Sampling Procedure and The Sample: What's in

Sampling Procedure and the Sample
What’s In
Remember when you were taught how to write your scope and delimitation, you stated the
subjects, participants, or respondents of your study. You also described their characteristics which
qualify them to be the source of your research data.
The next question you have to answer is, how many of the subjects, participants, or
respondents should be selected as a source of data? This lesson will teach you how to describe
sampling procedures in quantitative research. Note that the sampling procedure should be aligned
to your chosen research design. Since you have already decided the research design of your study,
then you are ready for this lesson.
What I Need to Know
Population and Sample
The first step in determining the sample size is identifying the population of the topic of interest.
The population is the totality of all the objects, elements, persons, and characteristics under
consideration. It is understood that this population possesses common characteristics about which
the research aims to explore.
There are two types of population: target population and accessible population. The actual
population is the target population, for example, all Senior High School Students enrolled in Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in the Division of Cagayan de Oro City. While the
accessible population is the portion of the population in which the researcher has reasonable access,
for example all Senior High School enrolled, STEM strand at Marayon Science High School – X.
When the whole population is too costly or time-consuming or impractical to consider, then,
a sample representative is identified. Sampling pertains to the systematic process of selecting the
group to be analyzed in the research study. The goal is to get information from a group that
represents the target population. Once a good sample is obtained, the generalizability and
applicability of findings increases.
The representative subset of the population refers to the sample. All the 240 Senior
High School Students enrolled in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Strand
in a school, for example, constitute the population; 60 of those students constitute the sample. A
good sample should have characteristics of the represented population – characteristics that are
within the scope of the study with fair accuracy. Generally, the larger the sample, the more reliable
the sample be, but still, it will depend on the scope and delimitation and research design of the
study.
What Is It
Approaches in Identifying the Sample Size
Heuristics. This approach refers to the rule of the thumb for sample size. The early established
approach by Gay (1976) stated by Cristobal and Dela Cruz-Cristobal (2017, p 172), sample sizes for
different research designs are the following:
1
Number of
Research Design
Subjects/Participants
Descriptive Research 10% to 20% maybe
required
Comparative Research 15 subjects or groups
Lunenberg and Irby (2008), as cited by Barrot (2017, p 107), also suggested different sample
sizes for each quantitative research design.
Number of
Research Design
Subjects/Participants
Survey 800
Correlational 100 to 200
Ex post facto 30+
Experimental 30 or more
Literature Review. Another approach is by reading similar or related literature and studies to your
current research study. Since you are done writing your review of related literature and studies, you
might want to recall how these studies determine sample size. Using this approach increases the
validity of your sampling procedure.
Formulas. Formulas are also being established for the computation of an acceptable sample size.
The common formula is Slovin’s Formula.
Slovin’s Formula:
where: n is the sample size
N is the population size
E is the desired margin of error
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Probability Sampling in Quantitative Research
Simple Random Sampling. It is a way of choosing individuals in which all members of the accessible
population are given an equal chance to be selected. There are various ways of obtaining samples
through simple random sampling. These are fish bowl technique, roulette wheel, or use of the table of
random numbers. This technique is also readily available online. Visit this link
https://www.randomizer.org/ to practice.
Stratified Random Sampling. The same with simple random sampling, stratified random sampling also
gives an equal chance to all members of the population to be chosen.
However, the population is first divided into strata or groups before selecting the samples. The
samples are chosen from these subgroups and not directly from the entire population. This procedure is
best used when the variables of the study are also grouped into classes such as gender and grade level.
You can simply follow the steps from this given example:
A population of 600 Junior High School students includes 180 Grade 7, 160 Grade 8, 150
Grade 9, and 110 Grade 10. If the computed sample size is 240, the following
proportionate sampling will be as follows.
The number of members per subgroup is divided by the total accessible sample size. The
percentage result of members per subgroup will be multiplied from the computed total sample size.
After obtaining the sample size per strata, then simple random sampling will be done for the selection of
samples from each group.
Sample Size per Subgroups
180/600 = .30x 240 = 72 Grade 7 students

160/600 = .27x 240 = 65 Grade 8 students
150/600 = .25x 240 = 60 Grade 9 students
110/600 = .18x 240 = 43 Grade 10 students
100% 240 respondents
Cluster Sampling. This procedure is usually applied in large-scale studies, geographical spread
out of the population is a challenge, and gathering information will be very time-consuming. Similar to
stratified random sampling, cluster sampling also involves grouping of the population according to
subgroups or clusters. It is a method where multiple clusters of people from the chosen population will
be created by the researcher in order to have homogenous
characteristics.
For example, a researcher would like to interview of

all public senior high school students across Mindanao. As a
researcher cluster will be selected to satisfy the plan size. In the given example, the first cluster can be
by region, the second cluster can be by division, and the third cluster can be by district.
Another way of doing cluster sampling is illustrated on the figure on the right side.
https://bit.ly/2UTiZzp
Systematic Sampling. This procedure is as simple as selecting sample s every nth (example every 2nd, 5th)
of the chosen population until arriving at a desired total number of sample size. Therefore the selection
is based on a predetermined interval. Dividing the population size by the sample size, the interval will be
obtained. For example, from a total population of 75, you have 25 samples; using systematic sampling,
you will decide to select every 3rd person on the list of individuals.
What’s More
Activity 1. Determine the Sampling Procedure
Directions: Identify the sampling procedure used in each given situation. Write your answer on the space
provided and then explain your choice.
Sampling
Sample Situation Justification
Procedure
1. Alex’s target population for his study are the
employees of hotels in Mindanao. Since there are
too many employees in these establishments, he
randomly selected ten hotels. And then he
considered all employees as participants in his
study.
2. Dianne wants to know if the new learning
modalities in the first semester affects the
academic performance of senior high students.
He took all the lists of all students in her school
and selected every 6th name to be part of her
study.
3. Faye wants to survey all the parents in Cagayan de
Oro who opt to enroll their elementary children
to an online class. All in all there 26,000 parents.
Faye decided to have 450 from the target
population.
What I Have Learned
Directions: As you have learned from this lesson, answer each question comprehensively.
1. What do I know about the population and sample of the study?

