5.3. Graphical Analysis of Heat Penetration Data 151 deteriorates with repeated use. Tong and Lenz (1993). Have determined the dielectric properties of bentonite pastes at different temperatures. For studying convection, a wide range of materials have been used: water, solu- tions of ethylene glycol, sugar solution, oils with thermal properties independent of temperature and various solutions of known viscosity. For conduction heating a range of suspensions, including agar, and starch-based materials are available. More recently, silicone elastomers (Dow Coming Lid., Barry, South Glamorgan) have been used, e.g. Sylgard 170 and 184; although these are expensive materials, they give very reproducible results when used for simulating conduction-heating packs. The thermal diffusivity is, however, some- what lower than that of water and water-based food products: 1.02 x 10-7m? s~! compared with 1.4-1.6 x 10~7m? s~! (Bown et al. 1985). The thermal diffusivities for some simulants are given in Table 2.2. 5.3. Graphical Analysis of Heat Penetration Data 5.3.1. The Linear Plot ‘The simplest method of plotting the results of a heat penetration experiment is to use linear graph paper. Figure 5.1 shows a typical heating and cooling curve, Retort temperature ie mp Product temperature measured at the slowest ‘haating point Temperature I temperature of product Time FIGURE 5.1. Typical temperature profile for steam heating of canned foods in a batch retort.152 5, Heat Penetration in Packaged Foods with the retort temperature profile and the corresponding temperature measured at the critical point. This type of plot is useful for observing the come-up of the retort and for converting the temperatures to a lethality curve for determining the Fo-value. 2. The Semi-Logarithmic Plot If the temperature-time results from a heat penetration experiment are plotted on multi-cycle logarithmic-ordinary graph paper, itis possible to construct a straight line through the points. The data for conduction-heating products usually have a lag period before linear heating is achieved, represented by a curved portion to the graph. The extent of this depends on the external heat-transfer coefficient and tends to increase in curvilinearity with increasingly slower heating media or thicker packaging material. The data for convection-heating packs often follow a slightly sigmoidal pattern, and are usually less uniform than those for conduction heating products. Three methods of representing the results are in common use. The first is log(Tr — T) v. time ¢ (Figure 5.2). When the logarithm of the temperature dif- ference between the retort {emperature and the critical point temperature, known as the temperature deficit, (Te — 7), is plotted against the time, then a plot is obtained with curvilinear and linear portions with negative slope. When the deficit is greater than one then three-cycle logarithmic paper is satisfactory; however, when the deficit is less than one four cycles will be required. This method is mainly used in theoretical work. The second method is logl(Te — T)/(Tr ~ To)] v. time ¢ (Figure 5.3), where (Tr —T)/(Tp — To) is the reduced temperature and Tp the initial temperature of the food in the can; in this case a graph similar to Figure 5.2 is obtained. This method is mainly used in theoretical work. ‘The third method is log 7 v. ¢ (Figure 5.4). If the logarithmic scale is arranged to run in the opposite direction to the previous two (inverted scale), and the top line of the graph is numbered 1° below the retort heating temperature, the next line is numbered 2° below, and so forth, then a linear plot with positive slope is obtained. Using this method the lines are numbered with the actual temperatures and no conversion is necessary. ‘The cooling curves may be represented in a similar manner, 5.3 A straight line can be obtained from the log temperature-time or semi-log plots by drawing the asymptote to the curve (Olson & Jackson 1942; Ball & Olson 1957). ‘The equation of this line is then fully defined by its intercept and slope. The intercept is obtained by extrapolating the asymptotic line to the axi defining a temperature T4 such that 3. Analysis of Heat Penetration