your beliefs, it also inspires the colleagues to do the same, building a shared vision for
all staff
b. Champion the Importance of Ethics
An ethical leader's job is to focus on the overall significance of ethics, including ethical standards and
other ethical issues, and how those factors that influence society. As an ethical leader, educating peers about
ethics is crucial, particularly in cases where they face an ethical issue at work
c. Hire People with Similar Values
Although your views need not be identical to those of your workers, you should be able to establish
common ground with them. This often starts with the hiring process and is sustained through a declaration of
vision.

d. Promote Open Communication

Each subordinate is different although they share similarities. Be open with every decision you make,
and seek input from your team. It makes you become a better leader and helps you feel more comfortable in
expressing your thoughts or concerns with your subordinates. Collecting input from your team will help you
improve as a leader and will push the organization forward.
Good ethical practitioners tend to be good communicators. Individuals interact differently. Some Coy
feel comfortable speaking in public, irrespective of staff or circumstance, while others may refuse to talk with
a leader due to fear, anxiety or simply not knowing how to express what they are trying to say. They could
speak better via email, rather than in person.
Communicating with each member of the team is an ethical leader's task but also allowing for open
conversation, as some people may have questions and concerns that need to be answered. Creating
camaraderie with your team is vital to the leaders. Relationships of quality appear to be founded upon
honesty, justice, dignity, transparency, compassion and respect.

e. Beware of Bias
As people, many of us have antiquated or mistaken convictions, subconscious or otherwise. Every
leader wants to admit to their shortcomings but failure to practice self-awareness will lead to detrimental
effects. Everyone has prejudice, but you haven't been called on for the longest time, because you've never
really been tested Leaders need to look at themselves and be honest in fact having prejudices that can
impinge on the feeling of ease at work of another person. For you to build and maintain better relationships
with your subordinates, be an open-minded leader.

f. Lead by Example
Leading by example is a noble attribute of a leader. The best way to ensure an ethical organization is
to lead by example. It is important to remember as an ethical leader, that actions always speak louder than
words. People are more likely to judge others, rather than what they say, based on how they behave. Ethical
leaders may begin to earn the respect of their peers by practicing and demonstrating the use of ethical,
truthful, and unselfish conduct to subordinates.

g. Find Your Role Models

In history, there are many leaders, doing a little study of strong, powerful leaders and trying to
identify what they are doing well. Then incorporate it into their own style of leadership

h. Care for Yourself so you are able to Care for Others

As the saying goes, "You can't pour from an empty cup * The cornerstone for strong leadership is to
have a calm and competent disposition. This can be done by ensuring that you, as a person, are focused on
fulfilling your own needs such as sleep, nutrition and a true relationship with loved ones
It may seem easy to devote time to self-care, but ultimately it's crucial to improving your leadership
abilities. The leader who is happy and satisfied with life seeks peace and fulfillment for those they lead.
IMPACTS OF ETHICAL LEADERSHIP
Ethical leaders will help to build a healthy atmosphere through constructive partnerships at three
levels: the individual, the team, and the organization at large. Nurturing connections at each of these levels
will result in the following outcomes and benefits:

1. The Well-Being of the Individual

A strong ethical leader has an important responsibility for maintaining, a positive working
environment. Ethical leaders leading by example should persuade others to do likewise. People are generally
influenced by the things occurring around them. Good contact between colleagues can help to influence
efficiency and attitude in the workplace.

2. The Energy of the Team

Ethical leadership can also include behavior control and co-operation within a team. In the workplace,
morale usually is stronger when people get along with each other. When colleagues work as a team, this can
help build relationships in the workplace and improve the group's overall performance. Strong leaders usually
lead by example

3. The Health of the Organization

The value of maintaining a positive mindset in the workplace has much to do with improving the
organization's overall health. When people are able to show respect for each other and value the views of
others, this can help to create a productive work climate. There can be an ethical organization when people's
groups work together in an atmosphere of mutual respect, where they can develop individually, build
friendships and contribute to the overall objective.

THE 4-V MODEL OF ETHICAL LEADERSHIP

The 4-V model aims to reconcile internal beliefs and values for the common good with external behaviors and
actions
The four V'S stand for:
1. Values
2. Vision,
3. Voice, and
4. Virtue
These characteristics help to build a strong ethical leader. In the end, an ethical leader's main goal is
to create a world in which the future is positive, inclusive and allows all individuals to pursue and fulfill their
needs and fulfill their maximum potential.

VALUES FORMATION IN LEADERSHIP

Values is not a subject that has been talked about so often but one that plays an important role in
acts and performance. Because values are personal and not always clearly defined, they remain an essential
but under-discussed and undervalued part of who you are as an individual and as a leader.
Everyone has values, and when clearly understood and established, they become much more
important. To get the most out of what happens, the best initial step would be to identify your values and
write down those that are most important to you.

REASONS WHY VALUES MATTER TO LEADERS

1. Values Guide Your Decisions
You have a lot of decisions to make as a dictator, those that only affect you and those that impact
many others. Once you start with your principles, choices, big or small, can be taken faster, simpler and with
greater confidence. Go your choices against your merit scheme. It's the best place to start.
2. Values Strengthen Your Ability to Influence
If you associate with your beliefs, you are communicating with your People are drawn to you when
you speak with passion, they are more likely to hear your message and you will be more successful in
persuading and influencing. As a leader it should be self-evident why this is vital to your values.
3. Values Create Clarity
 When you're happier your life is simpler in so many ways. Clarity helps you concentrate, make
yourself more successful and much more. One of the fastest ways in your life to achieve clarity is to be clear
about your beliefs first. If you work from this point of departure all the other clarification advantages will
follow.
4. Values Reduce Stress
The majority of the people I know want less tension in their lives. It's doubly important as a leader
because your tension is infectious-it infects those around you. It's easier to communicate when the choices
are smoother, and you're clearer about issues that you'll have less tension. In the past you may not have been
talking about values in this way, but it is absolutely true that living from your values is a great way to reduce
stress.
5. Values Guide Your Actions
Knowing and understanding your beliefs, is one thing. Behave according to them is another matter.
This reality has an effect on all the ideas that have been shared so far, because all the advantages are
achieved when you recognize and then act upon your beliefs. Of those advantages, this is the most practical.
Your beliefs are what drive your actions.

While it helps to define who you are, having clear beliefs can be so much more useful on a daily basis.
It allows you to be a more successful, efficient and confident leader by being clear on your values.

CHAPTER III
UNDERSTANDING MANAGEMENT
Learning Objectives:

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Comprehensively define what management is.
2. Discuss precisely the different concepts of management.
 Management as a discipline
 Management as an art
 Management as a group
 Management as a profession
3. Describe accurately the manager and their different levels, their functions and skills
4. Enumerate and demonstrate perfectly the qualities of a manager
5. Recognize the modern challenges for managers.
6. Acquire the ability of developing mission and vision Statements.
7. Appreciate the importance of creating vision and mission statements.
8. Developed knowledge and skill in behavioral management.
9. Know and apply the behavior management techniques
10. Understand comprehensively employee behavior & motivation
11. Recognize broadly the values formation management

MANAGEMENT
Management is a set of principles relating to the roles of planning, coordinating, directing and
regulating and the implementation of those principles in the efficient and effective use of physical, financial,
human and information capital to achieve organizational objectives
Definitions of Management
Management thinkers have defined management in their own ways:

A set of activities directed at the efficient and effective utilization of resources in the pursuit of one or
more goals.
Van Fleet and Peterson
Working with human, financial and physical resources to achieve organizational objectives by
performing the planning, organizing, leading and controlling functions.
 Megginson, Mosley and Pietri

Management is a problem-solving process of effectively achieving organizational objectives through the

efficient use of scarce resources in a changing environment.
Kreitner

Management is an art of knowing what to do, when to do and see that it is done in the best and cheapest
way.
F.W. Taylor

Management is an art of getting things done through and with the people in formally organized groups. It is
an art of creating an environment in which people can perform and can cooperate towards attainment of
group goals.

Harold Koontz

Other Views on the Definition and Scope of Management

"Managing is forecasting and preparing, arranging, directing, managing and regulating," says Henri
Fayol. Fredmund Malik describes management as "transforming capital into value." It is described by Ghislain
Deslandes as "a weak force, under pressure to achieve results and endowed with the threefold power of
constraint, imitation and imagination, operating at subjective, interpersonal, institutional and environmental
level."

Management as a Process
Management as a process began with the sole purpose of attaining an objective. Further, it is
specifically done in order to:
The purpose are:
1. rise clients' satisfaction with the services the company provides.
2. develop personnel experience, abilities and capacity, or
3. accomplish a particular goal or goal. (2-E)

Management as a mechanism often includes interrelated processes by which management within an

entity manages and controls the organization's resources to achieve desired outcomes. This requires not only
managing and using financial resources alone, but also human resources, as they are also important to an
organization in order to achieve its stated objectives.
Managers need to build a comfortable working atmosphere that promotes healthy employee
relations within the company. They will make sure that the human resources work in harmony to achieve the
goal of the organization. Having full oversight of an organization's affairs, managers need to follow due
process to set goals and come up with plans for achieving outcomes. Both phases of planning and execution
include due processes which the manager must strictly adhere to.

Management: The Never-Ending Process

It simply means that management is a phase that will never stop, because the company remains
Managers would always force themselves to tackle tasks, goals, and problems at a certain point in time.

ACTIVITY MANAGEMENT
Task management is the practice of recording personnel's day-to-day accomplishments in an order in
which they are done. It is a key to an organization's success, as it helps to monitor the organization's course
and maximize its work efficiency. It relies on the philosophy that knowledge from higher levels of
management influences any activity that takes place in the company in a personal or group workers
organization, therefore it is essential to proper recording process and cannot take place without controlling
the activities.
Managing tasks will help the workers organize their daily work. The activity management system
helps the managers and their subordinates to evaluate or verify their results. This promotes workplace
accountability as job tasks are accurately monitored, and subordinate deserved notifications are given
according to the employees' daily-observed progress. Tracking the work of the employee and the amount of
time spent helps identify where improvements are essential.
Elements of the Ideal Activity Management Label
Monitoring this recorded information on a regular basis is essential to ensure the completion and
accuracy off the record.
1. The Activity (which is a brief description of what you do)
2. Type of activity (whether it is meeting, an email, phone or others)
3. Name of the task
4. Title of project
5. Name or category of the project
6. The time length of the activity
7. Date of the task

Importance of Activity Management

1. It gives both the employer and the employees, information on the performance of the personnel involved
2. It helps to organize and emphasize the importance or relevance of the task at hand.
3. It also helps to avoid miscommunications and repetition in the workplace. mistakes of task Management as
a Discipline

Management is also a discipline because it includes learning the procedures and values required to
perform official administrative duties, as well as demonstrating the code of conduct that managers must obey
when performing their duties. Management is also being taught, as with other research or discipline courses,
at numerous institutes and universities around the world.

Individuals may secure jobs as managers after they have earned a diploma certificate or higher
degree. Managers also have opportunities to increase their expertise and competence by obtaining a higher
degree or management certification.

Management as an Art (2-1)

Management is also known to be an art, because both share similar characteristics. Art is a structured
body of knowledge that requires imagination and expertise. An artist often needs constant practice in order
to become faultless or achieve a degree of perfection which is considered acceptable.

Art is taught and put to use. The apprenticeship uncle comes before application. There are vast
amounts of resources available to learn and develop knowledge about art in the industry, which includes
study materials and books to help artists gain a better understanding and deliver quality production. The
same holds true for management. By learning, theoretical knowledge is gained. In other words, managers will
learn about the operations and concepts of management that are presented in the study material.