___________________________________________________________________
2. I have learned that when determining the sample size of the study….
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. Now I know that sampling procedures involve…..

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Describes your Sampling Procedure and Sample
Directions: Perform the following task. Identify the size of the population and sample for your group
research study and explain the sampling method that you will use.
1. Size of Population
2. The method used to determine sample size (include
computation if applicable)
3. Sample Size for the Study
4. Sampling Procedure to be employed
(explain the steps)
5. Who will be your respondents?
Research Instrument, Validity and Reliability

What I Need to Know
Quantitative Research Instrument
What do you think will happen if tools for building a house is not prepared meticulously? The same
thing when getting information for answers to a research problem, tools, or instruments should be
prepared carefully. In constructing a quantitative research instrument, it is very important to remember
that the tools created should require responses or data that will be numerically analyzed.
Research Instruments are basic tools researchers used to gather data for specific research
problems. Common instruments are performance tests, questionnaires, interviews, and observation
checklist. The first two instruments are usually used in quantitative research, while the last two
instruments are often in qualitative research. However, interviews and observation checklists can still be
used in quantitative research once the information gathered is translated into numerical data.
Activity 1. Let’s read

Directions: Read and analyze the given scenario. Answer the guide questions below.
A culmination program was scheduled for Grade 12 students. The highlight of the program is
the presentation of the festival of dances. The six sections prepared for the said dance contest
during the culmination. A month before the activity, the students already started planning.
Their parents were also very supportive in the preparation of their costumes and props. The
class advisers also monitored the practices in their classrooms.
During the contest, the PE teacher invited teachers from other schools to serve as a judge. The
performances were exemplary, especially the section Rydberg. The section was also a crowd
favorite. However, another group that performed poorly compared to Rydberg was pronounced as
the winner. Due to the result of the contest, Rydberg and other sections wanted to know the bases
for judging. After conducting an investigation, it turned out that no clear criteria were set, and no
Guide Questions:
1. What do you think must have been done to avoid the said situation?
___________________________________________________________________
2. What can you say about the result of investigation?
___________________________________________________________________
3. How will you relate the scenario to the conduct of a quantitative research study?
___________________________________________________________________
What Is It
In constructing the research instrument of the study, there are many factors to be considered. The type
of instrument, reasons for choosing the type, and the description and conceptual definition of its parts
are some of the factors that need to be decided before constructing a research instrument.
Furthermore, it is also very important to understand the concepts of scales of research instruments and
how to establish validity and reliability of instruments.
Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument
Concise. Have you tried answering a very long test, and because of its length, you just pick the answer
without even reading it? A good research instrument is concise in length yet can elicit the needed data.
Sequential. Questions or items must be arranged well. It is recommended to arrange it from simplest to
the most complex. In this way, the instrument will be more favorable to the respondents to answer.
Valid and reliable. The instrument should pass the tests of validity and reliability to get more
appropriate and accurate information.
Easily tabulated. Since you will be constructing an instrument for quantitative research, this factor
should be considered. Hence, before crafting the instruments, the researcher makes sure that the
variable and research questions are established. These will be an important basis for making items in the
research instruments.
Ways in Developing Research Instrument
There are three ways you can consider in developing the research instrument for your study. First is
adopting an instrument from the already utilized instruments from previous related studies. The second
way is modifying an existing instrument when the available instruments do not yield the exact data that
will answer the research problem. And the third way is when the researcher made his own instrument
that corresponds to the variable and scope of his current study.
Common Scales Used in Quantitative Research
Likert Scale. This is the most common scale used in quantitative research. Respondents were asked to
rate or rank statements according to the scale provided.
Example: A Likert scale that measures the attitude of students towards distance learning.
Strongly Strongly
Items Agree Disagree
Agree Disagree
There would be difficulty in
communicating our concerns to our
teacher.
There would be many distractions
when learning at home than in school.
Semantic Differential. In this scale, a series of bipolar adjectives will be rated by the respondents. This
scale seems to be more advantageous since it is more flexible and easy to construct.
Example: On a description of an active student in school activities.
Pleasant 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant
Enthusiastic 5 4 3 2 1 Not Enthusiastic
Competent 5 4 3 2 1 Incompetent
Another important consideration in constructing a research instrument is how to

establish its validity and reliability.
Types of Validity of Instrument
Face Validity. It is also known as “logical validity.” It calls for an initiative judgment of the
instruments as it “appear.” Just by looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it is valid.
Content Validity. An instrument that is judged with content validity meets the objectives of the
study. It is done by checking the statements or questions if this elicits the needed information.
Experts in the field of interest can also provide specific elements that should be measured by the
instrument.
Construct Validity. It refers to the validity of instruments as it corresponds to the theoretical

construct of the study. It is concerning if a specific measure relates to other measures.
Reliability refers to the

Reliability of Instrument consistency of the measures
or results of the instrument.
Test-retest Reliability. It is achieved by giving the same test to the same group of respondents twice.
The consistency of the two scores will be checked.
Equivalent Forms Reliability. It is established by administering two identical tests except for
wordings to the same group of respondents.
Activity 1. Qualify and Rate the Instrument
Directions: Look for sample research instrument from previously conducted research. Rate it on a
scale of 1 to 5 (1 = lowest, 5 = highest) based on the criteria given. Then justify your
rating.
Sample Instrument
(provide a title of the
instrument if possible):
Purpose of the
Research Instrument:
Number of Items: ______________ Scale Used: _______________
Criteria for Evaluation of
Rating Justification
Instrument
Concise
Sequential
Valid and Reliable
Easily Tabulated
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What I Have Learned
Directions: As you have learned from this lesson, answer each question comprehensively.
1. Why is it important to have a good research instrument?