Graphs and Tr — Ta = j(Tr- Ta) (S.1)5.3. Graphical Analysis of Heat Penetration Data 153 Ta-T (°C) L 1 1 L 1 ° 0 2 go 40 50 Time (min) FIGURE 5.2. Temperature deficit plot. or Tr-Ts Tot (62) i where j is known as the lag factor, since it measures the lag in establishing a uniform heating rate; it is also designated j, to represent the heating part of the process, and j, is the corresponding value for cooling. Part of the lag is due to the slow come-up of the retort, and this is accounted for by determining a new zero time for the process. Ball and Olson (1957) used 58% of the come-up time as making a useful contribution to the process and this is widely accepted. It corresponds to adding 42% of the come-up time (o process time at retort temperature, The j-value for this process is found by using the intercept of the154 5, Heat Penetration in Packaged Foods 2 08 06 0s os 03 o2 tet TanTo, 0.4 0.08 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 oot L L L L L ° a a ne a |) Time (min) FiGurE 5.3, Reduced temperature plot. line with the new zero axis, T; (see Figure 5.5). For this purpose Tri ja tit (5.3) Tr-To ‘The slope of the line is given by the tangent of the angle between the line and the t-axis, although it is best obtained as the time for the curve to traverse one logarithmic cycle. ‘This time is known as the f-value and is the time to reduce a given temperature to one-tenth of its value. The f-value is the reciprocal of the slope and cotangent of the angle between the line and the time axis. For the heating phase it is designated f,, and for the cooling phase fo. ‘Combining these two heat penetration factors in the straight-line equation y = mx +c gives the equation logu = -1/f +log j, (4) where w is the reduced temperature, (Tr — T)/(TR — To), the slope is —1/f and the intercept log j. This equation may also be re-expressed as = flog(i/u)5.3. Graphical Analysis of Heat Penetration Data 155 114 Tact? Tere Ta? | tea TS Ta F Tato" Tr-20° + Ta-30° 4 Taso" + Ta-50° Tp 60° Ta-70° F Tatoo E L L L L L 3 0 jo 2 30 40 50 60 Time (min) FiGuRE 5.4. Inverted scale plot for Tx = 115°C and Ty = 62°C. or J MOUE = je 00 66) The value of j ranges from approximately 1 to 2, although both smaller and larger values are found in practice. The value, as can be shown theoretically, depends on the position at which the temperature is measured, the shape of the container or body being heated and cooled, and the initial temperature distribution. The value of f is expressed in minutes, and depends on the thermal properties, in particular the thermal diffusivity, and the dimensions of the object being heated. ‘The faster the rate of heat penetration, the steeper the slope and the smaller the156 5. Heat Penetration in Packaged Foods 120 Trt Retort temperature = 121°C n9 Tre 18 Te3 7 Te 116 TeS 15 Tr8 13 Tr8 1" Tr=10 tot Tr-20 Sor Taoo at Ta-40 n Ta-50 Ta60 Tr-80 Tr=100 Corrected intial temperature T; = 48°C Teh 5 ~79 Tr-209 179 Tr-00 }— Retort temperature up to “| y2rec = 12min 4 L 1 L | 2 30 +40 «50 «0 fa) Time (min) FIGURE 5.5. Heat penetration curves: (a) heating phase. ‘f-value. For most conduction-heating packs fy is greater than 20 min, and for convection-heating packs values of between 4 and 11 min for the common sizes of cylindrical container are obtained. Table 5.3 shows some typical values of fx for static steam-heating processes. ‘The values for f- tend to be larger because of the slower heat transfer with water compared to steam. An empirical guideline is that fe = 1.3 fi, which is confirmed from the work of Hurwicz and Tischer (1956) for the processing of beef. These workers also found a greater variance in the values of f. compared with fy For broken-heating curves (see Figure 5.6) there are two fy-values, usually designated f, and f>, and a break point, Tp, at time tp. The retort temperature tends to influence the value of f and the break point parameters tp and Tp. The closing temperature also affects the break point. The can size affects both fi and ‘fr. For a 3.5% suspension of bentonite in water in No. 2 cans the values of j varied5.3. Graphical Analysis of Heat Penetration Data 157 300 220 4 7.4200 Tinintercept T-inital temperature atstartot