While studying art, one can learn and gain theoretical knowledge but it does not end there. To yield
results, the knowledge gained has to be implemented effectively. And as a result, each artist is required to
possess personal skills and imagination so he or she can make good use of the knowledge gained. Even if two
or more artists learn the same thing, their ingenuity and talents will decide how well they end up using the
acquired knowledge.

The same is true of management. Learning the values and philosophies of management is not
enough. One requires the skills and imagination required to make use of the information learned to produce
positive results. As with art, two or more managers can learn the same thing, but because of their skill and
creativity, the result generated could be different.

In order to achieve perfection every artist needs constant practice. The artist will not progress
without regular training, either. The artist should focus on the practical after studying their theoretical
dimension, in order to achieve perfection. A trained manager will not go far without a managerial position
being exercised or obtained. In theory, certain established management principles need to be put into
practice. The manager is creatively oriented and can identify areas he or she needs to develop and work on
accordingly. Education is therefore an integral part of art and management Management is therefore an art,
because both have the same characteristic

Management as a Group
In any way, the concept of management suggests that it is a group. In general, administrative
functions are not performed by one person alone. For most cases, as companies expand, many specific
managerial roles are generated so that the organization can meet its desired objectives.

Management as an operation carried out by a group of people saddled with the responsibility of
keeping the company going and achieving a specific goal In other words, a community composed of people
with specific knowledge of the organization or managerial roles will work together to manage a business.

Today, when we suggest that XYZ Company's management is doing well, we are implicitly referring to
a specific group of people that makes up the management team. They are the decision-makers and people's
first team to get the boot when things go wrong. Let's take an example of using police force. The Chief is the
manager. However, do not forget that the community of managers is comprised of other team leaders, not
just one person

In business, management involves the top-level managers who are the company's decision makers.
Any decision they make is binding on other managers and employees at lower levels. These include the
president, chief executive, board of directors, general manager etc.

Management as a Science
Management is also a science, because everything used to classify a field as science is involved.
Science, for example, establishes the relation of cause and effect between variables. It also takes into
consideration, the values that bind the variables concerned. Scientific concepts are thus formulated using the
standard scientific methods that involve testing. And the method involves testing and checking via a series of
tests.
One of the features which indicates that science and management are the same is the universal
acceptance of scientific principles. In other words, scientific laws are the same in every case and in every part
of the world. On the other hand, management has its fundamental principles that are universally accepted
and implemented in every situation or enterprise. An example of that is the Unity of Command Principle.
Another attribute suggesting that science and management are the same is the manager who obtains
scientific principles. It has to move through other scientific research and analysis before a theory is generally
accepted. But, the same method also includes the principles of management. Scientific analysis and
evaluation are carried out before organizational principles are achieved, and this could also include specific
observations derived from a large number of managers or experiments performed.
The relationship between cause and effect is a further trait that distinguishes management and
science as one. The relation between cause and effect is vitally important in scientific principles Heating the
metal, for example, can cause it to expand. The cause is the heat applied while the effect is the one felt by the
expansion. The same happens in administration. For example, it has been proven that there will be
ineffectiveness in organizations where there is no compromise between authority and accountability

Management as a Profession
Management is also an occupation as it has characteristics that allow it to be so. A profession is called
a career in which one acquires knowledge and undergoes training series to fit perfectly into that role.
A career has limited entry which is also true in management. Although anyone can assume a
managerial role in a corporation and there is no law prohibiting that many companies now prefer for such
positions individuals with Master's degree.

The Manager
A manager is a person in the organization who directs the activities of others. They perform their
work at different levels and they are called by different names.
1. The First Line Managers - They are usually called supervisors or in a manufacturing they may be called
foremen.
2. The Middle Level Mangers- These comprise all management levels between the organization's supervisory
level and top level. Such managers may be called functional managers, heads of plants, and managers of
projects,
3. The Top Managers - They are the ones responsible for making organizational decisions and setting policies
and strategies which affect all aspects of the organization. Such individuals may be named vice-president,
managing director, chief executive officer or board chairman etc.

MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS
Planning - This is necessary to set goals and to develop strategies for organizing activities.
Organization - It assists in deciding the tasks to be performed, how to do them, how to organize the tasks and
where to make decisions.
Staffing - This is important for employing different types of people and performing different activities such as
training, growth, evaluation, compensation, welfare etc.
Directing -This requires that subordinates be given instructions and motivated to achieve their goals.

Controlling -This is monitoring practices to ensure that the workers perform the tasks as scheduled, and to
correct any major deviations.

MANAGERIAL SKILLS

Managing position requires proper skills to perform various jobs. He cannot be an efficient manager if he lks
the knowledge and skills to do the job because it will be the foundations for his workers to be corrected and
driven.

THREE ESSENTIAL SKILLS OR COMPETENCIES OF THE MANAGER (by: Robert L. Katz)

1 Technical
2. Human and
3. Conceptual

Technical Skills
Managers must be able to work with the resources, equipment, strategies, procedures or the
technical skills. First line executives as well as many middle managers have been active in the activities of the
organization's technical aspects. Even when a manager moves higher in hierarchy, the need for technical skills
is less, but still technical skill helps in making decisions.

Human Skills
Managers must have the ability to work well with other people both individually and in a group.
Managers need these skills at all levels but top managers need them the most. The manager has
interpersonal skills because he gets the best out of the people that work with him. We are able to
communicate, empower, lead and inspire confidence and enthusiasm.

Conceptual Skills
Managers need to be able to integrate and organize the different activities. Managers must be able to
think of abstract ideas and to contextualize them. We need to be able to see the organization as a whole and
the relationships between its different subunits, and to see how the organization fits into its wider context.
Conceptual competencies are important in decision making. Since all managers have to make decisions, these
skills are necessary for all managers but they become more important as they form the hierarchy of the
organization

QUALITIES OF A MANAGER
Since the manager makes decisions for each type of activity and his decisions affect an organization s
work, he should have the following attributes to do his job properly
1. Educational competence
A manager has to have adequate and outstanding preparation. Besides other educational
qualifications they are required to have management education and training. Education not only widens the
intellectual scope of executives but also helps to understand and interpret things properly. Business
environment awareness is also essential to tackle the various problems that the company can encounter.
2. Intellectual quality
Managers should have a higher level of intelligence relative to others, because they have more roles
in the organization than other men. Intelligence can assist a manager in evaluating the organization's present
and future organizational possibilities. He must be able to predict the things in advance and take the
necessary decisions in due course.
3. Leadership ability
A manager has to be able to direct and motivate people working within the business. He shall
subordinate himself to leadership. The subordinates' skills, abilities, and potentials should be retained and
properly used to achieve organizational goals. If a manager has the leadership qualities then for the good of
the organization, he will inspire workers to improve their performance and function to their full capacity.

4. Training

А must develop organizational competencies. As described in the preceding issue, these skills consist
of technical skills, human skills and logical abilities. These competencies must be gained by schooling, training,
practice etc. Such skills are important for all executive levels manager.
5. Technical knowledge and skills
A manager should have technical knowledge of the organization's job and other tasks. He will be
better placed to assess and direct if he has knowledge of those things himself.
6. Mental Maturity
To deal with different circumstances a manager should have mental maturity. He is supposed to be
polite, good listener and quick to respond to situations. He has to take several uncomfortable decisions that
could have an adverse effect on the job if not taken properly. When dealing with subordinates he will remain
calm. All of these attributes come with maturity of mind.
7. Positive Attitude
Positive attitude is to a manager's asset. A manager has to deal with a lot of people from both inside
and outside the company. He should be sensitive and optimistic to different suggestions and make rational
choices. He should not prejudge issues, and should not take sides. He will try and develop good relationships
with different people dealing with him. He would consider their issues and attempt to reach out a helping
hand.
8. Self-confidence
Every manager should have faith in himself. He has to take a lot of decisions every day, he should
thoroughly evaluate things before making decisions If he makes decisions, then he should stick to them and
try to put them into practice. A manager lacking confidence in himself will always be uncertain about his
decisions. This kind of mentality creates more problems than just solving them.
9. Foresight
A manager has to make a decision not just for the present but also for the future. The technology,
marketing, consumer behavior, financial set-up etc, are rapidly changing. The economic policy shifts would
repercussion in the future. A manager should foresee what will happen in the future and plan the
organization for the circumstances to face. The level of foresight will help you make the right choices and face
the challenges to come in the right perspective. If the problems aren't properly evaluated, then the
organization can face adverse situations.

ROLE OF MANAGER IN AN ORGANIZATION

The role of a manager is very critical within an organization. An organization's success will depend on
the manager's ability in using the resources to achieve organizational objectives. He is an integral leader in
the organization's role of achieving goals and targets. Technology and working methods are rapidly changing
and therefore the manager should be professional enough to deal with these changes.
The word management positions apply to different managerial activity categories. In his research,
Henry Mintzberg discovered that the prevalent view was that managers were critical thinkers who evaluated
information carefully and systematically before making decisions. Mintzberg found that a large number of
diverse, un-patterned, and short-duration tasks were engaged in by managers. Reflective was given little time
because managers faced constant interruptions. He offered a categorization scheme to describe what
managers are doing on the job, based on actual managers.

DIFFERENT HIGHLY INTERRELATED ROLES OF THE MANAGERS

1. Interpersonal Roles

A manager has to perform the following duties: a Receive visitors from outside, or preside over employees'
social function.
b. Sign as organization's manager some legal documents
c Function as a chief when he is needed to carry out subordinate activities,
d. Not only to inspire the workforce but also to recruit, fire and discipline employees.
e. Pay outside organizations for the collection of information relating to companies.

2. Informational Roles
All managers are required to perform informational roles.
A. To collect information outside of one's own organizations and institutions.
b. Perform the disseminators position as they deliver information to the organization's subordinates.
C. Acts as a spokesman when he represents outsiders to the organization

3. Decisional Roles
According to Mintzberg, a manager performs four decisional roles.
a. He initiates and supervises new projects to improve the performance of the organization
b. As a conflict controller, administrators take corrective actions to fix previously unknown issues.
c. Acts as resource allocation when allocating and controlling human, physical, and monetary resource
allocations.
d. When debating and bargaining with other parties, he works as a negotiator.

IMPORTANT ROLES OF A MANAGER

As Leader
a. Defining various people's activities and goals within the organization
b. Helps at the work-group to create the right type of atmosphere and homogeneity.
c. The group's actions and performance led by him are influenced.
As Coordinator
a. Bring together various resources, both physical and human, for the achievement of organizational
objectives.
b. Mobilizes different resources, brings intelligent understanding and goodwill among employers to complete
work at the organization.
c. With the aid of effective communication, better plan events and programs.

As Delegator of Authority
a. Assign duties to the subordinates that he trusted, and delegate the authority necessary. If they do any work
independently, the subordinates may gain confidence and be prepared for higher responsibilities
b. Encourage employees to take up appropriate work according to their skills and knowledge and train for the
next line of executives,
c. Create proper communication system so that subordinates are able to get regular guidance and response
for the activities taken up by them.

As Decision-Maker
After addressing various aspects of the problem, taking decisions for different activities, evaluating
them, designing possible alternatives and choosing the correct one.

Take note:
 A decision which is made at the right time will yield good results. In its decisions a manager must
create consistency, firmness and conviction. A manager who constantly changes his decisions will leave his
subordinates in doubt. The subordinates will be directed by a decision-making capacity and the ability to take
correct decisions at the appropriate time.

