University of Sulaimani

College of Engineering
Civil Department

Series

Mr. Rozhno Omer

MSc. Structural Engineering

Chapter 4 04/ 12 / 2022 1

 INFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Infinite Sequence : Is a function of a variable usually denoted by ∩ for example:

1 1 1 1 1
, , , ,…………
2 3 4 5 𝑛+1
1
Is infinite sequence, where 𝑎𝑛 = is called general term or nth term.
𝑛+1
Example:

𝟏 𝟏
1. If n=1, a1 = 1- =
𝟐∗𝟏 𝟐

𝟏 𝟑
2. If n=2, a2 = 1- =
𝟐∗𝟐 𝟒

𝟏 𝟓
3. If n=3, a3 = 1- =
𝟐∗𝟑 𝟔

1 7
4. If n=4, a4 = 1- =
2∗4 8

1 9
5. If n=5, a5 = 1- =
2∗5 10

𝟏 𝟏 𝟑 𝟓 𝟕 𝟗 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟑 𝟐𝐧−𝟏
• 1- = , , , , , , , …….,
𝟐∗𝒏 𝟐 𝟒 𝟔 𝟖 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟒 𝟐𝐧
Example:
Write the general term of the following sequence:

1 2 3 4 𝒏
1. , ,
4 8 16 32
, ,……..
𝟐𝒏+𝟏

2 3 4 5 𝒏+𝟏 𝒏+𝟏
2. 3
, − , , − , … … . . −𝟏
4 5 6 𝒏+𝟐

1 4 9 16 𝒏𝟐
3. , ,
3 9 27 81
, ,……..
𝟑𝒏

1 1 𝟏
4. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 1, 2 sin , 3 sin , … … . . 𝒏 𝐬𝐢𝐧
2 3 𝒏

1 1 1 1 𝟏
5. 1, , , , ,……..
2 6 24 120 𝒏!
 INFINITE SERIES:

If (𝑎𝑛 )is infinite sequence then:

෍ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + 𝑎4 + 𝑎5 + ⋯ . 𝑎𝑛
𝑛=1

Is called infinite series.

• S1 = a1
• S2 = S1+a2 = a1+a2
• S3 = S2+a3 = a1+a2+a3
• ……
• Sn = S1+S2+ S3 ……+ Sn General term for partial sum

S = lim 𝑆𝑛
𝑛→∞
• S: the summation of the Series
• 𝑆𝑛 : the partial sum of the series
Example1:
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +, … … . . + n
2 4 8 16 2

Solution:
• S1=
1
2
• S = lim 𝑆𝑛
𝑛→∞

1 1 3
• S2 = + = 2𝑛 −1 2𝑛 1
2 4 4 • = lim = lim −
𝑛→∞ 2n 𝑛→∞ 2n 2n

3 1 7
• S3 = + = 1 1 1
4 8 8 • = lim ( 1 − )=1− =1−∞ =1−0=𝟏
𝑛→∞ 2n 2∞

7 1 15
• S4 = + = •
8 16 16

• …….

1 3 7 15 2𝑛 −1
• 𝑆𝑛 = + + + +, … … . . +
2 4 8 16 2n
Example 2:
10 10 10 10 10
+ + + +, … … . . +
1∗2 2∗3 3∗4 4∗5 n(n + 1)

Solution:
1 1 1 1 1
• 10( + + + +, … … . . + )
1∗2 2∗3 3∗4 4∗5 n(n+1)
• S = lim 𝑆𝑛
𝑛→∞
1
• S1 =
2 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
• = 10 lim =10 lim * (𝑛)
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1
1 1 4 2
• S2 = + = =
2 6 6 3
𝑛
1
2 1 9 3
• = 10 lim𝑛 1
𝑛
= 10 lim 1
𝑛→∞ + 𝑛→∞ 1+
• S3 = + = = 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
3 12 12 4

3 1 16 4 1
• S4 = + = = • S = 10 * 1 = 𝟏𝟎
4 20 20 5 1+
∞

1 2 3 4 𝑛
• 𝑆𝑛 = + + + +, … … . . +
2 3 4 5 𝑛+1
 GEOMERTIC AND POWER SERIES:

The series of the form

𝑎𝑟 0 + 𝑎𝑟1 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + 𝑎𝑟 4 + ⋯ . + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
Is called the geometric series.