cooing Tet 100 20 Ts70 80 T.s60 70 150 a” 4 1440S 2 5 = 50 4790 40 4 1.120 30h rH10 28 28 25 28 Te 23 Te 2 Te? Test ay sp OO) Time (rin) FIGURE 5.5. Heat penetration curves: (b) cooling phase. TABLE 5.3. Some typical Jf,-values for products processed in static retorts using steam heating, Conduction heating Convection heating Can size (ain) (cain) 211 x 202507 25 40 211 x 301 picnic 34 45 211 x 400 AT 9 50 300 x 20787 u 45 300 x 4083 UT a 45 301 x 409162 2 35 307 x 408 A2 8 60 401 x si1A2d 8 10 603 700 A10 198 110158 5. Heat Penetration in Packaged Foods 120 Tet 19 ne 7 16 al {= 56-19 = 43min a5 f (conduction A (conduction) q M3 4 mr Tp, tp breakdown qi f=18-6=7min 101 {convection} Tato) Corracted zero rate 6.0 min 4 A ty-100 eh ages ja C5 = Ht won Tae” ae aes pg 01020 40 3060 Time (rin) FIGURE 5.6, Example of broken heating curve. from 0.99 to 1.72; fi from 4.87 to 6.84 min; fz from 44.6 to 62.0, and fp from 6.7 to 8.3 min (Jackson 1940; Jackson & Olson 1940). Baked beans in tomato sauce exhibit a broken heating curve; initially the pack shows typical convection heating behavior and then as the tomato thickens by gelation of the starch leached from the beans, the pack shows increasing conduction behavior. For an A10 can processed al 121.1°C, and heated for 35 mins typical values for the heat penetration factors are fi = 8.7 min and fy = 39.8 min and fy = 10 min. A typical broken heating curve for this type of product is shown in Figure 5.6. (Tucker 2002). The problems associated with this type of process are dealt with in Section 6.4.2.3. Giannoni-Succar and Hayakawa (1982) reported values fi; = 29.37 and fe = 34.45 min for 8%w/w bentonite in can size 307 x 115, with corresponding j values of 2.13 and 1.56 respectively. The ratio f/ fi, Was 1.17, which is in general agreement with the quoted value of 1.3.54, Theoretical Analysis of Heat Penetration Curves 159 Bichier et al, (1995) found that for tomato sauce in 300 x 407 cans in a batch retort the fy = 44.4-45.2 min, fe = 45.2 min, jy = 1.69 & je = 1.69, whereas for an agitated cook in a Steritort retort fy, = 3.7-4.45 min 7 jy = 1.44-2.05 with the fe & je very similar. The value for the stationary process agrees well with the value in Table 5.4. Theoretical Analysis of Heat Penetration Curves 5.4.1. Conduction-Heating Packs In Chapter 2 the general equation for determining the temperature distribution in a cylindrical container of conduction-heating food was presented (Olson & Jackson 1942; Ball & Olson 1957). From this series solution, a first-term approximation can be derived which applies to any point (r, z) in a cylinder of radius r and height 2b: «= Antodo(Rir/a) sin (2S) eeieertanier, 67) where u = (Tk — T(0))/(Tr — To), Ario is a function of the initial temperature distribution (equal to 2.03970 for a uniform distribution), Jmr(x) is the mth- order Bessel function of x, Rn the nth positive root of Jo(x) and a the thermal diffusivity. The first-term approximation is only valid for long processing times, and for the purposes of the cooling part it is necessary to examine whether this criterion applies. Equation (5.7) is of the same form as the exponential heat penetration equation (5.6), viz. 30% /f from which 2.308 aS 5.8) f [Ri /a? + 1? /4b7] 68) a+b) J = Aniodo(Rir/a) sin CS) 69) Ry = 2.404826, There are two important conclusions from this comparison: first, from equa~ tion (5.8) the f-value depends on the thermal diffusivity and the container dimen- sions; it is the same at all points inside the container, since it is independent of z and r. Second, from equation (5.9) the j-value depends on the initial temper- ature distribution and the position in the can; for conduction-heating packs the theoretical value of j at the center will be 2.03970.160 5. Heat Penetration in Packaged Foods The above analysis applies to containers heated by steam; if there is a finite heat-transfer coefficient on the surface of the container then the equations given in Chapter 2 should be used. This is discussed further in Section 5.5.6. 