___________________________________________________________________
2.Differentiate validity and reliability. Explain how they complement each other to make a good
research instrument.
___________________________________________________________________
What I Can Do
Construct your research instruments and establish validity and reliability.

Directions: Fill out the guide table below to be able to create a good research instrument for your
group research study.
1. The goal of your research instrument/s
2. Parts of your instrument/s
3. Number of items per sub-factor: total items
4. Scale to be used
5. How will it be validated?
6. How will the reliability be established?
Additional Activity
Direction: After you have filled out the guide table above, start constructing your research
instrument for your current study.
Title of your study:

________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Research Questions:
________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Research Instrument
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Planning Data Collection Procedure
What’s In
You have learned the important factors in developing your research instruments in lesson 3
of this Module. You can now identify the steps you are going to undertake in your actual gathering of
data. In this lesson, three phases in data collection will be presented so that you can clearly plan
your data collection procedure in your current research.
What I Need to Know

Quantitative Data
Generally, data are any pieces of information or facts that people have known. Once these data
answer the research problem, it becomes helpful to research. When research data appears to be
measurable in the numerical form, it is considered quantitative data. However, some qualitative
data can also be useful to quantitative research once it is given a numerical value. For example, if
you study about adjustment experiences of students to distant learning, if it is categorized and
numbered accordingly, then it can be quantified during analysis.
Techniques in Collecting Quantitative Data
The following are the common quantitative data gathering technique. Each technique corresponds
to specific instrument which will be further discussed in Module 5.
Observation. It is gathering information about a certain condition by using senses. The researcher
records the observation as seen and heard. This is done by direct observation or indirect observation
by the use of gadgets or apparatus. An observation checklist aid the researcher in recording the data
gathered.
Survey. Data gathering is done through interview or questionnaire. By means of questionnaire you
use series of questions or statements that respondents will have to answer. Basically, respondents
write or choose their answer from given choices. On the other hand, interview is when you ask
respondents orally to tell you the responses. Since you are doing quantitative research, it is expected
that responses have numerical value either it is nominal or ordinal in form.
Experiment. When your study is an experimental design, it was already discussed in the previous
lesson that it would use treatment or intervention. After the chosen subjects, participants, or
respondents undergone the intervention, the effects of such treatment will be measured.
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What Is It
Three Phases in Data Collection

In doing research, data collection is a major component of research. Neglecting to clarify the
collection procedure would result in acquiring inaccurate data that will make you research study
invalid. Hence, the data collection procedure is given meticulous attention to gather appropriate
data. You are making sure that data you will gather answers to your research questions.
The data gathering procedure is presented in a paragraph format in your research paper.
Basically, the contents are the steps you are going to follow: (1) before you will gather the data, (2)
what to do during the actual gathering of data, and (3) the things to consider after data has been
gathered. The following are the suggested steps but not limited to it, are the procedures in gathering
quantitative data.
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What’s More
Activity 2. Arrange your Steps

Directions: Arrange the following steps in data gathering into their correct sequence, 1 as being the
first step, and 10 as the last step.
Order Steps
_______ The respondents will have a chance to have a look at the performance tasks.
Each of the participants will be interviewed for individual filling out of the personal
_______
background of media literacy information.
The researcher will meet the participants eight times in a four-month data gathering
_______
period.
The participants will answer the learning activity sheet (LAS) after practicing the new
_______
approach.
The data collection in each group will be supervised by two experienced Information
_______ Technology teachers to ensure proper implementation of the intervention.
The participants will read example situations about media literacy that are not familiar
_______
to them.
The new approach in assessing the performance tasks of learners will be implemented.
_______
_______ The list of performance tasks and assessment tools will be prepared.
The media literacy summative test will be administered after the implementation of the
_______
new approach in assessing performance tasks.
_______ The test results will be encoded for summary and will be analyzed.
Data Collection Instruments

What’s In
Due to the COVID-19 global pandemic crisis, many are easily hook into sharing and
believing fake news without processing and verifying the source. Daily figures of these cases are
also gradually changing, creating misinformation and fear. People are anxious about what is
happening and tensions are inevitable due to security and health threats. Therefore, reliable
sources of data and information are highly needed. The fundamental questions to ask are: What
is data? Why researchers collect data? How is data collected? Who needs the collected data?
In this pandemic situation specifically, the following questions can be considered.
• How many Filipinos are positive of COVID-19?

• Does aspirin prevent the spread of COVID-19?
• How many percent of Filipinos are jobless when the lockdown began?
• How have the education sector embraced the new normal?
All of these questions, and many more can be answered through data collection. As
taught in the previous lesson, a researcher begins by identifying the research problem. Once the
data gathering procedure has been implemented and data has been gathered, the next thing to
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do is to analyze and interpret them. Data is obtained with the aid of data collection instruments
which will be the focus in this lesson.
What’s New
How do you collect your data?
Look at the different kinds of research instruments. Check all that seem helpful in
answering your research questions. You may choose more than one.
What Is It
Research Instruments
Questionnaires
A questionnaire consists of a series of questions about a research topic to gather data

from the participants. It consists of indicators that is aligned to the research questions.
Gathering of information can be carried out in the following methods: face to face, by
telephone, or through e-mail, messenger, social media post, or using computer programs or
forms (Barrot, 2018, p 138).
In quantitative research, questionnaires use the following approaches: (1) scale (usually
Likert scale); and (2) conversion of responses into numerical values, e.g. strongly as 5, agree as
4, neutral as 3, disagree as 2, and strongly disagree as 1.
The terms survey and questionnaire have different meanings. A questionnaire is an

instrument used to collect data while a survey is a process of collecting, recording, and
analyzing data. Questionnaires can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.
There are three structures of making a questionnaire. The first, structured

questionnaires employ closed-ended questions. Unstructured questionnaires, on the other
hand, use open-ended questions in which the research participants can freely answer and put his
thoughts into it. Lastly, semi-structured questionnaires are combinations of both the structured
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and unstructured ones. Structured type is commonly used in quantitative studies because it is easier
to code, interpret objectively, and, most of all, easier to standardize.
Advantages of Using Questionnaire
1. Data can be quickly gathered from a big number of participants.