The ratio 𝒓 can be positive or negative for example:

1 1 1 1 1
1. 1+ + + + , ……+
2 4 8 16 2𝑛−1

𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
a = 1, r = 𝟐
= ,r = 𝟏𝟔
𝟏 =
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝟖

1 1 1 1 1
2. 1- + - + , ……+(−1)𝑛+1
3 9 27 81 3𝑛−1

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− 𝟏 𝟏 − 𝟏
a = 1, r = 𝟑
=− , r= 𝟗
𝟏 =− , r= 𝟐𝟕
𝟏 =−
𝟏 𝟐 − 𝟑 𝟑
𝟑 𝟗
 To find the sum of geometric series:

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟1 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + 𝑎𝑟 4 + ⋯ . + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
S = lim 𝑆𝑛
𝑛→∞

𝑎
S = 1−𝑟 lim( 1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑛→∞

a) If 𝒓 < 𝟏 → lim 𝑟 𝑛 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚

𝑛→∞

𝒂
𝑺=
𝟏−𝒓
a) If 𝒓 > 𝟏 → lim 𝑟 𝑛 = ∞ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑛→∞

𝑺 = ∞ No Summation
Example : Find the sum of the following Series:
51 51 51 51 51
(1) + + + +, … … . . + 2𝑛
102 104 106 108 10

Solution:
51 1 1 1 1
• (1 + + + +, … … . . + )
102 102 104 106 102(𝑛−1)

𝟏 𝟏
𝟓𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝟏
• a= ,r= = , r= 𝟏 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟐

• 𝒓 < 𝟏 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝒂
𝑺=
𝟏−𝒓

51
51 100 𝟓𝟏
• S= 100
1 = ∗ =
1− 100 99 𝟗𝟗
100
Example : Find the sum of the following Series:
2 4 8 16 2𝑛
(2) + + + +, … … . . + 𝑛
3 9 27 81 3

Solution:
2 2 4 8 2𝑛−1
• (1+ + + +, … … . . + 𝑛−1)
3 3 9 27 3

𝟐 𝟒
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
• a= , r= 𝟑
= , r= 𝟗
𝟐 =
𝟑 𝟏 𝟑 𝟑
𝟑

• 𝒓 < 𝟏 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝒂
𝑺=
𝟏−𝒓

2
2 3
• S= 3
2 = ∗ =𝟐
1− 3 1
3
Example : Find the sum of the following Series:
1 1 1 1 𝑛+1 1
(3) − + − +, … … . . + −1
2 4 8 16 2𝑛

Solution:
1 1 1 1 𝑛+1 1
• (1 − + − +, … … . . + −1 )
2 2 4 8 2𝑛−1

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 − 𝟏 𝟏 − 𝟏
• a= , r= 𝟐
=− , r= 𝟒
𝟏 =− , r= 𝟏
𝟖
=−
𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 − 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟒

• 𝒓 < 𝟏 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝒂
𝑺=
𝟏−𝒓

1
1 2 𝟏
• S= 2
1 = ∗ =
1+ 2 3 𝟑
2
 Tests of the Series:

1- Integral test:

∞ 𝒏

න 𝒇 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 න 𝒇 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒏→∞
𝟏 𝟏

𝒏 𝒏
If the term 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ‫ 𝒙𝒅 𝒙 𝒇 𝟏׬‬is finite, the series is convergent If the term 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ‫ 𝒙𝒅 𝒙 𝒇 𝟏׬‬is infinite, the series is divergent
𝒏→∞ 𝒏→∞
Example : Test the following Series:
𝟏
(1) σ∞
𝒏=𝟏 𝟐𝒏+𝟑

