SHS

General Chemistry 1
Quarter 4: Week 1 - Module 1
Thermodynamics
General Chemistry 2
Grade 11/12 Quarter 4: Week 1 - Module 1: Thermodynamics
First Edition, 2021

Copyright © 2021
La Union Schools Division
Region I

All rights reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced in any form
without written permission from the copyright owners.

Development Team of the Module

Author: Jovy B. Licos, MT-II

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Michael Jason D. Morales, PDO II

Claire P. Toluyen, Librarian II
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Quarter 4: Week 1 – Module 1
Thermodynamics
 Target

In the previous lesson, how fast reactions take place and what
properties can be used to change reactions rate was discussed. But how do
we know whether the processes will occur or not? When does change occur? In
this module, thermodynamics will allow us to predict whether s process will
take place or not. When a process is considered spontaneous and
nonspontaneous?
After reading this learning material, you are expected
to:
1.predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy
STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-140
2. Explain the second law of thermodynamics and its
significance STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-142
3. Use Gibbs’ free energy to determine the direction of a reaction
STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-143
 JUMPSTART

Before going on, check how much you know about this topic.
Answer the pretest on the next page and write your answer in
¼ sheet of paper.

Direction: Select the letter of the correct answer and write in ¼ sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following is NOT a spontaneous process?

A. Sugar dissolving in hot coffee

B. Coffee freezing while you drink it on a warm summer day
C. A nail rusting over the course of years
D. Ripening of fruits

2. Which one of the following is always positive when a spontaneous process

occurs?
A. ΔSsystem B. ΔSuniverse
C. ΔSsurroundings D. ΔHuniverse

3. Which of the following processes is NOT a spontaneous?

A. cooling of a hot flat iron B. black hair turning grey

C. drop of ink dispersing in water D. straightening curly hair

4. Which of the following law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of the
universe is continually increasing?
A. First law of thermodynamics.
B. Second law of thermodynamics.
C. Third law of thermodynamics.
D. None of these.

5. If the value of AG is less than zero, it indicates that the reaction is .

A. Spontaneous B. reaction is at equilibrium
C. nonspontaneous D. none from the choices.
 Discover

Spontaneity and Entropy

Consider the following examples: a waterfall flows downhill, but never

up, heat flows from a warmer object to a cooler one, but the reverse never happens
spontaneously. Iron exposed to water and oxygen forms rust, but rust does not
spontaneously change back into iron. Chemical processes can be spontaneous as
well. An example is spontaneous combustion, wherein a flammable substance burns
by itself even without direct application of spark or flame. The spontaneous reaction
between magnesium ribbon and hydrochloric acid wherein the magnesium metal
instantly disappears with the evolution of heat and gas is irreversible. This type of
process does not need the application of energy to take place is said to be
spontaneous process.

Conversely, a nonspontaneous process cannot proceed unless there

is a driving force or outside help that acts on the system. For example, a ball
cannot be brought uphill unless someone pushes it. Spontaneity of a process
can be determined from the change in entropy and change in free energy of a
system.

The driving force for a spontaneous process is an increase in the entropy of

the universe. Entropy, S, can be viewed as a measure of randomness, or disorder.
Nature spontaneously proceeds toward the states that have the most “spread out
energy”, or the highest probabilities of existing. In other words, towards an
arrangement where energy can be contained in the greatest number of ways.
Everyone will agree that a person usually spends more time and effort in arranging
or organizing things as compared to creating a mess. An orderly room becomes
messy with time. Neatly arranged items on a shelf do not stay orderly for long. They
tend to become disordered as time passes by. This is inevitable, because creating a
mess is a more natural and spontaneous process. Hence, if we will compare the
entropies of 1 mole of a substance in the three physical states based on the kinetic
molecular theory theory, molar entropy of the gaseous state will be highest, molar
entropy of the liquid state will be intermediate, and molar entropy of the solid state
will be the lowest. The change in entropy, ∆S, depends only on the entropies of the
final and initial states of the system.