2. The participants are encouraged to be open to the researchers since their identity can
be made anonymous.
Disadvantages of Using Questionnaire
1. The questions can be interpreted differently by the participants.

2. Some participants will not be able to complete the required responses.
3. Some questionnaires will not be returned on time.
4. Some questionnaires will be lost.
5. The answers from participants may lack depth.
Guidelines in Using Questionnaires for Data Collection

1. Choose the method of administering the questionnaire.
a. Face-to-face Method. Use this when you need to capture the emotions, behavior,
and non-verbal cues of the participants
b. Online Method. Use this when behavior and non-verbal cues need not to be taken
2. Divide your questionnaire into two or three parts.
a. Personal information. This section which contains background information of the
participants. (Names are optional)
b. Main section. This lists the specific questions or indicators.
c. Open-ended question section. This contains additional information that might be
needed. (This applied only for quantitative research)
3. Make sure to craft questions and choices that are aligned with specific research
questions or objectives.
4. Provide specific and clear directions for respondents in answering the questionnaire.
5. Use routing (directing) technique if there is a need to skip some items in the
questionnaire.
6. Begin with the general questions first followed by the specific ones.
7. Prefer to have brief, clear, and concise questionnaire. Use simple terms.
8. Predetermined responses or choices should match the nature of the questions.
a. If the content is about belief, use agreement (strongly agree , agree, neutral,
disagree, strongly disagree)
b. If the questionnaire is about behavior, use extent (very great extent, great extent,
moderate extent, small extent, none at all)
c. If questions are about frequency, use frequency (always, frequently, sometimes,
seldom, never)
d. If the content is about quality, use quality (excellent, very good, good, poor)
Later, these responses will be translated into numerical values (e.g. five-point Likert
scale)
9. Avoid negative statements unless necessary.

10. Avoid leading and biased, double-barreled, and very sensitive questions.
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11. Do not split the questions or choices over two pages.
12. If possible, schedule an appointment before distributing the questionnaires.
13. Attach a cover letter to the questionnaire especially for agency connected respondents.
14. Make a follow-up on the participants who did not to return the questionnaire.
15. Tally and encode the data immediately once you have collected them and archive them
digitally.
Tests
Tests are used for assessing various skills and types of behavior as well as for describing
some characteristics. There are two types of test used in quantitative research: Standardized test
and Non-standardized test.
Standardized test is scored uniformly across different areas and groups. It is usually
administered by institutions to assess a wide range of groups such as students and test-takers. It is
considered as more reliable and valid. Examples are Achievement test, University Entrance Exam,
Personality Tests, and the likes.
Non-standardized test may not be scored uniformly. It is administered to a certain set of

people.
Types of Test Questions
1. Recall Questions. It requires participants to retrieve information from memory (e.g. fillin-the
blank test, identification test, enumeration test, etc.)
2. Recognition Questions. It provides respondents to select from given choices the best or
correct choice (e.g. multiple-choice test, true or false test, yes or no test, etc.)
3. Open-ended Questions. It allows the respondents more freedom in their responses,
expressing their thoughts and insights (e.g. essay writing tests and other performance based
tests.
The following table shows the types of test and examples

What the Participants
Type Subtype Example
will Do
Recall Cloze test Supply words or phrases Questionnaires can be structured, semi-
that have been structured, or _____________.
deleted/removed from a
test.
Identification Provide an answer to What type of questionnaire employs
the given question close-ended questions?
using pure recall.
Enumeration List down the answers, List the steps in conducting quantitative
whether chronologically research.
or not.
Recognition Multiple Choose the best/ Which of the following does NOT
Choice correct answer from belong to the group? A. Collecting
three to five options. data
B. Tabulating data
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C. Interpreting data
D. Differing data
Matching Match the items in Match the terminologies in Column A
Column A with the items with their synonyms in Column B.
in Column B. Column A Column B
__1. Data A. Participants
__2. Respondents B. Representative
__3. Sample C. Information
4
Dichotomous Choose an answer from Write TRUE on the space before each
two options either number if the statement is correct and
True or False or FALSE if it is incorrect.
Modified True or _____1. Data collection is the first
False. step in conducting quantitative
research.
Open- Nonperformance Provide a lengthy Explain the process of obtaining the
Ended based answer in writing or sample size from the population.
orally.
Performancebased Perform a task where Present a role play about conducting
they are expected to an interview on study habits among
prepare a presentation students.
or written work.
Source: (Barrot, 2018, p 146)
Interview
A quantitative interview is a method of collecting data about an individual’s behaviors,
opinions, values, emotions, and demographic characteristics using numerical data.
Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Interviews
Quantitative Interviews Qualitative Interviews

It uses closed-ended questions. It uses open-ended questions.
It contains a rating scale or rubric. No rating scale or rubric needed.
Responses are numerical. Responses are non-numerical.
A large sample size is used. Small sample size is used.
Structured type is used to minimize “interviewer Unstructured, semi-structured, informal
effect”, which means that the responses of the interviews, and focus group discussions
participants may be affected by the behavior (FGD) are used.
displayed by the researcher on the manner that the
questions are presented.
The questionnaire and quantitative interview are both highly structured, but here’s a distinction
between the two:
Quantitative Interviews Questionnaires