Solution:
∞ 𝑛

න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞
1 1

𝑛 1 1 𝑛
= lim ‫׬‬1 𝑑𝑥 = lim ln 2𝑥 + 3 ‫׬‬1
𝑛→∞ 2𝑥+3 𝑛→∞ 2

1
= = 2 lim ln 2𝑛 + 3 − ln(2 ∗ 1 + 3)
𝑛→∞

1 1
= = 2 lim ln 2𝑛 + 3 − ln(5) = 2 ln ∞ + 3 − ln(5)
𝑛→∞

= ∞ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕

Example : Test the following Series:
𝟏
(2) σ∞
𝒏=𝟏 𝒏𝟓

Solution:
∞ 𝑛

න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞
1 1

𝑛 1 𝑛
= lim ‫׬‬1 𝑑𝑥 = lim ‫׬‬1 𝑥 −5 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑥5 𝑛→∞

𝑥 −4 𝑛 1 1 𝑛
= lim ‫׬‬1 = - 4 lim ‫׬‬1
𝑛→∞ −4 𝑛→∞ 𝑥 4

1 1 1 1 1 1
=− lim 4
− =− −1 ( = 0)
4 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 1 4 ∞ ∞
𝟏
= 𝟒 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕.
Example : Test the following Series:
𝟏
(3) σ∞
𝒏=𝟏 𝒏−𝟓

Solution:
∞ 𝑛

න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞
1 1

𝑛 𝑛
= lim ‫׬‬1 𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥 = lim ‫׬‬1 𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

𝑥6 𝑛 1
= lim ‫׬‬1 = lim (𝑛6 − 16 )
𝑛→∞ 6 6 𝑛→∞

1
= ∞−1
6
= ∞ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕.
Example : Test the following Series:
𝟏
(4) σ∞
𝒏=𝟏 𝟏+𝟒𝒏𝟐

Solution:
∞ 𝑛

න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞
1 1

𝑛 1 𝑛 1
= lim ‫׬‬1 𝑑𝑥 = lim ‫׬‬1 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞ 1+4x2 𝑛→∞ 1+(2x)2

1 𝑛 1
= lim tan−1 2𝑥 ‫׬‬1 = lim (tan−1 2𝑛 − tan−1 2)
𝑛→∞ 2 2 𝑛→∞

1
= lim (tan−1 ∞ − tan−1 2)
2 𝑛→∞

1 𝜋
= − tan−1 2 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕.
2 2
 Tests of the Series:

2- The Ratio test:

Let σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

𝒂𝒏 + 𝟏
𝜶 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒏→∞ 𝒂𝒏

Then:
a) The series is convergent if 𝛼 < 1
b) The series is divergent if 𝛼 > 1
c) The test is fails if 𝛼 = 1 ( Try another test )
Example : Test the following Series:
𝟏
(1) σ∞
𝒏=𝟏 𝒏!

Solution:
𝑎𝑛 +1 𝟏 𝟏
𝛼 = lim , 𝑎𝑛 = , 𝑎𝑛 +1 =
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝒏! (𝒏+𝟏) !

1
(𝑛+1)! 1
= lim 1 = lim ∗ 𝑛!
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ (𝑛+1)!
𝑛!

𝑛! 1
= lim = lim
𝑛→∞ (𝑛+1)𝑛! 𝑛→∞ (𝑛+1)

1
𝛼 = =𝟎 <𝟏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕.
∞+1
Example : Test the following Series:
(𝒏+𝟑)!
(2) σ∞
𝒏=𝟏 𝟑! .𝒏 ! .𝟑𝒏

Solution:
𝑎𝑛 +1 (𝒏+𝟑)! (𝒏+𝟒)!
𝛼 = lim , 𝑎𝑛 = , 𝑎𝑛 +1 =
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝟑! .𝒏 ! .𝟑𝒏 𝟑! .(𝒏+𝟏) ! .𝟑(𝒏+𝟏)

(𝒏+𝟒)! 𝟑! .𝒏 ! .𝟑𝒏
= lim
𝟑! . 𝒏+𝟏 ! .𝟑𝑛 . 𝟑1
* (𝒏+𝟑)!
𝑛→∞

1 𝒏 + 𝟒 ! ∗ 𝑛! 1 𝒏 + 𝟒 . 𝒏 + 3 ! ∗ 𝑛!
= lim = lim
3 𝑛→∞ (𝒏 + 𝟏) ! . (𝒏 + 𝟑)! 3 𝑛→∞ 𝒏 + 𝟏 . 𝑛 ! . (𝒏 + 𝟑)!