∆S = Sfinal-Sinitial

A positive value of ∆S (∆S>0), indicates that the final state is more random or
disordered than the initial state. A negative ∆S value (∆S<0), indicates that the final
state is more ordered than the initial state. Spontaneity of a process is not solely
determined by the tendency of a system to proceed to a state of lower energy. It is
also dependent on the state of disorder. The direction in which a chemical reaction
proceeds is governed by the tendency to attain a state that is statistically more probable.
In other words, an increase in disorder or entropy is thermodynamically favorable for a
reaction to proceed spontaneously. This is simply implies that entropy change is the
factor that can account for the spontaneity of endothermic processes. There are several
factors that influence the amount of entropy present ina system at a particular state.
These factors are the following:

1. Change in Phase. Solid particles are confined to fixed positions or compactly

arranged so that they can hardly move, thus, entropy is relatively low. In liquids, the
particles are slightly far from each other, allowing limited movement, which results
in higher entropy as compared to solids. Whereas in gases, the particles are very far
apart, hence, there is a great freedom of movement and increase kinetic energy,
giving rise to greater entropy as compared to liquids. On the other hand, conversion
of gas to liquid, and from liquid to solid, result in a decrease in entropy.

2. Change in Temperature. Rising the temperature increases the average kinetic

energy of molecules. With an increase in temperature, solid particles vibrate more
energetically, while liquid and gas particles move about more rapidly. Hence,
increasing the temperature increases the entropy of a system while a decrease in
temperature results in lowering of entropy.

3. Number of particles. The phrase “ the more the merrier” can certainly be applied
to entropy. It is definitely “merrier” when there are more people in gathering. When
a lot of people are present, there will be more movement, more noise, more wastes,
and definitely greater disorder.

Consider a chemical system presented by the following equation,

A2B 2A + B

At the left arrow, only one particle is present as reactant, but at the right side, a total
of two particles are produced from the reaction. Since there are more particlesin
products as compared to the reactants, there is a corresponding increase in disorder.
Generally, an increase in the number of particles, increase the entropy.

Example. Predict whether the entropy increases or decreases, and consider the
degree of disorder, from initial to final state or form.

1. Sublimation of solid carbon dioxide (dry ice):

CO2 (s) CO2 (g)

Solution: Entropy increases and ∆S is > 0, because once the solid is converted to
gas, the particles are more scattered and are no longer confined to a limited volume
of space, thus leading to greater disorder.
 A numerical value for entropy can be possibly determined for any substance
under a given set of conditions. The change in entropy is related to heat transferred
during the process. The relationship of ∆S and the heat transferred under constant
pressure. For processes occurring at constant temperature and pressure, the change
entropy can be calculated using the equation, ∆S = qrev/T where: is change in
entropy in J/K ( it is negative if heat is released by the system and positive ifheat
is absorbed by the system), q= heat transferred at a particular temperature, in J and
T= temperature in Kelvin, (K). However, this equation applies only to processes that
are almost reversible. Any process that can go back to its original state due to a very
slight change in condition is reversible. A typical example is the melting and freezing.

Example: Calculate the entropy change, ∆Svap, when 1 mole water in liquid state
is converted to 1 mole stam at 1 atm pressure?

Given: q= heat of vaporization, ∆Hvap (amount of heat transferred to the system),

equal to + 40.7kJ/mol

T= temperature at which the process occurs is the boiling point (1000C or

373 K)

∆Svap= ∆Hvap/ T

= (1mol)(40.7kJ/mol)(1000J/kJ

373K

= +109 J/K

Note that the change in entropy is positive, thus indicating that water molecules in
gaseous state are more disordered than the liquid state. It is also possible to calculate
entropy change for various processes that occur under standard conditions using
standard entropy values of substances. Standard molar entropy or standard
entropy, S0, is defined as the entropy of one mole of a substance at standard
condition, 250C and 1 atm pressure. The entropy of a substance can be obtained from
the tabulated values of standard molar entropies, and entropy change can be
calculated using this equation,

∆So = ∑ySo products - ∑zSo reactants

The superscript o in the symbol indicates standard conditions (25oC and 1 atm
pressure) while letters y and z, represent the number of moles.
Table of Standard Molar Entropies
From ChemPRIME
Compound Smo /J K-1mol-1 Compound Smo /J K-1mol-1

Solids Diatomic Gases

C (diamond) 2.377

C (graphite) 5.74 H2 130.7

Si 18.8 D2 145.0

Ge 31.1 HCl 186.9

Sn (gray) 44.1 HBr 198.7

Pb 64.8 HI 206.6

Li 29.1 N2 191.6

Na 51.2 O2 205.1

K 64.2 F2 202.8

Rb 69.5 Cl2 223.1

Cs 85.2 Br2 245.5

NaF 51.5 I2 260.7

MgO 26.9 CO 197.7

AlN 20.2 Triatomic Gases

NaCl 72.1 H2O 188.8

KCl 82.6 NO2 240.1

Mg 32.7 H2S 205.8

Ag 42.6 CO2 213.7

I2 116.1 SO2 248.2

MgH2 31.1 N 2O 219.9

AgN3 99.2 O3 238.9

Liquids Polyatomic Gases( > 3)