Items are read to the participants. Participants answer on their own.
Researchers may ask follow-up questions. Researchers may not ask follow-
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up questions.
Useful when the target participants cant Not applicable for blind and uneducated (no
answer a printed or encoded questionnaire read, no write) participants.
(blind or uneducated).
Observation
Observation is another method of collecting data that is frequently used in qualitative

research. However, it can be used in quantitative research when the observable characteristics are
quantitative in nature (e.g. length, width, height, weight, volume, area, temperature, cost, level, age,
time, and speed)
Observation allows the researcher to observe the actual event or phenomenon. It has
greater flexibility in the observation method. However, observation may lack participant validity and
may be prone to the Hawthorne effect phenomenon. Furthermore, it is more exhausting and time-
consuming especially when observations need to be conducted for many years).
Forms of Observation
1. Controlled Observation. It is usually used in experimental research and is done under a

standard procedure. It provides more reliable data (obtained through structured and
well-defined process). The procedure can be replicated, and the data are easier to
analyze. Lastly, the observer performs a non-participant role (i.e. does not interact with
the participants).
2. Natural Observation. It is carried out in a non-controlled setting. It has greater ecological

validity (i.e. flexibility of the findings to be generalized to real-life contexts). It also
responds to other areas of inquiry not initially intended by the researcher. Its major
limitation is its strength to establish a causal relationship due to the presence of
extraneous variables which can affect the behavior of the participants
3. Participant Observation. It allows the observer to become a member of the group or

community that the participants belong to. It can be performed covertly (i.e.
participants are not aware of the purpose behind the observation. It can be done also
overtly, wherein participants know the intention or objectives of the observation
Different Roles of a Researcher during a Participant Observation
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Observational
Description
Role
Complete Observe the spontaneous natural behavior of the participants with as few external
observer factors affecting it as possible. The observer is neither seen nor noticed by the
participants. The participants are less prone to the Hawthorne effect.
Observer as Researcher does not prioritize recording spontaneous or natural behavior with as
participant few external factors affecting it as possible. The observer is known and recognized
by the participants as part of their group or community but has limited interaction
with them.
Participant as Researcher does not primarily aim to capture spontaneous or natural behavior. The
observer observer is considered a researcher and not a member of the group or community
which is being investigated. However, the observer is fully engaged with the
participants.
Complete Researcher is to observe the spontaneity or natural behavior of the

participant participant with as few external factors affecting it as possible. Taking this role raises
ethical issues about possible deception. He acts like an “undercover” member of the
community. He fully involved with the participants who are unaware that they are
being observed.
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Google Forms are free online forms that allows the researcher to construct, administer,
and analyze surveys.
Step-by-step on how to use the google forms:
Step 1: Set up a new form or quiz
1. Go to forms.google.com.
2. Click Blank .
3. A new form will open.
Step 2: Edit and format a form or quiz (You can add, edit, or format text, images, or videos in a
form.)
1. Edit your form.

2. Create a quiz/survey with Google Forms.
3. Choose where to save form responses.
Step 3: Send your form for people to fill out
1. When you are ready, you can send your form to others and collect their responses.
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Different Formats of Online Survey Tools (www.surveygizmo.com)
1. Radio Buttons 2. Checkboxes
Gender
Favorite Mall
☒SM
☒Ayala
☐Gaisano
☒Lim Ketkai
3. Drop Down Menus 9. Image Select
4. Drag and Drop
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5. Likert Scale
6. Slider Scale
7. Star Ranking
8. Net Promoter Score (NPS)
10. Matrix
Province General Community Modified General Enhanced Community

Quarantine Community Quarantine Quarantine
Misamis   
Oriental
Bukidnon   
Agusan del   
Norte
Camiguin   
Misamis   
Occidental
Ethical Considerations in Data Collection of Quantitative Research

Ethical considerations should always be practiced especially when human participants are involved.
Researchers ensure that participants are treated properly; especially during data collection. The use
of consent form respects the right of every participant to be informed and to make voluntary
participation.
Informed Consent Form is a document that provides the participants with the information
they need in deciding whether they will participate or not in your study. The informed consent form
must be accomplished before gathering data from the participants. This document must be signed
both by the researcher and the participant as they agree to the conditions during the actual conduct
of the data collection process. It usually contains the following:
9
1. Background of your study (Title of the Study, Purpose of the Study)
2. Name of Researchers and the Institution you are affiliated with
3. Data Collection Procedure
4. Possible discomfort or risk factors
5. Anonymity of the participants and their responses
6. Termination of Research (may refuse to participate anytime)
7. Authorization of the Participants (participants acknowledge the conditions that they will be
subject to the study)
Sample Informed Consent
RESEARCH SUBJECT INFORMED CONSENT

To the participants:
Read this consent form and ask questions and clarifications before you decide to participate in this
study or not. You are also free to ask questions during your participation in this research.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Project Information
Research Title: IMPROVING SPEED AND ACCURACY IN MATH PROBLEM-SOLVING

USING THE SINGAPOREAN METHOD AMONG GRADE 7 STUDENTS
OF GuNHS-X
Researcher: Rico A. Lopez Phone: 09283434567/856-3454
School: Gulaman National High School-X Department: Senior High School
1. PURPOSE OF THIS RESEARCH STUDY
You are asked to participate in a research study that seeks to offer a Singaporean Method in
solving mathematical problems. The Singaporean method is a method that aims to develop speed
and accuracy in solving problems in mathematics. Additionally, the study aims to determine the
effectiveness of the Singaporean Method in solving mathematical problems.
Specifically, this study aims to answer the following questions: (1) Is there a significant
difference between the learner’s problem-solving skill during the pretest and the posttest? (2) Is
there a significant difference between the scores of the learners in rating their problem-solving
skill before and after introduced to the Singaporean Method? (3) Is there a significant difference in
the problem-solving performance and the self-report scores between the control and experimental
group?
2. PROCEDURES
You will be asked to use the workbook prepared by the Math Society and attend the math
class at the Computer Laboratory. You will also be interviewed via Focus Group Discussion to
obtain information regarding your reactions or responses to the approach. Specifically, you will be
asked to do the following: (1) You will be asked to attend the Math class that uses the Singaporean
approach for the whole term. (2) You will be interviewed by your Math teacher for two (2) hours
about your responses regarding the Singaporean approach of learning Mathematics and the
challenges you encounter using this approach.
The expected duration of your participation is from October 2020 to January 2021.
3. POSSIBLE RISKS OR DISCOMFORTS