𝑛 4
1 𝒏+𝟒 𝑛 1 +
𝑛 𝑛
= lim
3 𝑛→∞ (𝒏+𝟏)
* ( 𝑛) = 3 𝑛→∞
lim 𝑛 1
+
𝑛 𝑛

4
1 1+ 1 1+0
𝑛
= lim 1 = ∗
3 𝑛→∞ 1+ 3 1+0
𝑛

𝟏
𝜶 = < 𝟏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕.
𝟑
Example : Test the following Series:

𝒏𝟐
(3) σ∞
𝒏=𝟏 𝟐𝒏

Solution:
𝑎𝑛 +1 𝑛2 (𝑛+1)2
𝛼 = lim , 𝑎𝑛 = , 𝑎𝑛 +1 =
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 2𝒏 2(𝑛+1)

(𝑛+1)2 𝑛𝒏
= lim
2𝑛 ∗2
* 𝑛2
𝑛→∞

1 (𝑛 + 1)2 1 𝑛2 +2𝑛 + 1
= lim = lim
2 𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 2 𝑛→∞ 𝑛2

1 𝑛2 2𝑛 1 1 2 1
= lim 2 + 2 + 2 = lim 1+ +
2 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 2 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛2

1 2 1 1
= 1+ + =
2 ∞ ∞ 2
𝟏
𝜶 = < 𝟏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕.
𝟐
Example : Test the following Series:
𝒏+𝟏 𝟏
(4) σ∞
𝒏=𝟏 ∗
𝒏 𝟒𝒏−𝟏

Solution:
𝑎𝑛 +1 𝒏+𝟏 𝟏 𝒏+2
𝛼 = lim , 𝑎𝑛 = ∗ , 𝑎𝑛 +1 =
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝒏 𝟒𝒏−𝟏 𝑛+1 ∗ 4𝑛

𝒏+2 𝑛 4𝑛
= lim
𝑛+1 ∗ 4 𝑛
* 𝑛+1
∗
4
𝑛→∞

1 𝒏+2 ∗𝑛 1 𝑛2 +2𝑛 𝑛2
= 4 lim (𝑛+1)2 = lim
4 𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 +2𝑛+1
* 𝑛2
𝑛→∞

𝑛2 2𝑛 2
1 2 + 2 1 1 +
= lim 𝑛 𝑛 = lim 𝑛
4 𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 2𝑛 1 4 𝑛→∞ 1 + 2 + 1
+ 2+ 2 𝑛 𝑛2
𝑛2 𝑛 𝑛
2
1 1+ 1
∞
= ∗ 2 1 =
4 1+ + 4
∞ ∞

𝟏
𝜶 = < 𝟏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕.
𝟒
Example : Test the following Series:
𝟏
(5) σ∞
𝒏=𝟏 𝒏𝟐

Solution: ∞ 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 +1 𝟏 1
𝛼 = lim , 𝑎𝑛 = , 𝑎𝑛 +1 = න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛+1 2 𝑛→∞
1 1
1
= lim * 𝑛2
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1 2 𝑛 1 𝑛
= lim ‫׬‬1 𝑑𝑥 = lim ‫׬‬1 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞ x2 𝑛→∞
1 𝑛2 𝑛2
= lim 2 ∗ 2
4 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 2𝑛 + 1 𝑛 −1 𝑛 1
= lim ‫׬‬ = - lim ( 𝑛 − 1)
𝑛→∞ 𝑥 1 𝑛→∞

𝑛2 1
1 𝑛2 =− −1 =1 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕.
= lim 2 ∞
4 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 2𝑛 1
2 + 2+ 2
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1
= 2 1 =1
1+ +
∞ ∞
𝜶 = 𝟏 = 𝟏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆.
Example : Test the following Series:
𝑿𝒏
(6) σ∞
𝒏=𝟎 The series of the form
𝒏!