Hg 76.0 CH4 186.3

Br2 152.2 C2H6 229.6

H2O 69.9 C3H8 269.9

H2O2 109.6 C4H10 310.2

CH3OH 126.8 C5H12 348.9

C2H5OH 160.7 C2H4 219.6

C6H6 172.8 N 2O4 304.3

BCl3 206.3 B2H6 232.0

Monatomic Gases BF3 254.0

He 126.0 NH3 192.5

Ne 146.2

Ar 154.8

Kr 164.0

Xe 169.6

This table shows molar entropies for the standard conditions of 298.15 K
(25°C) and 101.3 kPa. Such conditions need to be specified, since entropy is
proportional to substance amount, and dependent on temperature, pressure.
Entropy is also dependent upon volume, but since the amount, n, temperature, and
pressure are given, volume is implicitly defined. This table is taken from
CoreChem:Standard Molar Entropies, and is also used on
CoreChem:Dependence of S on Molecular Structure as well as CoreChem:Some
Trends In Entropy Values.

Example:

Calculate the entropy change when graphite burns in sufficient supply of oxygen as
shown in the equation below,

C graphite (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)

Solution:
Given: So of C graphite (s) =5.7 J/mol-K

So O2 (g) = 205J/mol-K

So CO2 (g) = 213 J/mol-K

∆So = ∑ySo products - ∑zSo reactants

= [ So of CO2 (g) ]- [So of C graphite (s) + So O2 (g) ]

= [ ( 1mol)(213.6J/mol-K) ]-( 1mol)(5.7J/mol-K)+(1 mol)(205J/mol-K) ]

= +2.97 J/K

Since the entropy change is positive, there is an increase in entropy from reactants
to products.

What is Second Law of Thermodynamics and Its Significance?

The second law of thermodynamics expresses the relationship between

spontaneity of a process. It states that the natural processes proceed in the direction
that maintains or increases the total entropy of the universe, and in any spontaneous
change, there is a net increase in entropy. In principle, the second law can be used in
predicting the spontaneity of a process. This law is one of the most powerful tools
that helps explain everything in the physical world. It enables us to understand why
things work as they do, why gasoline makes the engine run, why hot pans cool down,
or why our bodies stay warm even when it is cold. In industry or engineering, the
second law can help to determine which reaction will favor the formation of desired
products to obtain better economic yield. It is important to note that sponataneity is
also affected by changes in temperature and concentrations.

In predicting the spontaneity of a process, the enthalpy factor is considered in

conjunction with the entropy factor. The balance between these two quantities is
given by another state function called free energy or Gibbs free energy, represented
by G, named after the proponent, William Gibbs. This is a more convenient method
to assess spontaneity is to use a single thermodynamic function that serves the same
purpose, a function that is associated with the system only. Therefore, thereis no
need to assess surroundings. This state function where both enthalpy and entropy
factors are taken into consideration, is called Gibbs free energy, G, is defined
mathematically as

G=H−TS

Where H is enthalpy, T is temperature in Kelvin, and S is entropy. Gibbs free

energy is represented using the symbol G and typically has a unit of KJ/mol-reaction.
Free energy, G, is a portion of energy change in spontaneous reactions
that is available to do useful work. It is the maximum amount of work that can be
done by the system on its surroundings at constant temperature and pressure. In
nonspontaneous process, free energy is a measure of the minimum amount of work
that must be done on the system in order to drive the reaction. In this equation,
G,H, and S, all refer to the system. Every substance possesses free energy, but the
actual amount is seldom known, hence, what will be considered is the change free
energy, of a system. For a process occurring at constant temperature, the change
in free energy of the system is given by the expression

AG = ∆H - T∆S

This equation is valid in all conditions. If both temperature and pressure are constant,
the relationship between the sign of AG and spontaneity of a reaction is as follows:

AG < 0, reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction

AG > 0, nonspontaneous in the forward direction, work must be

supplied to make it occur

AG = 0, reaction is at equilibrium

If application is limited to standard condition, 25 oC and 1 atm pressure, the

new equation will be in the form:

AGo = ∆Ho - T∆So

Standard state means that solid and liquid substance are pure, gaseous
substance is at 1 atm pressure, and for substances in solution, concentration is
normally 1M. AGo can readily be calculated from the tabulated values of ∆Hf o and So
at 25oC.