As a Human Relations Practitioner

a. Address workplace issues with staff.
b. Tries to get the best out of the workers, and efforts are made to boost the organization's efficiency.
C. Encourage employees to engage in decision making processes.

As a Spokesman of the Organization

a. Acts as the organization's spokesman.
b. He works with outsiders and provides them with the required information that they need.
C. Maintains good relationships with all stakeholders including shareholders, employees, customers, vendors,
government, etc.
d. Helps to create a strong organization's reputation not only among clients but also among outsiders

A manager should have an understanding of the principles of public understanding and the
advantages of keeping the public informed while performing the role of a spokesman.

MODERN CHALLENGES FOR MANAGERS

At different times every company has to cope with the external environment that prevails. This world
poses a series of external obstacles which are hard to control. These factors will impact significantly on how
well a manager performs.

Organizations need to respond to environmental changes with speed and efficiency to ensure survival,

Below are some of the key challenges which have an impact on the job of managing

1. Challenges on Information Technology (IT)

Information technology is undergoing a transition. Computers, the internet, intranets,
telecommunications and an endless number of software applications are available to get things done better.
a. Managers are expected to use technology to carry out their work and produce desired results. The IT
selection must be made by having the end user in mind and the work to be done.
b. Managers need to know how to communicate with IT experts to evaluate the most appropriate solutions
for the job to be done, and then consider the best way to implement them.
c. Managers need to determine the best way to network the infrastructure of an entity, and also decide which
network information will be accessible to whom and what kinds of protection are needed to protect the
network.

Efficient managers ensure workers are aligned when the technology is chosen and introduced.
Information technology will only be applied effectively if the workers are equipped to use it properly.
Using this technology has enhanced employee performance at work Managers trained in IT will have
a bright future: Some may begin to work for more than one organization without having to leave their home
office Managers must remain aware of the opportunities and challenges that the unabated technology
transition poses to the organizations.

a. Challenges on Globalization
The digital revolution took the whole world back together. Use of satellites to communicate
information has rapidly improved things. The main component of industry, culture and economic
globalization is the opportunity and freedom to communicate with practically anyone, anywhere, anywhere.
The digital revolution has facilitated the growth of global trade and international trade agreements.

A manager must formulate his plans by keeping the world economy in perspective. He has to get the
company ready to face the new competition. As consumer choices broaden, managers need to find ways to
beat foreign competition for price and quality. The movement towards globalization is unlikely to change in
the future; the best thing is to face it. New executives Should be prepared professionally to meet future
global competition.

DEVELOPING MISSION AND VISION STATEMENTS

Creating the vision and mission statements of organization are the first two steps in the process of
planning action. Developing a statement of vision and mission is crucial for community initiatives to be
successful. Such statements clarify the goals of your community in a concise way, help the organization
concentrate on what is really important and provide a framework for further advancement of other elements
of your strategic plan.

Roles Played by Mission and Vision

Mission and vision statements play three critical roles:
1. Communicate the organization's intent to stakeholders.
2. Inform the development of Strategy, and
3. Establish the tangible priorities and goals by which to measure the success of the strategy of the company

WHAT IS A VISION STATEMENT?

Their vision is their dream. It's what your company considers to be the ideal conditions for your
community, that is, how things would look if you absolutely, beautifully addressed the issue that is important
to you. It could be a world without war, or a society where all men, regardless of gender or racial background,
are treated as equals.

Whatever the dream of your company is, one or more vision statements, which are short phrases or
sentences that express the aspirations of your society for the future, may well communicate it. In creating a
manifesto or statement of purpose, your organization clarifies the values and guiding principles, first for
yourself and then for the greater community.

Characteristics of vision statements should be:

a. Understood and shared by members of the organization.

b. Broad enough to include a diverse variety of local perspectives.
c. Inspiring and uplifting to everyone involved in group's effort.
d. Easy to communicate - they are generally short enough

WHAT IS A MISSION STATEMENT?

The next step in the action planning process is in practical terms to the dream of the ground
organization. pris here that a mission statement comes in to grow. The mission statement of an organization
explains what the organization will do, and why it will do that.

Mission statements are similar to claims about vision, in that they also look at the big picture. They
are more practical however, and they are certainly more "action-oriented" than statements of dream. The
statement of vision of an organization will inspire people to dream, your statement of purpose should
motivate them to take action.

General Guidelines in Creating Mission Statements

a. Concise. While not as brief as statements of vision, mission statements in one sentence also usually get
their point across.
b. Outcome-oriented. Statements on task describe the basic results to which the organization is operating.
c. Inclusive. Although declarations of mission make statements about the key goals of your community, it is
very important that they do so very broadly. Good mission statements are not restrictive in the community's
policies or industries that may get involved in the project.

Example:
"Promoting care and caring at the end of life through coalitions and advocacy.”

Role of the Mission Statement

Leaders should emphasize the current statement of mission to employees which clarifies the
organization's objective and key, measurable goals.
A mission statement is meant for the organization's staff and members. Strategic plans can involve
changing the organization's mission statement to represent a new direction. It will help workers and the
public opt into the change by emphasizing the advantages of the transition and reducing the gaps.

Role of the Vision Statement

Like statement of mission, statement of vision helps to define the intent of the organization
Statements of vision provide guidance for organizational action and help inspire. Strategic plans may include a
promotional campaign that may include the statement of vision to encourage stakeholders to partner with
the organization as well

A vision statement is a vision of the future with hope and a positive outlook. It describes the
company's inspirational, long-term plan for what they will be able to do, who they will help, and how the
company will then be perceived. For now, it's often out of reach, but not so far out of reach as to be
unattainable. The vision statement gives everyone a description of what they're working on.

Purposes of Strategic Planning

Strategic planning is likely to have successes and failures. Leaders should celebrate the little successes
in achieving objectives that are part of the statement of mission and vision. The mission statement will help
to measure whether the strategic plan is aligned with the Agency's overall objectives. The vision statement
helps inspire workers. Workers who feel invested in organizational change are more likely to stay motivated
and have higher levels of productivity.

IMPORTANCE OF CREATING VISION AND MISSION STATEMENTS

1. These statements can help your organization focus on what's really important. Although your organization
knows what you're trying to do to improve your community, it's easy to lose sight of this when dealing with
day-to-day organizational difficulties. Your vision and mission statements remind the members of what is
important.

2. Vision and mission statements offer a snapshot of what the group is and what it aims to do to other people
and organizations. If statement of vision and purpose is readily accessible, people know about the
organization without having to dig hard for the details. Instead, those with common interests should take the
time to learn more. This flexibility is very useful when hiring other individuals and organizations to support
the initiative.

3. Statements of vision and mission concentrate the members on their shared goal. Not only can the
statements themselves act as a daily reminder of the organization's value, the method creating them
encourages people to see the organization as "theirs." Creating these statements builds trust as participants
can more fully believe in something if they have a hand in creating it.

ADVANTAGE OF HAVING A CLEAR VISION STATEMENT

 Bringing people into work together. To offer hope for a better future.
 Empowering members of the group to achieve their goals through constructive and successful action;
 Turn your broad sight visions into more practical, action-oriented language. Describe your priorities
clearly and concisely to Immersive visuals
 Improving the image of your organization as being skilled and knowledgeable

HOW TO CREATE VISION AND MISSION STATEMENTS

 The organization now has the tools to create the specific messages, providing a clear understanding
of the vision and mission messages. Unless your community has already formed statements of vision and
mission, consider them in the light of the criteria.
If you feel that your current statements could be changed, you can easily change them using the
following method.

1. Learn What is Important to People in Your Organization and the Community

As the first step in the development of your action plan is to establish your vision and mission
statements, it is especially important that these first steps are well in community principles and values. Being
aware of the important issues within your community is vital to the creation of a large, successful and lasting
group of action. And one of the first steps that you will take when creating your organization's vision and
purpose is to identify the problems that matter most to people in your group.

Different Ways in Gathering this Information

a. Conducting public forums with members of the community.
It is to collect suggestions, feelings, and views on the way they want the culture to be changed. The
discussions and complaints are registered during public forums. The transcripts of what's said will provide the
basis for the preparation subsequently.
b. Holding focus group discussions with the people
This would be done for those involved in solving the problems, including civic members, those most
impacted by the problems, corporations, religious leaders, teachers, etc. Discussions in focus groups are
similar to public hearings but are smaller and more personal. They are usually made up of small groups of
people of similar backgrounds, so that they can feel confident communicating freely about what concerns
them.

Obtaining interviews with people in leadership and service positions

his involves individuals as local officials, school leaders, workers at hospitals and social service
providers, on what issues or needs they expect to occur in the neighborhood. Many individuals will also have
both facts and memories to back up their viewpoints.

2. Decide What To Ask

No matter if you are talking to one person or a crowd, your purpose is the same - to learn what
matters in your community.
List of Questions You Might Use to Focus Your Discussions With Community Members

These questions may be used for individual interviews, focus groups, public forums, or in any other way you
choose to gather information.

a. What is your vision / dream for our community?

b. Why do you want to see change?
c. What kind of group or organization will we be creating?
d. What do you see as the big issues or problems in the society or organization?
e. How do you see as the main strengths and assets of the group or organization?
f. How do you think this company or project will be striving for?
g. Why will they fix these issues?
h. How would you like to see success?
While collecting feedback from the group, the facilitator should encourage everyone to express their
most idealistic, optimistic, and constructive ideas. Encourage others to be interested, and note that you are
attempting to articulate a vision of a better society or organization
3. Decide On The General Focus Of Your Organization
After the organization's leaders have learned what the group has to say, it's time to determine the
organization or initiative's overall emphasis.
a. What subject matters most to your organization and to your community?
b. Where is your company going to operate?
c. Does your organization only start in one school, in one neighborhood, or in your town?
d. Should the emphasis of your initiative be wider, at local, regional, or even international level?
Those are questions with no simple answers. Your organization will need to understand group lessons
learned, and determine the best course for your organization through thoughtful discussion. However, if your
organization receives grant money or big funding from a given entity, the grant maker can determine what
your group's overall objective should be.

DEVELOP YOUR VISION AND MISSION STATEMENTS

Developing clear vision and mission statements are two of the most critical activities that your
organization can tackle, as such statements influence almost everything else you do.
When you and the team understand more clearly what the community is trying to do and why, you
are in a prime position to create proposals that will catch the ideas. When you look at possible claims, try to
keep them broad and enduring.

Wide-ranging vision and mission statements allow for a sense of continuity with the past, values and
specific aims of a community. In addition, statements of Vision and mission built up to last should drive
efforts today and tomorrow.

WRITING MISSION STATEMENTS

The method of writing the statement of purpose for your organization is close to creating your
statement of vision. The same method of brainstorming will help you to build the possibilities for your
mission statement. You'll want to establish a common mission statement for your work as opposed to vision
statements.

QUESTIONS IN CREATING MISSION STATEMENT

1. Could this explain what your company is going to do, and why is it going to?
2. Is it concise (one sentence)?
3. Was it an outcome oriented?
4. Is it reflective of the organization's priorities and people who might get involved? After the organization's
leaders have formed a
Vision and mission statements, the next step will be to know what other group members think of
them before you actually use the statements. You may talk to the Same community leaders or the members
of the focus group you initially talked to
Finally, it is important to note that while the production of the statements is a big step worth
celebrating for your organization, there is more work to be done. You will then determine whether to use
such claims. Otherwise, all the hard work you do will lead to nothing

EXERCISE
Instructions:
1. Think of the organization that you are in now
2. Assume that you are the manager or head of the organization and that you need to have the VISION and
MISSION statement for that organization to be recognized and/or accredited
3. In a separate paper, compose a VISION and MISSION STATEMENT considering the ideas presented in the
preceding topics.