∞
Solution: ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3𝑥 3 + 𝑎4𝑥 4 + ⋯ . + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑁=0

𝒂𝒏 +𝟏
Is called the Power Series. Then 𝜶 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎
𝒏→∞ 𝒂𝒏

𝒂𝒏 +𝟏 𝑋𝑛 𝑋 𝑛+1
𝜶 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 , 𝑎𝑛 = , 𝑎𝑛 +1 =
𝒏→∞ 𝒂𝒏 𝑛! 𝑛+1 !

𝑋 𝑛+1 𝑛!
= lim ∗ 𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1 ! 𝑋

𝑋 𝑛 ∗𝑋 𝑛! 1
= lim 𝑛+1 𝑛!
∗ 𝑋𝑛
= 𝑋 lim 𝑛+1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

1
= 𝑋 lim = 0
𝑛→∞ ∞+1

𝜶 = 𝟎 < 𝟏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕.

Example : Test the following Series:

(𝑿−𝟏)𝒏
(7) σ∞
𝒏=𝟎
The series of the form
(𝒏+𝟏)𝟐

∞
Solution: ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3𝑥 3 + 𝑎4𝑥 4 + ⋯ . + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑁=0
𝒂𝒏 +𝟏 (𝑿−𝟏)𝒏 (𝑿−𝟏)𝒏+1
𝜶 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 , 𝑎𝑛 = , 𝑎𝑛 +1 = 𝒂𝒏 +𝟏
𝒏→∞ 𝒂𝒏 (𝒏+𝟏)𝟐 (𝒏+2)𝟐 Is called the Power Series. Then 𝜶 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎
𝒏→∞ 𝒂𝒏

(𝑋 − 1)𝑛 ∗ (𝑋 − 1) (𝑛 + 1)2
= lim ∗
𝑛→∞ (𝑛 + 2)2 (𝑋 − 1)𝑛

𝑛2 +2𝑛+1 𝑛2
= 𝑋−1 lim *
𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 +4𝑛+4 𝑛2

2 1
1+ + 2 1+0+0
𝑛 𝑛
= 𝑋−1 lim 4 4 = 𝑋−1 lim
𝑛→∞ 1+𝑛+ 2 𝑛→∞ 1+0+0
𝑛

𝜶= 𝑋−1
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 if :
𝑋 − 1 < 𝟏 ( -1 < 𝒙 − 𝟏 < 𝟏 ) 𝑺𝒐 (𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝟐).
 FOURIER SERIES :

DEFINITIONS :

A function y = f(x) is said to be even, if f(-x) = f(x).The graph of the even function is always symmetrical about the y-axis.

A function y = f(x) is said to be odd, if f(-x) = - f(x). The graph of the odd function is always symmetrical about the origin.

For example, the function f(x) = x in [-1,1] is even as

f(-x) = −x = x = f(x)

And the function f(x) = x in [-1,1] is odd as f(-x) = -x = -f(x).

The graphs of these functions are shown in next slide :
 Graph of f(x) = x Graph of f(x) = x

Note that the graph of f(x) = x is symmetrical about the y-axis and the graph of f(x) = x is symmetrical about the origin.
Note:-
If f(x) is even and g(x) is odd, then
➢ h(x) = f(x) x g(x) is odd
➢ h(x) = f(x) x f(x) is even
➢ h(x) = g(x) x g(x) is even
For e.g.,
1. h(x) = x2 cosx is even, since both x2 and cosx are even
functions
2. h(x) = xsinx is even, since x and sinx are odd functions
3. h(x) = x2 sinx is odd, since x2 is even and sinx is odd.
 FOURIER SERIES :

A Fourier series of a periodic function consists of a sum of sine and cosine terms. Sines and cosines are the most

fundamental periodic functions.

The Fourier series is named after the French Mathematician and Physicist Jacques Fourier (1768 – 1830). Fourier

series has its application in problems pertaining to heat conduction, acoustics, etc. The subject matter may be divided

into the following sub topics

FOURIER SERIES

Series with Half-range Harmonic Complex

arbitrary period series analysis series
 Sufficient conditions for Fourier series expansion of a function f(x) :

Consider a real-valued function f(x) which obeys the following conditions called Dirichlet’s conditions :

1.f(x) is single valued, finite and defined in an interval (a,a+2l)

with f(x+2l) = f(x) so that f(x) is a periodic function of period 2l.