No possible risks can pose danger to you in any form during the conduct of this study. The
implementation of the method may last for three (3) months or approximately 12 weeks and the
interview may last for two hours.
Cont.
4. POSSIBLE BENEFITS
The findings of this research will benefit your teachers in expanding their teaching
practices to effectively deal with developing a very potential problem-solving skill among its
learners. This study is also useful for both public and private school administrators in the country
in preparing a math curriculum with an intervention that is anchored upon the result of this
study to develop and enhance the problem-solving skills among high school students.
5. FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS
No amount will be required from you during your participation in this study.
6. CONFIDENTIALITY
Your identity in this study will be treated with utmost confidentiality. The results will be
published for academic purposes only. However, any data obtained as a result of your
participation in this study may be checked by the sponsor, by the person conducting this study
and or by the research panelists.
7. TERMINATION OF RESEARCH STUDY

You are free to choose whether or not to participate in this study. There will be no penalty
if you choose not to participate. You may withdraw from your participation at any time without
penalty.
8. AVAILABLE SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Any further questions you have about this study will be answered by the researcher.
9. AUTHORIZATION
I have read and understood this consent form, and I volunteer to participate in this
research study. I understand that I will receive a copy of this form. I voluntarily choose to
participate, but I understand that my consent does not take away any legal rights in the case of
negligence or other legal fault by anyone who is involved in this study. I further understand that
nothing in this consent form is intended to replace any applicable laws.
________________________________________
Participant’s Signature Over Printed Name
Date: ___________________________________
________________________________________
Parent’s/Guardian’s Signature Over Printed Name (if underage)
Date: ___________________________________
________________________________________
Researcher’s Signature Over Printed Name
Date: ___________________________________
What’s More
Activity 1: Answer Me!
Directions: Look at the questionnaire below. Answer the questions that follow by checking the box
that best describes you.
A Questionnaire to Review Your Study Habits
Strongly Strongly
Constructs Agree Undecided Disagree
Agree Disagree
1. I study where there is a good
lighting.
2. I study in a room where the
temperature is cool.
3. The desk where I study is always
clear from distractions.
4. I use earplugs to minimize

distracting sounds.
5. I study facing a wall.
6. I don’t do other things while I am
studying.
7. I prepare ahead of time all the
materials that I will need for
studying.
8. I avoid wasting my times on
Facebook, etc. in between my
study time.
9. I review my notes after class and
use it for review.
10. I take breaks from time to time
during study time.
Activity 2: Write Me Down

Directions: Interview five (5) families in your barangay or other possible options may be presented
depending on the current situation in your community. Create three (3) interview
questions regarding their situation during the COVID-19 pandemic crisis. Make sure that
the responses of your interview questions is quantifiable.
1. ______________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________________
Activity 3: Quantitative or Not?

Directions: Which of the following can be considered as quantitative interview questions? Put a
check () the space provided before the number if the following questions illustrate
quantitative nature and mark it with X if it is not.
___ 1. How often do you buy mobile accessories for social acceptance purposes?
___ 2. How regularly do you go to malls in a week?
___ 3. How much would you be willing to pay for a mobile app for dating?
___ 4. What are the differences in attitudes towards shopping between men and women?
___ 5. What is the difference in the number of telephone calls made between men and women?
___ 6. What is the relationship between a grade in math and level of class participation among Grade
7 students?
___ 7. What is the relationship between the number of COVID-19 cases and travel exposure?
___ 8. What is the relationship between job satisfaction and salary among public school teachers?
___ 9. Can you describe how you first became aware of the COVID-19 crisis?
___ 10. Can you talk about your thoughts on how the COVID_19 pandemic affects a person, a family,
a school, or a community?
___ 11. How do you see yourself today, in terms of the “new normal”?
___ 12. How does your family view your gender crisis?
___ 13. What does your school or community do to educate you about the COVID-19 pandemic
crisis?
___ 14. Can you talk about whether or not you feel safe in your school or community after the
enhanced community quarantine was lifted?
___15. Which factors mostly distort the approval rating of the president?
Activity 4: Observe Me!
Directions: What type of observation is illustrated in the following observation notes? Write the
letter of your choice on the space provided before the number. Choose from the
choices below:
A. complete observer B. observer as participant
C. participant as observer D. complete participant
___ 1. A doctor watching a patient's reaction to a medication.

___ 2. Pilots watching their monitors for airplane movements and locations.
___ 3. A biology teacher recording the daily data on bacteria growth at the Bio laboratory.
___ 4. A guidance counselor watching a friend's reaction to her barkada’s confession.
___ 5. An adviser watching her students work during independent work time.
___ 6. An online tutorial company manager observing the conversation of the interviewer and the
applicant to determine the quality of their performance.
___ 7. A principal observing a math teacher gives a lesson to her class to evaluate her performance
as an educator.
___ 8. A parent is watching her children interact with other children on the playground.
___ 9. An actress is watching her movie premier unfold on the big screen.
___ 10. A group of Grade 12 students went to BFAR to perform certain duties as what the workers
are doing.
What I Can Do (group task)

Directions: Perform the following tasks. Submit your output to your teacher for checking.
Decide on what type of data collection instrument you will use in obtaining data for your group
research study. Why will you use this specific data collection method? Once you have decided on
what data collection instrument to use, it is time to create your questions as a basis for data
gathering. Make sure to align each of your questions or items to the research questions.
Data Presentation and Interpretation