WAYS ORGANIZATION MAY CHOOSE TO SPREAD ITS VISION AND MISSION STATEMENTS

1. Attach it to your letterhead or to your stationary

2. Use them on Site
3. Giving away with them T-shirts, or bookmarks, or other little gifts
4. Use these while giving interviews.
5. Show it on your reports cover

BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT
 Behavioral management is a behavioral intervention approach that is oriented towards keeping
order. This is a class of therapeutic strategies for altering behavior by modifying one or more aspects of the
environment of and person. Behavioral management derived from Albert Bandura's theory of social learning,
which affirms that observable behavior emerges from an interaction between the person and the
environment.

The factors that are modified are those that are thought to contribute most significantly to the
development or continuation of habits that are troublesome in the atmosphere for the person him/ herself or
for other people. Environmental improvements are also being made to improve healthy habits deemed
beneficial or adaptive.
Past experiences precede behavior in time, and can result in actions or decrease the likelihood of
behavior occurring Behavioral events that accompany behavior in time lie, consequent events that also
increase or decrease the probability that the behavior will continue once it occurs, or that it will occur again
in the future

BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

1. Antecedent strategies Which are used in an attempt to discourage or provoke a behavior before a behavior
occurs
2. Consequent strategies Which are used when a behavior happens in an attempt to discourage a behavior
from continuing and repeating, or to reinforce a behavior.

UNDERSTANDING EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOR & MOTIVATION

Behavioral Management Theory

The theory of behavioral management was developed in response to the need to account for the
actions and motivation of the employees. The change moved management from an emphasis of production
classical leadership theory) to a style of leadership based on the human need of the workers for work related
fulfillment and good working conditions. It is based on the premise that managers can better consider the
human dimension for workers and view workers as valuable tools for achieving objectives. Management who
takes a special interest in workers makes them feel part of a specific group

A Shift in Theories
Long before theorists started writing about employee happiness and good working conditions,
management found classical leadership to be the most important to the success of an organization, with its
primary interest in high productivity and performance. Later, concern for job satisfaction and fair working
conditions established the basis for the theory of behavioral management.

To establish a relation, theorists such as Elton Mayo and others analyzed efficiency of workers under
various conditions. Mayo's work with Hawthorne offers a clear example of this. A group of telephone line
workers were divided in the Hawthorne experiment, and observed working in a private room. Different
privileges were granted to the community members during their working day, such as the right to leave their
workstations, improvements in pay levels and even company-sponsored lunch. What they found was that the
management group had generated more than the other workers. The reason for this increased output was
that the community believed that their well-being was of concern to management.

It launched the campaign for management of human relations. When all management were to invest
time, show concern in the personal well-being of employees and reward them for a job well done, staff would
be inspired to work harder. This would potentially be a constructive action towards jobs.

MANAGEMENT BY EXAMPLE

The concept of leading others by dictation or order may seem like a fairly daunting task to many
managers. Most managers don't want to feel like they're babysitting or bossing their staff members around,
but they also find it best to show their workers how they want to behave and how they'd prefer their daily
tasks to be done. That all comes down to the often-challenging task of leading by example
 Lead by example not only holds managers to strict expectations, but also requires many interpersonal
communication skills. Those who lead by example must be capable of establishing good human relationships
with those they need. This can be a challenge for any boss, particularly those who are not exactly born
leaders of natural origin.

EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES OF MANAGING BY EXAMPLE

Avoid Criticizing
Complaining or judging others can not only discourage team members from receiving the inspiration
they need, but it can also sow these team members that criticism and complaining is appropriate on the job
Those who lead by example must do their utmost to eliminate negativity from their lives and their approach
to leadership altogether. Negativity can only generate more negativity, so it is imperative that it be eliminated
early. The more optimistic a person will be, the more optimistic their work environment can be each and
every day.
Give Honest Praise
It is necessary to truly improve positive behavior, so that others can continue to behave positively
Criticism avoidance is just half the fight when it comes promoting positivity when leading by example.
Dedicated managers who want to lead by example know when to laud and how necessary it is to offer
truthful Praise. Giving false or coerced compliments to workers only for the sake of spreading attention does
not cut it off. People can sense and hear honesty so if leaders want it to really work, praise needs to be
sincere and truthful.

Individuals usually want to do the right thing, and positive motivation keeps them on track to do good
things rather than threats or punishments.

Develop Real Relationships

It's so important for managers to take the time to develop genuine relationships with their workers so
they can gain that respect. it involves getting to know them and becoming interested in other people and
what they have to say and focusing on maintaining and developing the relationship so the two parties have a
sense of confidence. When managers do not take the time to build meaningful relationships with their
workers then the idea of example management will never work. So get workers so imitate their bosses, they
need to admire them and take care of them
Good listening skills and good communication skills are important to establishing the basic trust
between all parties. When a core partnership exists, workers are much more likely to look at their boss as
someone to respect, and would be much more inclined to imitate the actions of their boss Not only
does this involve listening to the words that workers need to use, but it also means picking up on their
thoughts and paying attention to what they are trying to communicate.

Get in on the Action

It's much easier for an employee to follow the lead of a superior who sits in their office all day and
doesn't know how everyday operations work. Getting involved and being very interested in how the company
works will only benefit managers who are trying to appeal to their workers and who are trying to set a
precedent on how their workers want to work.
To any manager, so to speak, getting their hands dirty is one of the best ways to start cultivating a
better relationship with their employees and really start managing by example. Once team members see their
supervisors do the job and get into the action, they are much more likely to look for direction at these
supervisors and emulate their behavior.

Humility is Key
Taking leadership approach needs a great sense modesty. Not only does this mean trying to relate to
workers and to foster a sense of harmony between team members, but it also means treating all team
members with a positive attitude.
Managers ought to treat others the way they would like to be treated, never take anything for
granted and give the benefit of the doubt to individuals. Even if a member of a team does not perform to the
expectations of the manager, this does not mean they have not tried. Most people don't go into preparing
their workday to do a terrible job. Having insight and modesty will also help managers see the broader picture
and see where their workers come from as they lead others by their own example.

ENGAGEMENT AND EMPOWERMENT

If you want engagement and empowerment, consider the following behaviors:

 Act like an owner make choices that are based on the highest company and priorities nice.
 Be constructive in asking what you can do to improve or make a situation easier
 Be responsible by recognizing that there is still an aspect of the project or a consequence that will
have a positive effect.
 Seek items that match the ultimate purpose. So if you make a mistake, then you will own it and learn
from it.

People are influenced by our actions. Our life as a leader would be easier if we could say all the night
things and know that those words would significantly influence our team While that would be easier, it is also
unrealistic. Although our words matter, what we do matters far more

If we want our influence to be positive and productive, we must be clear on what we want from others,
and then make sure our actions (as well as our words) support that. When we do this, we are leading by
example in an intentional and productive way.

VALUES FORMATION IN MANAGEMENT

Formation of values is the confluence of our personal experiences and the particular society in which
we are entwined. In the childhood, values are placed by our families and reinforced by community and life
experiences. For example, my parents placed on me the importance of kindness, and reinforced it during
early childhood.
The value system is first considered for understanding every society. The value system implies the
culture's purposes and goals, which their wisest people have identified and treated as absolute and primary.
In the context of its value system, therefore, the values and knowledge of every society happen to be
preserved.
A value system is a collection of coherent ethical principles and procedures used for ethical or moral
honesty purposes. A well-defined set of values is code of morale.

POINTS THAT HIGHLIGHT THE ROLE OF VALUES IN MANAGEMENT

1. Development of Employees

Manager’s should use the value system to grow their workers in an all-round way. Values helm with vision.
Those help in the creation of employee or workers awareness and moral growth.

2. Motivation

Values will work inside you to awaken your secret talents. With bravery and confidence, you have it in you to
go ahead and realize your full potential. Inspiring one's self and inspiring others in organizations to campaign
for ethical and right values. Values offer the best encouragement to remain motivated all the time,
irrespective of how de-motivating and overwhelming things are.

3. Underlie Managerial Behavior

The study of values is central to the interpretation of management and organizational behavior, which
underlies managerial behavior's value orientations

4. Determine behavior
Values are fundamental, and define actions within the organization to a large extent. Therefore, through
employee behavior, the manager will introduce improvement in the way desired.

5. Helps in bringing change

Organizations bind through principles. Values are enabled cultural improvement when re-evaluated and
matched with the goals of the organizational structure. This practice has already transformed several
individuals and organizations

6. Determine attitudes

Values form the foundation for understanding behaviors, motivations and beliefs.

7. Promote leadership

Managers are people who exercise their leadership by values'. They can be effective leaders by practicing the
spiritual values in their managing jobs

8. Bring creativity

Managers will remain innovative by examination of many ethical principles in unpredictable and ever-
changing times. Some traditional ideals tend to improve the cognitive capacity resulting in a different way of
understanding those challenges and circumstances.

9. Managing in Borderless

Management is no longer limited to a national entity, but is completely without boundaries. Specific
international governments do not oversee the management activities and decisions. For many "lawless
territories" administrators have a greater responsibility than ever before. Consequently, value-based
management has become a key requirement. Owing to the need for social and ethical standards,
administrators must follow not just rules.

10. Involve in managerial goals

Values are versal since they include task, goal, and adjective selection. The role of planning, coordinating, and
managing people's actions should also be consistent with the principles of the managers.

11. Guide to life, profession, and character

Moral, ethical and professional values determine the character of employees and managers. They guide their
profession and life. They should guide the real character of our lives as we serve our nations. Value can
become the basis for the behavior of its members.

12. Personality development

Managers tend to be involved in cultivating their staff and fellow leaders personalities. Personality is the total
amount of a number of factors. However, the selection of moral and fundamental values is an essential
consideration as values include the right way of thinking, the right motivation and the passion for
improvement.

13. Work ethic

Knowledge, effort, behaviors, attitude, manners of work, interpersonal vision, a commitment to change and
the standard of work generated are important elements of every worker's mentality today. Ethical and
eternal importance places a major role in doing good work. Values may establish a perception that work has
its own intrinsic worth.

The Importance of Workplace Values

The ideals in the workplace are the guiding principles that are most important to you about the way you
work. You use these deeply held values to distinguish between right and wrong ways of working and they
help you make crucial career choices and decisions

Some examples of workplace values include:

 Being accountable.
 Making a difference.
 Focusing on detail.
 Delivering quality
 Being completely honest.
 Keeping promises
 Being reliable.
 Being positive.
 Meeting deadlines.
 Helping others
 Being a great team member
 Respecting company policy and rules, respecting others.
 Showing tolerance
The ideals of the workplace of your company set the tone for the atmosphere of your organization
and they define what your organization cares about as a whole. It is critical that the beliefs of your people
match with those. When this happens, people understand each other, for the right reasons, everybody does
the right things and this shared intention and understanding allows people to develop a better working
relationship.

Alignment of principles supports the organization's main mission as a whole. If beliefs are out of
alignment, individuals are working for different ends, with different motives and different results. It can hurt
relationships with jobs, productivity, job satisfaction, and creative ability

The most important thing to do when interviewing someone is to consider the ideals of his or her
workplace. You should teach people to fill the holes in knowledge, after all, and you can help people gain
experience. But getting people to change their beliefs is very hard; and once they do, they'll be problem
workers."