2.f(x) is continuous or has only a finite number of discontinuities

in the interval (a,a+2l).

3.f(x) has at the most only a finite number of maxima or minima

in the interval (a,a+2l).

 Particular cases :

Case (i) Suppose a = 0 and 𝒍 = 𝝅 :

Then f(x) is defined over the interval (0,2l).

a0 
f ( x) = +  a n cos nx + bn sin nx
2 n =1
2
1
a0 =
 
0
f ( x)dx
2
1
an =
  f ( x) cos nxdx
0
, n=1,2,…..

2
1
bn =
  f ( x) sin nxdx ,
0
n=1,2,…..
 Particular cases :

Case (ii) Suppose a = - 𝒍

Then f(x) is defined over the interval (−𝑙 , 𝑙).

a0 
f ( x) = +  a n cos nx + bn sin nx
2 n=1

1
a0 =
  f ( x)dx
−

1
an =  f ( x) cos nxdx n = 1,2,….. ∞
 −
,


1
bn =
  f ( x) sin nxdx
−
n=1,2,….. ∞
 Some useful results :

1. The following rule called Bernoulli’s generalized rule of integration by parts is useful in evaluating the Fourier

coefficients.

 = − + v3 + .......
' ''
uvdx uv1 u v2 u
Here u , u  ,….. are the successive derivatives of u and

v1 =  vdx, v2 =  v1dx,...... We illustrate the rule, through the following examples :

2  − cos nx   − sin nx   cos nx 

 =   −   +  
2
x sin nxdx x 2 x 2
   n   n 
2 3
n
3 e  2 e   e2 x   e2 x 
2x 2x

 x e dx = x  2  − 3x  4  + 6 x 8  − 6 16 

3 2x
 Some useful results :

2. The following integrals are also useful :

e ax
 e cos bxdx = a 2 + b 2 a cos bx + b sin bx 
ax

e ax
 e sin bxdx = a 2 + b 2 a sin bx − b cos bx 
ax

3.If ‘n’ is integer then, sin n = 0 , cos n = (-1)n ,

sin 2n = 0, cos 2n=1
Example :
𝟏
(1) Obtain the Fourier expansion of : 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝝅 − 𝒙 , 𝒊𝒏 − 𝝅 < 𝑿 < 𝝅
𝟐

Solution:

1  1 1
   2 ( − x)dx
a0 = f ( x)dx =
−  −

1  x2 
= x −  = 
2  2  −
 
1 1 1
 −  − 2
an = f ( x) cos nxdx = ( − x) cos nxdx Here we use integration by parts, so that


1   − cos nx 
( − x )
sin nx
an = − (−1) 
2  n  n 2  −

= 0 = 0
1
2
 
1 1
bn =  ( − x) sin nxdx
 − 2

 − cos nx  − sin nx 
( − x ) n
1
= − (−1) 
2   n
2
  −
(−1) n
=
n
Using the values of a0 , an and bn in the Fourier expansion

a0  
f ( x) = +  an cos nx +  bn sin nx we get,
2 n =1 n =1

  (−1)n
f ( x) = +  sin nx
2 n =1 n

This is the required Fourier expansion of the given function.

Example :
∞
2 (−1)𝑛
(2) Obtain the Fourier expansion of f(x) = e-ax in the interval (-, ). Deduce that 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝜋 = ෍ 2
𝜋 𝑛 +1
𝑛=2
Solution:
 
1 1  e − ax 
 e
− ax
a0 = dx = 
 −
  − a  −
e a − e − a 2 sinh a
= =
a a

1
 e cos nxdx
− ax
an =
 −

1  e − ax 
an =  2 − a cos nx + n sin nx
 a + n 2
 −
2a  (−1) n sinh a 
=
  a 2 + n 2 
 