Sample Problem.

A drying agent has the chemical composition CaSO 4. Calculate the AGo at
25oC, for the following reaction, which has ∆So value of -139.7 J/K.

CaSO4 (s) Ca-2 (aq) + SO4-2 (aq) ∆Ho = -18.0 KJ

Solution:

Given: ∆Ho = -18.0 KJ

∆So = -139.7 J/K

Required: AGo for the reaction

 Strategy: Convert J to KJ and 25oC to K

∆So = (-139.7 J/K) (1Kj/1000J)

= -0.1397 kJ/K

K = OC + 273 K

= 25 + 273 = 298K

Substitute the given values into the equation,

AGo = ∆Ho - T∆So

= -18.0 kJ- (298K)(-0.1397 kJ/K

= 18.0 kJ - (-41.6 kJ)

= -59.63 kJ

Since AGo > 0 or positive, the reaction is not spontaneous at 25 oC. In other
words, at this temperature, CaSO4, does not dissolve in water to produce a 1M
solution. The table below shows the relationship between temperature, AG o, and
spontaneity.

∆H ∆S ∆G =∆H-TAS Characteristic of reaction

- + Always - Spontaneous at all temperatures
+ - Always + Nonspontaneous at all temperatures
+ + -at high T Spontaneous at high temperature
+ + + at low T Nonspontaneous at low temperature
_ _ -at low T Spontaneous a low temperature
_ _ + at high T Nonspontaneous at high temperature
 EXPLORE

Here are some enrichment activities for you to strengthen the

basic concepts you have learned from this lesson

Exercise. Given the equation, calcite the standard free energy change. Answer what
is being asked.

1. N2(g)+3H2(g) --->2NH3(g)

If ΔH = -92.2kJ and ΔS= -0.1987kJ/K, what is ΔG for the reaction at 475°C

and at 5°C? Provide the answer in kJ. In each case, is the reaction
spontaneous?

2. The enthalpy and entropy change of a reaction are -3.9 kJ/mole and +56.6
J/mole K respectively at 25o C. What is the free energy change in kJ/mole?
Is this reaction always spontaneous, never spontaneous or does it depend on
the temperature?

You are really doing great! That’s amazing!

 Deepen

At this point, continue assessing your learning by accomplishing the activity

below.

Enrichment Activity: “SLOGAN MAKING”

The world is presently saddled with a variety of environmental problems and the
Philippines is one country that is heavily saddled with such problems. Prepare a
slogan on how one environmental problem can be solved by the application of the
principles of energetics and chemical reactions.

SLOGAN RUBRIC

Beginning Developing Accomplished Exemplar

(7 pts) (8 points) (9 pts) (10 pts)
Organization The The sequencing The sequencing The
sequencing of of of sequencing of
words and words and the words and words and
phrases is phrases is very phrases is phrases is
random. The confusing, and somewhat logical, and the
reader can the reader may logical, and the reader is able
find no need to use his reader is able to follow the
evidence of or her own to to follow the ordering of
thoughtful knowledge to ordering of ideas easily
ordering of determine the ideas with
ideas. ordering of minimal efforts
ideas.
Word Choice The slogan The slogan The slogan The slogan
and Main uses general uses general or uses several uses many
Idea or ordinary ordinary terms descriptive precise, and
terms to to develop words to descriptive
describe the main idea. develop a main words to
object; the idea or develop a main
words do not message idea or
develop main message.
idea.
Spelling Numerous Numerous There are There are very
spelling spelling errors spelling errors, few spelling
errors impede impede the which may or errors. They
 the reader reader from may not be are
from understanding developmentall developmentall
understandin the slogan’s y appropriate. y appropriate
g the slogan’s message. Some However, they and do not
message. of the errors do not impede impede the
Errors are are the reader’s reader’s
developmenta developmentall understanding understanding
lly y appropriate, of the slogan of the slogan
appropriate but others
and should should have
have been been noticed
noticed and and corrected.
corrected.