CHAPTER IV
DECISION MAKING

Learning objectives

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Know and discuss correctly the environmental influence in decision-making.
2. Identify and elucidate appropriately the nine (9) characteristics of a good decision.
3. Recognize and demonstrate precisely the decision-making approaches and techniques.
4. Know and distinguish correctly the decision-making models in criminal justice.
5. Identify appropriately the different traits and values and their essentials in decision-making.
6. Know and discuss comprehensively the cultural influences in decision making.
7. Identify and distinguish the different decision-making models.
8. Know and explain perfectly the effect of culture on decision making.

DESICION-MAKING CONCEPTS
 Decision-making can be seen as a problem-solving process that generates a solution that is
considered be ideal, or at least acceptable. Consequently, it 3a mechanism that can be more or less logical or
atonal and based on overt or implicit knowledge and beefs. In dynamic decision-making processes, implicit
emotion is often used to fill holes (Brockmann,2016). Optically, all, implicit and explicit, of these forms of
brumation are used together in the decision-making process
A significant part of decision-making involves evaluating a finite range of alternatives that are defined
terms of evaluative criteria. So, the challenge would be to rate these alternatives in terms of how appealing
they are to the decision-maker while considering all the criteria at the same time. Another objective may be
to and the best alternative or to assess the relative overall value of each alternative when all the parameters
are simultaneously considered.

The Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) focuses on solving these problems. While very
old, this field of decision-making has drawn attention from many researchers and practitioners, and is still
widely debated as there are many MCDA approaches that can produce very different results when applied to
exactly the same data (Triantaphyllou, 2000).

ENVIRONMENTAL MAKING INFLUENCE IN DECISION

The environment of decision makers will play a role in the decision-making process. A factor affecting
cognitive performance, for example, is environmental certainty (Davidson, 2006).
A complex environment is an environment with great number of potentially different states that time
and go over time (Godfrey-Smith. 2001). Studies conducted at the University of Colorado have shown that
more complex environments associate with higher cognitive performance, suggesting the setting can affect a
decision. One experiment assessed complexity in a space by the amount of small objects and devices present;
less of those items were in a simple environment. The higher measure of environmental uncertainty has
positively improved executive performance, making it harder to think about the situation and make a rational
decision.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DECISION-MAKING (Monahan, 2000)

 Objectives have to be set first.

 Requirements must be graded and placed in order of importance
 We need to build alternate acts.
 The alternatives must be measured against all targets.
 Tentative decision is the option which can accomplish all the objectives.
 The tentative decision is evaluated for more possible consequences.
 The preliminary decision is reviewed for more potential implications,
 Decisive action is taken and further action is taken to avoid any negative effects from being issues and
to continue all processes all over again.
 There are usually followed steps leading to a decision model that could be used to assess an optimal
production schedule

NINE (9) CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DECISION

If you don't know how to handle tension or if the results are less than optimal, decision-making can
be the single-greatest weight on your shoulders. So, how do you know what makes a strong decision? Here
are ne attributes of a positive decision:

1. Decisions positively impact others,

2. Decisions are replicable,
3. Decisions foster opportunity. (Empowers others to act)
4. Decisions include others.
5. Decisions are executable.
6. Decision is systematic.
7. Decisions are accountable,
8. Decisions are pragmatic.
9. Decisions involve self-awareness.

DECISION-MAKING TECHNIQUES
Decision-making techniques can be separated into two broad categories:

1. Group Decision-Making Techniques.

2. Individual Decision-Making Techniques

Individual decision-making techniques can also Aten be applied by a group.

GROUP DECISION MAKING

Also known as "Collaborative Decision Making", is a situation faced when individuals collectively make
a choice from the alternatives before them. The decision is then no longer attributable to any single individual
who is a member of the group This is because the result applies to certain systems of individuals and social
classes such as social power Community decisions often vary from those taken by individuals.

Collaborative decision talking in workplace environment is one of the most effective models for
creating buy in from other stakeholders, building trust and promoting innovation. In keeping with the concept
of cooperation, collective decisions often appear to be more successful than decisions made by a single
person. In this way, such collective agreements have the ability to deliver better net output results than
individuals working alone (Larson, 2010)

Collaborative or collective decision making would often be preferred under normal daily
circumstances and will produce more benefits than individual decision making when there is room for proper
deliberation negotiation and dialogue. This can be achieved using committee, teams, organizations, alliances
or other social collaboration processes. For certain cases, however, this approach may also have
disadvantages. Certain methods of decision making may be better in serious emergencies or crisis situations
because emergency actions can need to be taken quicker, with less time for deliberation.

On the other hand, additional considerations must also be taken into account when evaluating the
appropriateness of a decision-making framework. For instance, the likelihood of group fragmentation may
often also occur, causing certain groups to make more drastic decisions in the direction of individual
inclinations than those of their individual members (Moscovici, 1969).

INDIVIDUAL DECISION-MAKING

In general, any person takes prompt decisions When in a group, keeping any one person responsible for a
wrong decision is not easy. Human decision taking usually saves time, resources, and energy as individuals
make timely and rational choices. Although taking group decision takes a lot of time, money and energy.

DECISION MAKING APPROACHES

We make the majority of the decisions, as individuals. It is important to look at the approaches that
we follow in our individual decision-making in the effort to take more successful decisions.
 As the outcomes of the decisions are not clear, it is necessary to concentrate on how a decision is
made to increase the consistency of the decision. By looking at the approaches to decision-making, we aim to
highlight certain potential for change that can be accomplished regardless of a particular decision strategy-
There are a variety of ways to describe decision making methods but we will find three broad
groupings for our purposes. For certain cases, we all prefer to take actions at one time or another using all of
the methods. Think about which approach will better describe how you make most of your choices, or prefer
making your choices.

1.RATIONAL OR ANALYTICAL APPROACH

 Exemplified by systematic decision-making.
 Defines upfront success factors
 Looks for details and objectively explores how each solution meets each success factor. Decision-
making is organized and decisions can be taken under the assumption of the desired solutions except
for major unforeseeable or unpredictable incidents.
 Consideration of the implications of the final decision

2. INTUITIVE DECISION-MAKING APPROACH

 Relying on emotions and feelings.
 Careful planning is not possible or not desired.
 People will point to a "gut feeling" or "hunch" as the cause for a choice, reflecting that explanation is
not accessible through conscious thought.
3. RANDOM OR CHANCE APPROACH
 In this approach a decision is made on impulse, without thought.
 Flipping a coin or using a "decision wheel" would be representative of employing this approach
 It is sometimes considered a dependent style because this approach can promote denial of
responsibility

2-E R

DECISION MAKING APPROACHES A CONSEQUENCE OF PERSONALITY

Any of our emotional and thought processes can be defined by personality, so it is natural to assume
that our preferred approach to decision making is a feature of our personality. There's ample proof that our
personality develops over time and evolves. This may also imply changes in personality result from our
approach to decision taking that contribute to improvements in our thought processes.

SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT

Rational or Analytics Decision Makers
a) Have ready a decision-making process that you know works. This helps you to jump directly through a
decision-making phase without having in to postpone deciding the steps you will be taking.
b) Gain knowledge of pitfalls and prejudices in decision taking so they can be avoided when making a
decision.

Intuitive Decision Maker

a) Ask or accept broad questions well in advance of a decision. It helps the unconscious mind to work
behind the scenes to provide ideas and suggestions for a decision.
b) Know where and where your intuition is working, and not. Intuition works best in places we have a
great deal of expertise in.
c) Increasing reflection. This makes insight more credible, as experiences are interpreted and applied
with thought to the subconscious that helps to categorize the experience more accurately.
 d) Play games which involve decision-making. Games that simulate life choices provide a low-risk
environment where patterns can be formed to improve intuition

Random or Chance Decision Maker

a) Improve awareness and appreciation. Recognizing positive results as they arise increases the
probability of successful outcomes.
b) Apply know-how. It will increase the basis for understanding good opportunities versus bad ones.
c) Know the risks and the uncertainties. Choosing where the chances are in your favor, is a smart way to
maximize positive results.

SIMILAR DECISION-MAKING

1. GOFER (Mann. L,1980)

FIVE DECISION-MAKING Steps:
1. Goals clarification. Survey values and objectives
2. Options generation: Consider a wide range of alternative actions
3. Facts-finding. Search for information.
4. Consideration of Effects. Weigh the positive and negative consequences of the options
5. Review and implementation. Plan how to review the options and implement them.

2. DECIDE (Guo, K., 2008)

1. Define the problem
2. Establish or Enumerate all the criteria (constraints)
3. Consider or Collect all the alternatives.
4. Identify the best alternative
5. Develop and implement a plan of action
6. Evaluate and monitor the solution and examine feedback when necessary

3. OTHER

1. SEVEN DECISION-MAKING (Brown, P., 2001)

a) Outline the goal and outcome.
a) Gather data
b) Develop alternatives tie, brainstorming).
c) List pros and cons of each alternative
d) Make the decision
e) Immediately take action to implement it.
f) Learn from and reflect on the decision

2. EIGHT STAGES OF MORAL DECISION-MAKING (Pijanowski, J., 2009)

a) Create and nurture the relationships, norms, And procedures that will influence how problems are
understood and communicated. This stage takes place prior to and during a moral dilemma.
b) Recognize that a problem exists.
c) Identify competing explanations for the problem, and evaluate the drivers behind those
interpretations.
d) Sift through various possible actions or responses and determine which is more justifiable.
e) Examine the competing commitments which may distract from a more moral course of action and
then prioritize and commit to moral values over other personal, institutional or social values.
f) Follow through with action that supports the more justified decision.
g) Reflection in action.
 h) Reflection on action.

DECISION MAKING MODELS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE

For criminal justice, decision-making requires more than studying the rules and applying them to
individual cases. Decisions are based on discretion, that is, the exercise of human judgment in order to make
decisions about alternative courses of action.
Professionals in criminal justice have little time to make important decisions which may be the
difference between life and death. While there is no decision-making process that is fool proof training,
conditioning, and practice among criminal justice leadership can help these professionals react more
rationally and strategically in the heat of the moment.

DECISION MAKING CHALLENGES FOR CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROFESSIONALS

Events of over-exposure, which are characterized as unpredictable, erratic, volatile and under
conditions of high stress, impair the capacity of a criminal justice professional to make a reasonable, rational
decision. Criminal justice practitioners will experience a lag period in their decision-making skills during these
events. Many obstacles called psychological prisons may also have a negative impact on the willingness of a
police officer to take decisions.

The Consequences of Making the Wrong Decision

Loss of life.
Departmental or jurisdictional administrative costs.
Negative media attention and public opinion
Demotion in position and/or loss of job.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), family problems and other psychological concerns.

Due to the aforementioned consequences, it is important that criminal justice leadership provide the
training needed to make reliable, ethical decisions in all circumstances.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AN EFFECTIVE DECISION MAKING ON THE JOB

Scenario-based conditioning and preparation are used to prepare criminal justice personnel to take critical
duty-focused decisions. Simulators for police training are constantly dependent on criminal justice parts to
refine the decision-making capabilities of officers as finely as possible. In a built use-of-force scenario, some
simulators also require trainees to experience near-misses or an impact. This will bring a y comprehensive
experience.

In addition to simulator training, there are other tips that criminal justice practitioners may apply to
their decision-making processes, which can save a life.
 To increase the number of options, look at a problem from multiple viewpoints and angles.
 Assess the situation with a view to recognizing threats and non-threats; seek to make rational
decisions about how to respond accordingly.
 Visualize the way situations play out before they act. Challenge assumptions about a situation.
 Seek support and advice from colleagues in circumstances that require it.
 Make choices about the most important information, and seek to commit it to memory.
 Be mindful of and accept the feelings before a conscious move to make rational decisions.
 Practice verbal and nonverbal communication skills with colleagues to communicate information
about how to respond to a situation.