1 − ax
 −
bn = e sin nxdx


1  e − ax 
=  2 − a sin nx − n cos nx
 a + n2  −

1
= 𝑒 −𝑎𝜋 (−𝑎 sin 𝑛𝜋 − 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜋) − 𝑒 𝑎𝜋 (−𝑎 sin −𝑛𝜋 − 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝑛𝜋)
𝜋 (𝑎2 + 𝑛2 )

1
= −𝑛 𝑒 −𝑎𝜋 −1 𝑛+
𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝜋 −1 𝑛
𝜋 (𝑎2 + 𝑛2 )

2𝑛 (−1)𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝜋 −𝑒 −𝑎𝜋
= 𝜋 (𝑎2 + 𝑛2 ) * ( )
2

2n  (−1) n sinh a 
=
  a 2 + n 2 
Thus,

sinh a 2a sinh a  (−1) n 2 

n(−1) n
f ( x) =
a
+


n =1 a 2
+ n 2
cos nx + sinh a  2 2 sin nx
 n =1 a + n
For x = 0, a = 1, the series reduces to

sinh  2 sinh  
(−1) n
f (0) = 1 =

+


n =1 n + 1
2

sinh  2 sinh   1  (−1) n 

1= + − +  2 
   2 n =2 n + 1
2 sinh  
(−1) n
1=


n=2 n + 1
2 Thus,

(−1) n 
 cos ech = 2 2
n=2 n + 1

This is the desired deduction.

Example :

𝜋2 1 1
(3) Obtain the Fourier expansion of f(x) = 𝑿𝟐 over the interval (-, ). Deduce that = 1 + 2 + 2 + ⋯…+ ∞
6 2 3

Solution: 
1
a0 =
  f ( x)dx
−

even  
2  x3 

2 2
2 2
=  x dx =   a0 =
=  f ( x)dx
2
3
 0
 0   3 0

1
an =
  f ( x) cos nxdx
−


2
=
  f ( x) cos nxdx,
0
since f(x) cosnx is even

2
= x Integrating by parts, we get
2
cos nxdx
 0
𝑎𝑛
2 sin 𝑛 𝑥 − cos 𝑛 𝑥 − sin 𝑛 𝑥
𝜋 4(−1)𝑛
= 𝑥2 − 2𝑥 +2 𝑎𝑛 =
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛 2 𝑛3 0
𝑛2
 
1
bn =  f ( x) sin nxdx = 0 since f(x) sinnx is odd.
 −

Thus 2 (−1) n cos nx


f ( x) = + 4
3 n =1 n2
2 
1
 2
= + 4
3 n =1 n2

1 2

1 n 2
=
6

Thus,

𝜋2 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 +. . . . . ∞
6 2 3
Example :
 x,0  x   2 1 1
( 4 ) Obtain the Fourier expansion of f ( x) =  . Deduce that = 1+ + + ......
 2 − x ,   x  2 8 32 52
The graph of f(x) is shown below.

Solution:
Here OA represents the line f(x) = x, AB represents the
line f(x) = (2-x) and AC represents the line x = . Note
that the graph is symmetrical about the line AC, which in
turn is parallel to y-axis. Hence the function f(x) is an even
function.
2 
1 2
a0 =
  f ( x)dx
0
ao =
  f ( x)dx = 
0

2 
1 2
an =
  f ( x) cos nxdx =   f ( x) cos nxdx
0 0

since f(x) cosnx is even.

 
2 For x =  , we get

= x cos nxdx
0
 2  1
f ( ) = +  2 (−1)n − 1cos n
 2  n =1 n
2   sin nx   − cos nx 
=  x  − 1 
   n   n 2  0
or
 2 
− 2 cos(2n − 1)
2

= 2 (−1) n − 1   =
2
+

 n =1 (2n − 1) 2
n
Thus,
2  1
=
Also, 2
1
n =1 ( 2n − 1)
 f ( x) sin nxdx = 0
2
bn = 8
 0
or
2 1 1
since f(x) sinnx is odd. Thus the Fourier series of f(x) is
= 1 + 2 + 2 + ......
8 3 5

 

2 1
f ( x) =
2
+ 
 n =1 n 2
(−1) n − 1 cos nx This is the series as required.
Example :
−  ,−  x  0 2 1 1
( 5 ) Obtain the Fourier expansion of f(x)=  . Deduce that = 1+ + + ......
 x,0  x   8 32 52