5.4.2. Convection-Heating Packs Using the uniform internal temperature model, discussed in Chapter 2, the basic equation for the temperature in the fluid core is w= 10-04Kt, (5.10) where w is the reduced temperature (Tx — T(1))/(Tp — To) and K = UA/pV, in which U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient, A is the internal surface area of the container, ¢ is the specific heat and p is the density. ‘Comparing equation (5.10) with the heat penetration equation in the same form, u=j-10-/, GAD we obtain f = 2.303/K = 2.303¢pV/UA (6.12) =1 For many products the value of cp is constant, so that f is directly proportional to the volume of the system and indirectly proportional to the internal area of the container and the heat-transfer coefficient. Although in theory j = I, in practice a wide range of values, some less than I, are observed. The reason put forward for this is that the U-value is initially high because of the high driving force AT, and with increasing time this decreases progressively to a constant value. The fa-value will be small initially and will increase to a constant rate of heating. The initial low value will favour low values of j, which will be less than the theoretical value of 1 Datta (1990) examined the case of natural convection in canned foods and con- cluded that there was no justification for the existence of an asymptotic straight- line temperature-time relationship, because of the complexity of the temperature field and the flow patterns, However, he concluded that over short ranges of processing time the errors would be sufficiently small to use the approximation for practical purposes. It should be remembered that the method is entirely empirical and care should be taken in the evaluation of convection heating. Schmidt and Pflug (1966) studied the effect of solids (glass spheres of varying sizes) on the heat penetration factor f, for jars of water/spheres. They found that the fi-value decreased with increasing surface area-volume ratio for the spheres, but did not vary with sphere size. Jars of water alone had a higher f, than filled jars,5.5. Factors Affecting Heat Penetration 161 Ikegami (1977) derived an empirical convection equation for heat transfer into a can of solids with a covering liquid: Gif tip 513 ape (6.13) where f and j apply to the solid portion and fz and j’ to the liquid portion. From various experimental results the j-values for the solid portion were approx- imately 2.0, the j’-values for the liquid portion were below 0.5. The formula was rigorously derived in Ikegami (1978). ‘Akterian (1996) developed a model for predicting heat penetration data for convection heat fruits in syrup and vegetables in brine packed in glass jars. This ‘was based on the uniform internal temperature model (Section 2.3), and used the used concept of the coefficient of thermal inertia E = fi/loge10. The values for the fi calculated from E values ranging from 7-25 min are much greater than those given in Table 5.3 for canned products because of the thickness of the walls of the glass bottles and the effect of the external heat-transfer coefficient, A table giving experimental data, including process data, E- & F-values and heat-transfer coefficients, for twenty products is useful for manufacturers using glass jars. 5.4.3. Computer Modeling A computer model, NumeriCAL, has been developed by Manson (1992) for determining heating factors from heat penetration data. The program has the advantage of not using the Ball 42% come-up time but calculating this effect from the actual processing conditions. This means that pilot-plant data can be used more reliably. An extension of this model to determine the fe and je factors for the cooling phase was proposed. 5.5. Factors Affecting Heat Penetration 5.5.1. Effect of Container Shape and Dimensions SS... fi-value The fy for a Cylindrical Container of Conductive-Heating Product is Given by the Equation Sh = 0.398 /[a(1/a? + 0.427/4b)], (5.14) and is obtained by substituting the values for R and 7? in equation (5.8). This equation can be used for determining the fy-value for a container of different dimensions, with the same food product. Thus if the first container has a value f; and dimensions radius a and height 2b and the second container an unknown f2 and dimensions ¢ and 2d, respectively, then the value of f2 can be obtained by