Criminal justice professionals are responsible for their own mental, emotional and physical health
which affect their decision-making capacity. Criminal ice leaders will also respect their team's ongoing mental
and physical decision-making preparation This rigorous preparation makes a huge difference in the
willingness of criminal justice practitioners to take action in both operational and strategic situations.

DECISION MAKING STYLES IN MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

Many people believe that decision making is not a rational option but a product of personality. With
that, leaders must understand that personality cannot stand in the way of critical decision making. Good
leaders will adapt their decision-making strategy to match the demands of various circumstances.
The most influential leaders learn how to Tailor their decision-making style to suit specific
circumstances. Different contexts and situations call for individual management responses, and sometimes
multiple decision-making approaches. Leaders can learn how to make informed choices in a variety of diverse
situations by understanding the different ways of decision-making and being mindful of warning signs.

FOUR STYLES OF DECISION-MAKING

1. DIRECTIVE DECISION-MAKING
Usually a Policy decision-maker sorts out the pros and cons of a situation based on what they already
know. Dec ton-makers in the directive are very rational and have little tolerance for uncertainty Instead of
going to others for more detail, their decisions are rooted in their own intelligence, experience and reasoning.
The upside to this style is that decision-making is fast, ownership is transparent, and no extra communication
is needed. Often, however, directive decisions can be taken impulsively, without all the necessary details.

 When to use Directive Decision-Making

In situations characterized by continuity repeated patterns, and predictable events, this style of
decision-making is fine. For situations where there is straightforward and unchallenged cause-and-effect
relationship, reserve guideline decisions; in other words, a correct response exists and is collectively
understood
 A leader's role in Directive Decision-Making
A leader has to sense the situation, categorize it as a scenario that calls for a clear decision and an
appropriate response. Ensure best practices are in place for ongoing procedures. Remember ask yourself
when classifying the situation: Is this my decision to make, and do I have all the details necessary to make this
decision? Where appropriate, delegate but remember to communicate in a simple, direct language. It's the
role of a leader to realize when there's no need for intensive interpersonal contact and to make clear
decisions based on the knowledge they already have.

 Signs you need to use a different approach

Once operations run smoothly it is easy for leaders to become victims of complacency. Leaders must
be mindful of the changing complexity of specific situations. When you start making complicated jobs simply
by using simple decisions, you need to change your approach. Understand that changing circumstances
demand changing styles of decision making.

2. ANALYTIC DECISION-MAKING
Before taking action, strategic decision-makers analyze a lot of details. Analytic leaders, for example,
rely on direct observation, data, and facts to back their decisions. Like decision-makers in the guideline,
however, an analytic decision maker may seek information and advice from others to affirm or refuse their
own expertise. These decision-makers have ahigh degree of uncertainty tolerance and are extremely
adaptable but they prefer to monitor certain aspects of the decision process. This style is a well-rounded
decision-making strategy that can be time-consuming.

 When to use Analytic Decision-Making

In situations where there may be more than one right answer, analytical decisions are helpful. Use
this decision-making style to solve issues where the relationship between cause and effect is discoverable but
not immediately apparent. You use this approach mainly to evaluate multiple options or approaches, and to
use fact-based management to direct effective action.

 A leader's role in Analytic Decision-Making

Unlike decision-making directives, before agreeing on a course of action, leaders must evaluate all the
details they have available. Assembling a team of experts to assist with analytical decisions is advantageous,
Leaders must therefore freely consider contradictory advice and ideas. At the same time, to make the most of
the analytic decision-making process, leaders need to consider non-expert perspectives.

 Signs you need to use a different approach

Decision paralysis is the most important warning sign of overuse of the logical decision form. When
you find yourself living in a state of over-analysis or over thinking without taking an action or making a
decision, this strategy must be removed.

3. CONCEPTUAL DECISION-MAKING
Compared with the guideline or empirical approaches, the relational decision-making process takes a
more collaborative approach. Conceptual decision-makers promote innovative thinking and teamwork and
take a wide variety of viewpoints into consideration. These decision-makers are based on success and want to
look well into the future when it makes critical decisions.

 When to use Conceptual Decision-Making

Apply logical decision taking too issues involving several conflicting ideas. This decision style is ideally
suited to circumstances that are marked by unpredictability and tailored to creative and inventive
approaches. You see no immediate solution in these situation but trends emerge over time. The use of a
conceptual decision-making style accounts for long- planning and the unknown variables.

A leader's role in Conceptual Decision-Making

To be successful in analytical decision taking, leader need to create an atmosphere that fosters experiments
designed to uncover instructive trends e time. Leaders will need to make a point of growing ordination and
interaction. Build groups of people who can share new ideas and assist with difficult decision king and
execution. Patience is the key and leader need to take the time to reflect.

Signs you need to use a different approach

If the decision you need to make includes situation that needs structure and established comes, a conceptual
approach should not be employed. Often, decisions that need to determine immediate consequences and
situations in which there is no space for error are not subject to logical decision taking.

4. BEHAVIORAL DECISION-MAKING
Behavioral decision-seek to make sure that everyone is working together well. Like the conceptual
ephod, behavioral decision-is group-oriented; however, the community is given the choices available to them,
rather than brainstorming alternative solutions. From there the community will discuss each choice's pros and
cons. This decision-making method takes into account several different viewpoints and views in the process.

When to use behavioral decision-making

The behavioral style requires proactive communication, as with conceptual decision-making This style
takes a more introspective approach by discussing solutions that have worked in the past, rather than
attempting to disclose new patterns.

A leader's role in behavioral decision-making

 Leaders in this style of decision-making need to open lines of communication. Again, build groups of
people who can contribute their opinions and promote democratic debate. Don't only impose a course of
action when using the behavioral decision-making method. Consider what decision generates the most unity
within the company, instead.
2-E END DISCUSSION
Signs you need to use a different approach
If group discussion sessions cannot reach a resolution, a new strategy will need to be considered
Conversely, if new ideas never come up or no one questions views, then behavioral decision-making might
not be the best choice. Although this style of decision works for the good of the community as a whole, a
clear and definitive leader is required to get things done. Look for ways and experiments where possible to
push people to think outside of what's familiar.

TRAITS AND VALUES IN DECISION-MAKING

Decision-Making and Personality Traits

Personality characteristics have a much greater role to play in decision taking than you would expect.
Some people are indecisive, because of their very existence. They find most decisions quite difficult to take.
These people I also find very committed to the decision when they do. I am sure you know this kind people.
Others make choices way too easily without Taking into account all the consequences. Those are ore
impulsive people.

What you respond specifically to the environment will influence your decision-making process,
making sur decision-making process special as well. There are many ways in which we can explain how we
respond the environment, but one easy way is to suggest we respond from the brain, heart or gut. Your
personality i determine whether you approach decisions in a national or emotional manner.

A successful decision is made with the alignment of the three eyes, heart and gut or, as defined in the
holistic decision-making strategy, when the three are finally in harmony.

It's all tough decisions. There is no way this gets out. However, by getting an approach and knowing
how sur attitude influences our decision we can make them a little easier.

HOW TO FACTOR YOUR PERSONALITY INTO YOUR DECISION-MAKING

As much logic as you bring in your choices, ne way you make a choice will always affect your
personality. Individual personality is an unavoidable consideration combined with maturity and experience
but constructive self-awareness can help you weigh How much your intuition impacts your decision-making
process.
What is interesting about the choices is that they are all yours. No other being on earth will make
precisely the same choices that you do, using the same exact procedure. It's because personality keeps every
decision you make updated. In conjunction with your degree of maturity, experience and ego qualities the
way you cope with stress and retain stability), temperament plays a major role in the choices you make and
the process you make them by

How Your Brain Makes Decisions

Decision-making is multiply determined, meaning that there are multiple forces at work
simultaneously Your personality characteristics and influences blend with your beliefs, your desires and your
inspiration as you navigate the decision-making process every day. Your "style" informs whether you
rationally or emotionally, impulsively or cautiously, spontaneously or deliberately approach decisions. If you
have bold and adventurous components to your personality, you will find that you make decisions easily,
even impulsively, unlike your rational equivalent, who may need to consider every angle before weighing in.
 Any of us make decisions about following a certain internal norm, ethics or meaning. Others make
choices minimize anxiety or increase self-esteem and/or the likelihood of closeness or distance from others.
For those strongly motivated by pleasure-seeking and immediate gratification, decision-making is frequently
deficient in logical thought, and is instead impulsive instead.
Personality tests provide a self-discovery process involving very useful applications. The more you are
conscious of yourself, the more consistently your opportunities, preferences, and perceptions increase. Not
only does self-awareness unblock us, but it also opens up possibilities that would otherwise remain
unconscious or unknown Let us look at the circumstances of productivity, for instance. Many people appear
to under-function themselves as their innovative thinking is motivated by working on an engaging team.
Being aware of what we need as individuals takes us out of marking ourselves as good or poor, and
helps s to consider what we need for our highest functioning vel It may be direction, structure, space,
flexibility, relation, humor- all depending on personality understanding. Knowing what's important, how we
earn best, what and how are most aligned with our personalities makes informed choices that can improve
our quality of life,

CULTURAL INFLUENCES IN DECISION MAKING

Decision-making is a mental process that is an important part of preparing and taking action in a
variety of ways and at a wide range of levels, including, though not limited to, budget preparation,
educational preparing, policy making, and career building. Such events include people all over the world. The
underlying cross-cultural disparities in decision-making can be a major contributing factor in cross-cultural
communication, negotiation, and conflict resolution performance.

DECISION-MAKING MODELS
Based on the perspective the researcher takes on the role that culture plays in decision-making, one
of the following models is used to think about and forecast behavioral trends in decision-making in a given
community:

1. The Universal Model. Typically, the scientists who use this model believe there is only a small
difference in how people from different cultures make their choices. The findings obtained from one
party are usually related to humans.
2. The Dispositional Model. The adherents of the dispositional view recognize that decision-making
differences are cross-cultural and support the cause of cross-cultural study. They assume that the
variations found in the studies reflect the omnipresence of cultural inclinations in individual minds,
and are expected to appear in all situations and situational contexts.
3. The Dynamic Model. Adherents of this view often consider cross-cultural variations. They view
cultural knowledge not as a monolithic construct that is continuously present, but as a collection of
discrete knowledge that is operational as a function of the situation. We also promote the
development and testing of complex models reflecting the processes by which culture influences
decision-makers.

THE EFFECT OF CULTURE ON DECISION MAKING

Cross Cultural Variances

Western theories are known for the systematic use of logical analysis, a methodical approach to
solving complex problems by splitting them into their constituent parts and defining the patterns of cause and
effect of the constituent parts; While oriental philosophies are well known for their focus on holism-the
notion that the properties of a given system cannot be defined or clarified solely by the parts of its
components, but the system as a whole decides how the components behave.
The individuals from high- and low context cultures also differ in their communication styles. The
former prefers the less direct style, and thereby they are less explicit in stating their feelings, desires, and
intentions when communicating verbally. The latter, on the contrary, are less likely to camouflage their
message and conceal their intentions.
The culturally normative communication style also enhances people's responsiveness to the
transmitted message and influences the perception of be communicator, It influences hiring decisions. HR
agents are more likely to recruit direct, assertive, and even aggressive applicants in cultures of low
background, where's the reverse trend is found in cultures of high background.

THE CONDITIONS ACCELERATING OR HINDERING THE SALIENCE OF CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN

DECISION MAKING

1. Priming
The automatic cognition literature indicates behavior is influenced by exposure to elements of the
social environment in a manner that occurs below consciousness or purpose. We know from the common
schematic representations of a certain society, the stereotyped behaviors that later affect our decisions.
When a person is prepared with a definition, often through an implied order to think about it, it stimulates all
forms of relevant knowledge and affects decision taking.