What’s In
In the previous lesson, you were presented with options as to how you will gather your data.
Once the data are collected, you need to encode and organized them for systematic purposes. This
will be the focused of this lesson. In this process, you will need to edit, code, tabulate and summarize
information through graphs and tables for presentation and interpretation purposes. The process
also allows the removal of unnecessary information.
Data presentation and analysis is one of the most essential part in your research study. An
excellent data presentation can be potential for winning the hearts of the panelists, clients, or simply
the readers. No matter how good your data, if it is not well presented, you will not be able to earn
the preferences of those whom you are trying to persuade. Good data presentation matters.
What I Need to Know

The following are the significant steps you need to take note in preparing and writing your
data analysis after gathering the data:
(1) encode and organize your data for analysis according to the data asked by your research
questions;
(2) use your data for statistical tests you have identified in Module 4. You may ask
assistance from your statistics and research teacher;
(3) present the result in tabular or graphical form appropriate for your data and research
purpose;
(4) write the interpretation for each table or graph highlighting the significant results and its
implications;
(5) support your findings from relevant literature and studies you have cited in the Chapter
2 of your research paper; and
(6) edit the grammatical and typographical errors in your interpretation. You may use
www.grammarly.com to edit your work.
(7) Submit your work using the format given to you. Remember the institutional format of
your school.
Techniques in Data Processing

Remember to organize your data based on your research questions. The data processing
involves three actions: editing, coding, and tabulation.
Editing is a process wherein the collected data are checked. At this stage, handling data with
honesty should be employed. When you edit it is expected that you will not change, omit, or makeup
information if you think that the data you collected is insufficient or does not meet your personal
expectations. The main purpose of editing is for checking the consistency, accuracy, organization,
and clarity of the data collected. Data editing can be done manually like traditional tallying or with
the assistance of a computer or combination of both.
Coding is a process wherein the collected data are categorized and organized. It is usually
done in qualitative research. In quantitative research, coding is done to assign numerical value to
specific indicator especially if it is qualitative in nature. This numerical value will be useful when you
are going to analyze your data using statistical tool. Just make sure that the categories created are
aligned with your research questions. Consider the following example.
Tabulation is a process of arranging data. In many studies, table is used to do this process.
Tabulation can done manually or electronically using MS Excel. Again organize the data based on
your research questions. Before inputting your data into the table, it will be helpful to review your
statistics class on how to arrange data according to the statistical techniques you will use. Take note
that the digital tool you are going to use will also matter on how you are going to tabulate your data;
like MS Excel, Minitab, or other digital tools have different ways of entering your data. Correct
arrangement of your data will be helpful during actual data analysis.
What’s New
Look at the latest figures gathered by the Philippine Statistics Authority from a conducted
census. Try to answer the questions that how you are going to interpret the data.
Look at the latest figures gathered by the Philippine Statistics Authority from a conducted census.
Try to answer the questions that follow on how you are going to interpret the data.
1. How is the data presented?

_______________________________________________________________________
2. If you will be asked to present again the data, how will you arrange and label it? Use the space to
draw your presentation of the data.
3. Write 3-5 sentences explanation of the data presented.

_______________________________________________________________________
Presentation and Interpretation of Data
The next step after editing, coding, and tabulating the data is to present them into graphical
or visual presentation called non-prose materials. The purpose of presenting the data in this way is
to make the outlined of the results more presentable. Non-prose materials are composed of
graphs, bars, tables, charts, diagrams, illustrations, drawings, and maps. .
In quantitative research, tables and graphs are usually used. Standard format in presenting
the data into a table or a graph like its title, labels, contents, and many more can be followed as
well when school institutional format is not provided or identified. You may visit APA, CMOS, or
MLA on how to do so.
Tables
Table helps summarize and categorize data using columns and rows. It contains headings
that indicate the most important information about your study.
To interpret the tables, one needs to do the following:
1. Analyze the connections among the details of the headings.

2. Check the unusual pattern of the data and determine the reason behind these.
3. Begin with the table number and the title.
4. Present the significant figures (overall results, high and low values, the unusual pattern).
5. Refrain from repeating again what’s inside the table.
6. Support your findings with literature and studies that confirms or contrasts your results.
7. Establish the practical implications of the results. This will add value to your research
findings.
8. End with a brief generalization.
Sample Interpretation for the Given Table
Sample 1
Table 1. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Student’s Overall Performance in PreCalculus

Pretest
Student’s Overall Performance f %

Outstanding 2 5
Very Satisfactory 15 30
Satisfactory 33 66
Unsatisfactory 0 0
Poor 0 0
Total 50 100
Cont.
Table 1 shows the summary of the overall adjectival rating in frequency and percentage of
students in their pretest in Pre -calculus at Gulayan National High School for S.Y. 2019-2020.
Results reveal that 66% of the students have satisfactory rating. Only 5% have outstanding rating.
Overall, the data showed that the students at Gulayan National High School have fair ratings based
on their pretest scores. This implies that most of the students do not have prior mastery on the concepts
of this subject. Hence, teacher is expected to apply teaching strategies that will increase students’
concepts of the subject. This result is supported by Ignacio (2016) that pretest scores
especially if it is valid and reliable shows prior knowledge of the learners of the subject matter.
Sample 2
Looking at Table 4, there is a significant relationship between the classroom interaction that
facilitates positive discipline and sense belonging (r(39 = .973, p = 0.000). The feeling of being safe and
welcome in school is significantly related to how the teachers manage classroom interaction. This result is
supported by the early studies on classroom management by Brophy and Avertson (1976) that though
variety of teaching behaviors affect effective teaching; classroom management appeared to be one of the
most critical aspects as viewed by students.
Table 3. Correlation Analysis of Positive Discipline and Sense of Belonging
Variables Sense of Belongingness Interpretation