Solution:

1  
0

Here, a0 =   − dx +  xdx = −

  − 0  2

1 
0 
a n =   −  cos nxdx +  x cos nxdx
 − 0 
an =
1
n
2
 
(−1) n − 1

1 
0
bn =   −  sin nxdx +  x sin nxdx
  − 0 
1

= 1 − 2(−1) n
n

f(x) =
− 1  1
 
−  2 (−1) − 1 cos nx + 
n


1 − 2(−1) n 
sin nx
4  n =1 n n =1 n
Note that the point x=0 is a point of discontinuity of f(x).
Here f(x+) = 0, f(x-) = - at x = 0. Hence

−
[ f ( x + ) + f ( x − )] = (0 −  ) =
1 1
2 2 2
The Fourier expansion of f(x) at x = 0 becomes

− − 1  1
= −  2 [(−1) n − 1]
2 4  n =1 n
2  1
or =  2 [(−1) n − 1]
4 n =1 n

Simplifying we get,

2 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + ......
8 3 5
Example :
2 1 1 1
( 6 ) Obtain the Fourier expansion of f(x) = 1-𝑿 over the interval (-1,1). Hence deduce that
𝟐
= + + ......
The given function is even, as f (-x) = f(x). 12 12 22 32
Also period of f(x) is 1-(-1) = 2

Solution:
1 1
1
a0 =  f ( x)dx = 2 f ( x)dx
1 −1 0
1
1
 x3  4
= 2 (1 − x )dx = 2 x −  =
2

0  3 0 3

1
1
an =  f ( x) cos(nx)dx as f(x) cos(nx) is even
1 −1
1
= 2 f ( x) cos(nx)dx
1
= 2 (1 − x 2 ) cos(nx)dx
0 0
 Integrating by parts, we get

1
  sin nx   − cos nx   − sin nx 
( )
an = 2  1 − x 2 

 − (−2 x)


2 
+ ( −2)


3 
  n   ( n )   ( n )  0
4(−1) n +1
an =
n 2 2
1
1
bn =  f ( x) sin( nx)dx = 0 ,since f(x) sin (n x) is odd
1 −1
2 4 
(−1) n +1
The Fourier series of f(x) is f ( x) = + 2
3 

n =1 n2
cos(nx)

Putting x = 0 in the above series we get

2 1 1 1
= + + ......
12 12 22 32
Example :  4x 3
1+ in −  x  0
( 7 ) Obtain the Fourier expansion of

f ( x) = 
3 2
. Hence deduce that 2 1 1
4x 3 = 1 + 2 + 2 + ......
1 − in0  x  8 3 5

 3 2

Solution:
3  − 3
The period of f(x) is −  = 3
2 2
 nx 
3/ 2
1
3 / 2 −3/ 2
an = f ( x ) cos dx
Also f (-x) = f(x). Hence f(x) is even  3/ 2 
 2nx 
3/ 2
2
1
3/ 2
2
3/ 2 =  f ( x) cos dx
3 / 2 −3/ 2 
a0 = f ( x ) dx = f ( x)dx 3/ 2 0  3 
3/ 2 3/ 2
  2nx  
0
  2nx   
4
3/ 2
 4x   sin   − cos 
a0 =
3  1 − dx = 0
 3 
4  4 x   3    − 4 
= 1 − 
 
− 
 3 

0 3 3   2 n   3   2n 
2
      
     
3   3  0

=
4
n 2 2
1 
− ( −1) n

 3
 nx 
bn =  f ( x) sin  dx = 0
Also, 1 2
3 −3  3 
2  2

 2nx 
 

4 1

Thus
f ( x) = 1 − ( −1) n
cos 
 2 n =1 n 2  3 

 n 1 − (−1) 

4 1 n
putting x = 0, we get f(0) =
 2
n =1
2

8  1 1 
1= 1 + + + ......
 2  32 5 2 
Thus,

2 1 1
= 1+ + + ......
8 32 52
MACLAURIAN AND TYLOR SERIES :