2. Time pressure
Cultural and personal information is accessible to all through cultures. Cultural knowledge appears to
represent a broad sampling of the events in life, whereas personal knowledge is more based on individual or
atypical experiences. The other difference between their accessibility is the cultural and personal awareness.
Cultural community participants are prepared day after day with a collection of values, behaviors, and
behavioral habits that contribute to building up and Storing cultural awareness. Cultural awareness is
therefore very available even under a heavy cognitive load of work. Personal awareness is a record of a
particular event and is not replicated in too many ways. at is why a concerted attempt is required to access it,
which takes more time and effort.
Independent individuals are expected to react better to information based on promotion, whereas
individuals with interdependent self-construction are assumed to respond better to information based on
prevention.

3. Peer Pressure

Individuals in collectivist societies are less likely to behave when they do not encounter social
pressure according to their cultural values. According to what collectivist culture dictates, Japanese and
Chinese students are more likely to decide, compared to American and Italian students, whether they will eat
in fast-subject to the norms adopted in their societies, and less likely to make choices dependent on their
personal attitudes. This peculiarity, however, is much more salient when they make plans for eating with their
friends, and less salient when they decide to eat alone in a fast-food restaurant. The probability that they will
behave based on their attitudes increases dramatically according to the above situation.

The Pressure to Provide Reasons for The Decision

When individuals need to offer reasons for their decision, cultural awareness is recruited. The need to
include explanations evokes an information-processing approach focused on top-down application of rules
and standards, rather than bottom-up processing based on personal experience. This can be clarified with the
aid of the supposition that when asked to offer reasons, individuals feel the need to adapt because they do
not want to be the outsiders. They feel more able to rely on their own experience when they are not asked to
justify their choices.
 Chinese have been shown to have a slightly lower propensity to compromise, which was previously
considered to be one of their signature characteristics when they were not asked to give reasons for their
purchase decisions. On the contrary, Americans are more likely to compromise when it is not their duty to
provide reasons for their decision.

The Individual Tolerance for Cognitive Ambiguity

Widespread common cultural awareness offers validated context for individuals to view potentially
ambiguous interactions, providing their followers with sense of epistemic protection and protecting against
ambiguity and unpredictability. The degree to which reasons of all cultures need firm answers varies. It is und
that the people with high tolerance for ambiguity are less likely to act with the consent of their society.

The universal effects of situational demands on decision mode selection across cultures

Culture shapes the prevalence of cultural factors nature of decisions, motivations for decisions, and
situational demands and affordances-and shapes how functional factors are converted into decision-making
modes-modes of measurement, acknowledgement, aw, position, and impact-based decision making.
Nevertheless, societies do have a variety of common tendencies. For example, when action is called for,
members both independent and interdependent social orientations prefer to employ position-, rule-or case-
based decision-making, as they are far more open and requires less cognitive load, whereas calculation-based
ode would be less frequent in both orientations for relationship decisions.

CHAPTER V

UNDERSTANDING ADMINISTRATION

Learning objectives

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Define correctly what administration is.
2. Enumerate and discuss perfectly the basic functions of administration.
3. Know and excellently demonstrate the principles of administration by Henri Fayol.
4. Distinguish faultlessly administration from management.
5. Describe fully the qualities of an administrator and tell what makes a good administrator.
6. Articulate fluently the skills of an effective administrator.
7. Enumerate correctly and argue fluently three basic developable skills of administrators.
8. Comprehend and demonstrate completely the relative importance of technical, human and conceptual
skills.
9. Describe correctly the administrative challenges and how to handle typical administrative challenges.
10. Report perfectly the Administrative theory by Henri Fayol.

What is Administration?
Administration refers to actions which are concerned with coordinating and managing an
organizations or organization's work. There is also administration of government, charities, and many her
forms of organizations.
"Administration" is the performance of tasks needed to operate an agency for general purposes. can
have a function of course, or of policy. For example, as companies change their plan, it is the duty of
administrative personnel to make the appropriate communication adjustments to end the previous policy and
begin enforcing the new direction

Typically, the administration is defined by the person representing the organization appointed or
elected to any position and is responsible for the administrative functions and policy decisions of the
organization they are appointed or elected to manage.

Administration is essential to ensure that all departments within the organization work effectively. It
the link between the managers and the workers. This provides the workforce with inspiration and helps them
understand the organization's goals.

The Basic Functions of Administration

a. Planning
b. Organizing
c. Directing
d. Controlling

Principles of Administration (Henri Fayol

1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Unity of Command
4. Hierarchical transmission of orders
5. Separation of powers, authority, subordination, responsibility and control
6. Centralization
7. Discipline and Order
8. Meetings and reports
9. Accounting

Difference between Administration and Management

ADMININSTRATION
Is an act of administering the whole organization by a
group of people.
Administration is a high-level activity.
Policy formulation is performed by the
administration.
Functions include legislation and determination
Administration takes all the important decisions of
the organization
MANAGEMENT
Is a systematic way of managing people and things
within the organization
Is an activity of business and functional level.
Focuses on policy implementation
Functions of management are executive and
governing
Management makes decisions under the boundaries
set by the administration.
Administration role is decisive in nature.
Administration is concerned with framing policies and
setting objectives
Administrator is responsible for the administration of
the organization
Management plays an executive role in the
organization.
Management is all about plans and actions
The manager looks after the management of the
organization

Administration focuses on making the best possible Management focuses on managing people and their
utilization of the organization's resources. work.

WHAT IS AN ADMINISTRATOR?
An administrator is a person who makes sure an organization is running at full capacity. Their
particular les depend on the form of company, organization, agency they operate in. An administrator may
someone assigned to oversee an organization for its airs.

Administrator as an Organizer
Administrators formulate short and long-term strategies that set specific priorities and objectives. To
it another way, they strive to get the organization here it needs to go. To ensure that these plans work,
planner must above all understand how, where, and ho of the program as a whole. The functions of the
administrators are essential to the organization they operate. Their roles usually involve a wide variety of ties
including filing and administration.

Clerical Level Administrator

An administrator may be someone in charge of the smooth and effective operation of a single office.
Their responsibilities include handling all the paperwork and will typically report inside the office to all
individuals. Their role is likely to depend upon what the duties of e other colleagues are.

It is the responsibility of most office administrators manage or distribute all posts within an office.
Mail duties can include opening all letters that come in, d ensuring that they meet the people concerned. In
addition, they are responsible for all of the outgoing post. They are also going to plan and arrange filing for e
court. Filing requires not only fetching the correct documents but also returning them after they have been
ed by citizens.

For some organizations the administrator is the port-of-call for office communications. They then end
the emails to the appropriate people in the same May they do with the message.

WHAT MAKES A GOOD ADMINISTRATOR?

To be a good administrator, a person must be:

a. deadline-driven and possess a high level of organization
b. capable of balancing multiple tasks simultaneously and delegate when appropriate.
C. capable of planning and have the ability to think strategically
d. an excellent communicator, both in person and in writing
e. always looking for opportunities to improve productivity in the organization.

SKILLS OF AN EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATOR

Ability implies a capacity that can be created, not inherently inborn, and that is expressed in output,
not mere potential. Therefore, the main ability requirement must be successful action under various
circumstances.
 Although good administrators are widely recognized for their selection and training, there is
surprisingly little agreement among executives or educators on what makes a good administrator. This
subject indicates what could be a more useful approach to manager selection and growth. This is not based
on what good executives are but on what they do.

Three Basic Developable Skills of Administrators

It is assumed here that an administrator is one who:

a. directs the activities of other persons and
b. undertakes the responsibility for achieving certain objectives through these efforts.

Within this definition, successful administration appears to rest on three basic skills, which we will call:
1. Technical
2. Human and
3. Conceptual

Asserting that these skills are not interrelated be impractical, but there may be real value in eating each
person separately and improving them independently.

Technical Skill
Technical skills require an understanding and expertise of a particular form of operation, particularly
ne involving methods, processes, procedures, or techniques. It requires advanced expertise, analytical skill
within that field, and facility in the use of the particular discipline's methods and techniques.

Technical skills are perhaps the most common of the three skills mentioned in this topic because they
are the most practical and because they are the skills needed by the largest number of people in our age of
specialization. Most of our on - the job and vocational training programs focus largely on developing this
specialized technical skill.

Human Skill
The person with highly developed human ability aware of his own emotions, opinions and
perceptions about other individuals and groups; he can see the importance and weaknesses of those feelings.
Through acknowledging the presence of various perspectives, pinions, and values than his own, he is able to
consider at other people actually mean through their language actions. He is similarly skillful at expressing
what he means by his actions to others in their own ways.

Human skill is the ability of the executive to function efficiently as a member of the community and
create cooperative effort within the team which he leads. Since technical ability is primarily about working
with things, processes or physical objects, human ability is primarily about working with people. This ability is
reflected in the manner in which the person perceives and understands the views of his superiors, equals and
subordinates, and the manner in which he subsequently acts.

The administrator works to build an environment of acceptance and protection in which subordinates
feel free to express them without fear of censorship or criticism, by enabling them to engage in the
preparation and implementation of the issues that affect them directly. He is sufficiently responsive to other
people's needs and motives in his organization to be able to judge the likely reactions and consequences of
different courses of action that he may pursue. Knowing this awareness, he is able and eager to behave in a
manner that will takes into an account the views of others.
 Human performance cannot be a "sometime thing." Strategies cannot be implemented randomly, nor
can personality characteristics be placed on or removed as overcoats. As all that an executive says and does
has an impact on his colleagues, he must demonstrate in his true self, in time. Therefore, to be successful, thi
s ability must be established naturally and demonstrated unconsciously, as well as consistently, in every
action of the person. This needs to become an important part of his whole being

1. Conceptual skill
This competence is the unifying, organizing component of the administrative process, and of
overwhelming ultimate significance because the overall performance of an organization depends on the
strategic capacity of its executives to formulate and execute policy decisions

Conceptual competence requires the ability to see the organization as a whole; it includes
understanding how the organization's different functions depend on one another, and how all the others are
influenced by changes in any component. The administrator will, then to behave in a way that promotes the
general rest of the entire organization, understanding these relationships and perceiving the significant
elements of each case. Consequently, the effectiveness of any decision depends on the analytical ability of
the decision makers and those who bring it into effect.

Not only does the successful coordination of the various parts of the operation depend on the
analytical abilities of the concerned managers, but the entire future course and tone of the organization also
depends. The attitudes of a top executive color the entire character of the response of the organization and
decide the "personality" that distinguishes the ways one organization does its services from the ways of
another. Those attitudes reflect the analytical capacity of the administrator.
2-E End
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL, HUMAN AND CONCEPTUAL SKILLS

We may recognize that analytical ability represents understanding of the organization's technological
as well as human aspects in a very real sense. However, the definition of skill as the ability to turn information
into practice will allow one to differentiate between the three skills of conducting the technical tasks
(technical skills), knowing and motivating individuals and groups (human skills) and organizing and combining
all organization's tasks and objectives towards a common purpose (conceptual skills).

The separation of effective administration into three core competencies is mainly useful for
theoretical purposes. Both skills are so closely interrelated in practice that it is hard to decide where one ends
and where another starts. Nevertheless, just because the skills are interrelated does not mean that looking at
them separately or varying their importance does not give us any benefit.