Gauge

Direction: Read carefully each question. Use a separate sheet of paper for your
answer. Write the letter of the best answer.(15 pts)

1. What is a spontaneous process?

A. is reversible.
B. Is irreversible
C. may be reversible or irreversible depending on the value of ΔS.
D. may be reversible or irreversible depending on whether equilibrium is
maintained throughout the process.

2. If a chemical reaction is spontaneous, the total entropy of the chemical

systems and its surroundings .
A. increases only if the reaction is exothermic
B. increases only if the reaction is endothermic
C. always increases
D. always decreases

3. Which of the following is NOT a spontaneous process?

A. Sugar dissolving in hot coffee
B. Coffee freezing while you drink it on a warm summer day
C. A nail rusting over the course of years
D. Ripening of fruits
 4. Which one of the following processes produces a decrease in the entropy of the
system?
A. boiling water to form steam
B. dissolution of solid KCl in water
C. mixing of two gases into one container
D. freezing water to form ice

5. Which of the following is NOT a processes of spontaneous?

A. cooling of a hot flat iron B. black hair turning grey
C. drop of ink dispersing in water D. straightening curly hair

6. Which of the following law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of the
universe is continually increasing?
A. First law of thermodynamics
B. Second law of thermodynamics
C. Third law of thermodynamics
D. None of these

7. What is the statistical measure of entropy?

A. disorder of a system B. heat of a system
C. order of a system D. cooling of a system

8. The second law of thermodynamics relates to .

A. enthalpy B. entropy
C. free energy D. heat

9. Standard entropy is measure at .

A. 25oC and 1.o atm B. 25oC and 2.0 atm
C. 100oC and 1 atm D. 25oC and 2.5 atm

10. What is the correct equation in solving for the entropy of a chemical reaction?
A. ∑entropy of the products - ∑ entropy of the reactants.
B. ∑entropy of the reactants - ∑ entropy of the products.
C. entropy of products X entropy of the reactants.
D. entropy of the products divided by entropy of the reactants.

11. If the ∆S is calculated to be positive, there is greater disorder in the

, which would drive the reaction in the reaction.
A. reactant (s), forward C. product (s), reverse
B. product (s), forward D. reactant (s), reverse

12. What will happen to the temperature and entropy if heat is added to a pure
liquid?
A. the temperature increases and the entropy is unchanged.
B. the temperature increases and the entropy increases.
C. the temperature increases and the entropy decreases.
D. the temperature is unchanged and the entropy increases.
13. What is the definition of standard condition when working with free energy?
A. ions or molecules in solution at one molar concentration.
B. both gases at one atmospheric and ions or molecules in solution at one
molar concentration.
C. gases at one atmosphere, ions or molecules in solution at one molar
concentration and 0 K temperature.
D. There’s no such thing as standard condition.

14. If Delta G standard is zero, what does it mean?

A. the reaction is spontaneous at standard condition.
B. the reaction is nonspontaneous at standard condition.
C. the system is at equilibrium at standard condition.
D. the reaction is both nonspontaneous and at equilibrium.

15. What is the characteristic of reaction if the calculated delta G is negative, the
A. the reaction is always spontaneous at all temperature.
B. The reaction is always nonspontaneous at all temperature
C. the reaction is spontaneous at high temperature.
D. The reaction is nonspontaneous at high temperature.
References
A. Books

Ayson, Marissa F. and De Borja, Rebecca S. General Chemistry 2. Araneta

Avenue, Quezon City, Manila: Vibal Group, Inc.2016.

Ilao, Lacsamana V., Betty M.Lontoc, and Edwehna Elinore S. Paderna-Gayon.

General Chemistry 1. Sampaloc, Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc. 2017.

B. Website

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry_
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The_Central_Science_(Brown_et_al.)/19%3A_Chemical_Thermodynamics/19.4%3A_
Entropy_Changes_in_Chemical_Reactions.

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_
of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/UNIT_4%3A_EQUILIBRIUM_IN_CHEMICAL_
REACTIONS/13%3A_Spontaneous_Processes_and_Thermodynamic_Equilibrium/1
3.5%3A_Entropy_Changes_and_Spontaneity

https://www.chem.tamu.edu/class/fyp/mcquest/ch15.html

https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-
guides/chemistry/chemistry/thermodynamics/quiz-energy-and-entropy

http://williamwithin.com/worksheet/entropy-and-gibbs-free-energy-worksheet-
answers.html

https://www.clarkchargers.org/ourpages/auto/2017/5/4/38070320/Entropy-
Free%20Energy%2001%20Answers.df