At Lower Levels
Technical expertise is responsible for many of modern organizations and enterprise's great advances
Effective activity is indispensable. Even at the lower levels of government it is of utmost importance. When
the administrator ventures farther away from the actual physical activity, this need for technological
expertise is less important, given that he has professional subordinates and can help them solve their own
problems.

At the top, technological abilities may be almost non-existent, and if his interpersonal and analytical abilities
are highly established the executive will still be able to work effectively.

Example:
The subordinate officer was called on in one large police organization to replace the Chief of Police,
who had been unexpectedly struck with a serious illness. The subordinate officer did not have any prior
managerial experience but he had been with the department for more than 20 years and had intimate
knowledge of many of the main police personnel. He was able to devote himself to managing the various
functions by setting up an advisory committee, and by delegating an unprecedented amount of authority to
his department heads. Through this he built a highly productive team. The result was greater efficiency, and
morale higher than the organization had ever experienced before Management had worked out that the
willingness of this man to deal with people was more important than his lack of experience in management,
and the risk paid off.

At Every Level
Human skill, the skill to collaborate with others, is important for successful management at all levels.
A current research study has shown that human capacity the supervisory level is of greatest importance,
finding out that the supervisor's chief role as an administrator is to attain the cooperation of people in the
working group.

Another study supports this finding and applies to the middle-management community, adding that main
concern of the administrator is to promote operation within the organization. And yet another sport,
specifically dealing with top management, highlights the need for executives at that stage to be self-aware
and sensitive to human relationships. These results may appear to suggest that human ability at any stage is
of great importance, but note the difference in focus.

Human ability appears to be the most important at lower levels, where there is the largest number of direct
communications between administrators and subordinates. When we go higher and higher in the
administrative echelons, the number and duration of such personal encounters decreases, and the need for
human skills decreases in comparison, but not necessarily absolute. Around the same time, conceptual skill
becomes even more relevant with the need for strategic decisions and wide-ranging action. The human
capacity to interact with individuals then is inferior to the mental ability to incorporate group desires and
behaviors into an overall perspective.

At the Top Level

As demonstrated in the preceding article, analytical capacity is increasingly important in more accountable
executive roles where its effects are maximized and easiest to observe. Nevertheless, recent research results
lead to the conclusion that this analytical capacity is the most essential attribute of all at the highest level of
administration. As the president of Bridgeport Brass Company Herman W. Steinkraus said:
"One of the most important lessons which I learned on this job (the presidency) is the importance of
coordinating the various departments into an effective team, and, secondly, to recognize the shifting
emphasis from time to time of the relative importance of various departments to the business."

It would seem, then, that the greatest need for technological and human skills is at the lower levels of
administrative responsibility. Technical skills at higher levels are becoming increasingly less important as the
need for analytical skills is rapidly growing, Conceptual skills are the most essential skill for effective
management at the highest level of an organization. A chief executive can lack technological or human skills,
and be successful if he has subordinates with strong skills in those areas. But if its conceptual skill is poor, it
may jeopardize the performance of the entire organization. This three-skill approach makes it possible to test
trait gun and replaces it with procedures that evaluate the capacity of a man to deal with the real problems
and circumstances that he will face on his job. These procedures are the same for selection and for measuring
growth, indicating what a man can do in specific situations.

Developing the Skills

This approach indicates that executives should not be recruited on the basis of their apparent possession of a
variety of habits, attributes or personalities, but on the basis of possessing the necessary skills for the
particular degree of responsibility involved.

Many people have argued for years that the capacity to lead is innate in those individuals chosen. We're
thinking about "born leaders," and "born administrators." It's definitely true that certain men, inherently or
innately, have greater aptitude or ability in certain skills. But studies in psychology and physiology will also
suggest, first, that those with good skills and abilities can enhance their ability through practice and
preparation, and second, that even those without natural talent can boost their performance and overall
quality.

Administrative competence conception suggests we will expect to boost our administrative efficiency and old
better administrators for the future. This definition ability means learning by doing. Different people learn
various ways, but skills are built by practice and rough linked learning to the personal experience and context
of their own. If done well, training in these basic administrative skills will improve executive skills more safely
and faster than through unorganized practice.

Technical Skill

Creation of technical skills has been attracting tremendous attention from industry and educational
institutions for many years, and much progress has been made. Strong grounding in the individual specialty's
values, systems, and procedures, combined with real practice and experience through which an person is
supervised and encouraged by a superior, appears to be most successful.

Human Skill

Nevertheless, human ability was much less known and systematic progress has only recently been
made in improving it. Today through organizations and experts are following several different approaches to
the development of human skills.
Many of these methods find their application in applied psychology," "human engineering, and a host
of other forms that involve professional technicians to support the businessman with his human problems,
However, as a practical matter, the executive must develop his own interpersonal skills, instead of relying on
others' advice. To be effective, he must develop his own personal point of view toward human activity, so
that he will:

a. recognized the feelings and sentiments which he brings to a situation;

b. have an attitude about his own experiences which will enable him to re-evaluate and learn from them;
c. develop ability in understanding what others by their actions and words are trying to communicate to him;
and
d. develop ability in successfully communicating his ideas and attitudes to others.

Some individuals may build the human capacity without formalized training. Others can be supported
individually by their immediate supervisors as an integral part of the later mentioned "coaching" method. This
assist obviously depends on the degree to which the superior possesses human capacity for performance.

The use of case issues combined with impromptu role-playing can be very useful for larger groups. This
training can be formally or informally defined, but requires a professional instructor and a sequence of
activities coordinated. It provides an approximation to fact as well as can be given on an ongoing basis in the
classroom and creates an opportunity for critical reflection not always encountered in actual practice. An
significant part of the process is self-examining the trainee's own principles and values which that enable him
to develop more useful attitudes about himself and others. Hopefully with the shift in mindset, some
successful abilities can also come in solving human problems.

A series of analyzes of detailed accounts of real scenarios requiring administrative action were also evaluated
in the classroom, within acceptable limits, along with a variety of role-playing opportunities where the
participant is expected to execute the specifics of the action he has suggested. In this way an offender can be
tested for understanding the overall situation and his own personal capacity to do something about it.
the battery

On the job a superior should be given regular opportunities to evaluate the ability of an individual to work
efficiently with others. They can seem extremely subjective judgments and rely on the rater's human skills for
validity,

Conceptual Skill

Conceptual ability was not generally understood, as was human abilities. A variety of methods have been
attempted, with varying results, to help improve this skill. Some of the best outcomes were often obtained by
superior "coaching" of subordinates. One way a superior can support his subordinate "coach" is by assigning a
specific task, and then by asking for feedback or thoughts instead of providing answers if the subordinate
needs assistance.

Benjamin F. Fairless, chairman of the board of the United States Steel Corporation, described his coaching
activities:

"When one of my vice presidents or the head of one of our operating companies comes to me for
instructions, I generally counter by asking him questions. First thing I know, he has told me how. to solve the
problem himself."

It is, of course, an ideal and completely normal administrative training technique and relates to the growth of
technological and human skills as well as analytical skills. His success, however, will ultimately be dependent
on the superior's skill and willingness to support the subordinate.

Another excellent way of improving analytical ability is through swapping jobs, i.e. through shifting promising
young men through different work functions but at the same level of responsibility. It practically gives the
man the ability to "be in the other fellow's shoes." Conceptual skills were also tested with sonable
effectiveness in the classroom by providing a set of comprehensive explanations of real, complex situations.
In these, the person being examined is asked to formulate a course of action that reacts to the fundamental
forces operating in each situation and that considers the effects of this action on the various roles and parts
of the company and its overall environment.

On the job, the alert supervisor should consider regular opportunities to observe the degree to which the
employee is able to respond to the other organization or organization's roles and operations,

Unlike physical intelligence, intellectual capacity

must also become a normal part of executive make-up. Different approaches for cultivating various
individuals can be suggested by reason of their experiences, behaviors, and experience. For each case,
however, the approach should be chosen which will allow the executive to develop his own personal ability to
envision the organization as a whole and to organize and incorporate its various parts.
ADMINISTRATIVE CHALLENGES

Administrative professionals are the organization leaders who keep operations running smoothly. Therefore,
losing a member of the administrative staff or witnessing unexpected changes in workload will pose tough
administrative challenges.

HOW TO HANDLE TYPICAL CHALLENGES ADMINISTRATIVE

1. Vacations
Once people get a chance to relax and refresh, productivity and work satisfaction increase. Yet
worker absences may create vacancies that can spread out too far to cover other workers. Bringing
temporary workers to bridge those gaps helps maintain smooth running of things. While the idea of getting a
temporary professional up to speed might seem like an additional administrative challenge alongside the
vacancy staffing Many experienced workers want to make a career out of at work because they might not be
able to take time off when they need a full-time job.

2. Leaves of Absence

As Chief Executive, when an individual needs to take time off for maternity or paternity leave, extended
illness or other personal matters, you are compassionate and supportive. Even, it can leave you scratching
without a star player in your line-up.

Covering an absence leave can seem overwhelming, but specialized staffing agencies may help you solve
those administrative challenges. Organizations should pre-evaluate applicants who are willing to fill in before
the full-time employee returns for a few weeks or several months. In fact, working with a temporary long-
term candidate provides you with a fantastic opportunity to evaluate his or her on-the-job success in the
event that the incumbent will not return, or you choose to fill a similar role in the future.

3. Busy Seasons and Special Projects

When you encounter seasonal peaks or land a special project at your company or organization, bringing in
part-time employees will help alleviate core working people at these instances. Specialized recruiting firm will
recommend applicants who completed similar tasks and have the skill set you need to fill out the team on a
project-based basis.

4. The Unexpected Loss of an Employee or Personnel

to get a handle on in-progress work concurrently and If an employee quits suddenly, you will be saddled find
a replacement-perhaps with as little as two weeks' notice. In addition to recruiting skilled applicants looking
for temporary-to-full-time jobs, a professional staffing agency will even have applicants ready to meet you the
very next day. This quick turnover can also be your outgoing employee time to help with your new be
onboard. A company or organization may decide to revamp the job, restructure the department or merge
positions upon the leave of an employee or staff.

Administrative Theory (Henri Fayol)

Henri Fayol's developed the administrative philosophy is also known as 14 management principles. Henri
Fayol was born into a French family in the year 1841. He was a prolific writer on technological, science, and
management matters. The Financial and General Management' was his most excellent writing. He named to a
Mining firm as an engineer. By 1888 he had risen to the company's position of Managing Director. He retired
from the Executive position in 1918. He was the company's managing director until his death. Henri Fayol was
an accomplished management practitioner.

The Fourteen Managerial Concepts are:

1. Division of Work: This principle the same as Adam Smith's Division of labor.
2. Authority: Manager must be able to give the order. Authority gives this right.
3. Discipline: Employees must obey and respect the rules and regulations which governs the organization.
4. Unity of Command: Every employee should receive order or direction from only one immediate superior
5. Unity of Direction: Each group of the organization should be direction by one manager using one plan
6. Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest: The management must see that the aims of
the businesses are always supreme.
7. Remuneration of Personnel: The labors must be paid a reasonable salary for their work.
8. Centralization: The process of transforming assigning decision making authority to a higher level of an
organizational hierarchy, it is centralization that should follow this.
9. Scalar Chain: Line of authority from top management to the lower ranks represents the hierarchy or scalar
chain.
10. Order: people and materials should be in the right place at the right time.
11. Equity: In running a business, a combination of kindness and justice is need.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel: All staffs work is well if job safety and career improvement are
guarantees to the team.
13. Initiative: Allowing all personnel to show their initiative in some way is a source of stretch for the
organization.
14. Esprit de Corps: Promoting team spirit will build unity and harmony within the organization.

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