Classroom Interaction Pearson
.973
Correlation Significant
Sig. (2-tailed) .000**
Use of Pearson
.073
Reinforcement Correlation Not Significant
Sig. (2-tailed) .663
*p<.05, **p<.01
Graphs
Graphs focuses on how a change in one variable relates to another. Graphs use bars, lines,
circles, and pictures in representing the data. In interpreting the graph, it is the same process in
table. In choosing what type of graph to use, determine the specific purpose of the presentation.
Line Graph illustrates trends and changes in data over time, Bar Graph illustrates comparisons of
amounts and quantities, while Pie Graph (Circle Graph) displays the relationship of parts to a
whole.
Sample Interpretation of a Bar Graph
Figure 1. GRSHS-X Canteen Lunch Menu
Cont.
Figure 1 shows the canteen lunch menu of GRSHS-X. The graph reveals that rice is highly patronized by the
students and teachers with 150 cups sold daily. It can also be noted that pork and chicken menus have a
good number of buyers (315 serve/pieces). Vegetable menus cannot be undervalued since several
consumers (135 serve/pieces) also patronized the food. At the same time, seafood menus earn the last
spot (50 serve/pieces sold). Generally, students and faculty of GRSHS-X preferred meat (pork and chicken)
menus next to rice.
Sample Interpretation of a Line Graph
Figure 2. Students Quarterly Average Grade by Sections in Elective Mathematics (S.Y.-2020

2019
Figure 2 showed changes in the average grade of Elective Mathematics between Grade 10-
Max and Grade 10 -Min from the first quarter to the fourth quarter for S.Y.
-2020.
2019From the graph,
it is evident that both sections are performing well, but Grade
-Max 10
managed to maintain consistently
its high performance than Grade-Min10 every quarter. During the second quarter, there is a noticeably
far difference between the two sections. Overall, Grade-Max10gained a better performance in Elective
Mathematics than Gr ade 10-Min.
Sample Interpretation of a Pie Graph
Figure 3. Dream Job of the Grade 7 Students from GRSHS -X
Cont.
Figure 3 showed the result of the survey conducted to Grade 7 students when asked about their
dream job. From the graph, forty percent (40%) and thirty percent (30) of the participants wanted to
become a doctor and an engineer, respectively with just thirty percent (30%) left for other professions.
Only about five percent (5%) wanted to become a teacher. From the data, more than 70% of the Grade
7 students will likely pursue STEM strand courses when they graduate in high school.
What’s More
Activity 1: Present Me!
Directions: Present the following data using a specific non-prose material according to its purpose.
Use a separate paper for your presentation.
According to the latest Facebook post of Department of Health-Philippines DOH COVID19 CASE
BULLETIN #106, dated June 28, 2020. Source: https://bit.ly/3dMehug; https://bit.ly/31nmgv2.
1. There are a total of 24, 137 Active Cases of COVID-19 in the Philippines (Data as of June 27,
2020) with the following breakdown:
Asymptomatic - 898 persons
Mild - 23, 090 persons
Severe - 125 persons
Critical - 24 persons
2. These are the data on hospital beds and mechanical ventilators for COVID-19 patients with the
following breakdown:
Ward beds - 3, 179 (41.15% occupied)
Isolation Beds - 8,925 (37.93% occupied)
ICU Beds - 1, 313 (36.63% occupied)
Ventilators - 1, 883 (22.89% in use)
Activity 2: Look and Explain Me!
Directions: Interpret each figure given below. Follow the guidelines in interpreting the graph. Write
a brief interpretation of the data on the space provided for each figure.
Graph 1. Line Graph of COVID-19 cases in the Philippines since March 15-June 27, 2020
Interpretation:
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Graph 2: Number of COVID-19 cases in the Philippines as of April 2, 2020, by gender
Source:
https://bit.ly/2AaLu4J
Interpretation:
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Graph 3: Philippines Major Import Sources, 2016
Interpretation:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Activity 4: Interpret Me!
Directions: Interpret the table following the suggested guidelines. Write brief interpretation on the
space provided.
Table 2. Positive Discipline Practices of Teachers through the Use of Reinforcement

Constructs Mean SD Verbal Descriptions
1. Coach positive social behaviors 3.71 .52 Always observed
2. Reward targeted positive behaviors with incentives 2.89 .84 Often observed
3. Use problem solving strategy 3.16 .89 Often observed
4. Prepare students for transitions with predictable
3.24 .71 Often observed
routines
5. Give clear positive directions 3.34 .81 Always observed
6. Warn consequences for misbehavior 3.03 .75 Often observed
7. Use clear classroom discipline plane 3.29 .77 Always observed
8. Use emotion coaching 3.18 .69 Often observed
9. Use imaginary play/drama, stories to teach problem
3.34 .63 Always observed
solving.
10. Set up problem scenarios to practice prosocial
3.37 .67 Always observed
solutions.
Overall 3.25 .44 Often observed
Legend: 1.00-1.75 = Never Observed, 1.76-2.50 = Sometimes Observed,
2.51-3.25 = Often Observed, 3.26-4.00 = Always Observed
Interpretation:
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Using Statistical Techniques to Analyze Data

What’s In
In the previous lesson, you were presented with options on how to present and
analyze your data through tables and graphs. As mentioned previously, data analysis goes
hand in hand with data presentation and is considered a time-consuming task because it
involves a series of investigations, classifications, mathematical calculations, and graphical
recording, among others.
You are fully aware that planning your research study is needed. Thus, it is assumed
that when you begin your research study, you have already identified the scale of
measurement to use in your research study. Comprehensive statistical analysis is important
before making conclusions about your study.
What I Need to Know
Statistical methods and techniques were already discussed in the previous modules. Sample
Size Determination was also introduced in Module 4, Lesson 2. This lesson will discuss deeply the five
most useful statistical techniques specifically in quantitative research: Percentage, Mean, Standard
Deviation, Correlation, Regression, and Hypothesis Testing.
The computational procedure for hypothesis testing (Chapter 3) will also be shown in this
lesson because this is where your decision-making skill will be tested. You will investigate and
evaluate the claims about your study before writing your conclusions.
What’s New
Activity 1: What’s My Level?

Directions: Look at the table below. Check your level of conceptual knowledge and computational
skills of these statistical techniques.
Statistical Levels of Conceptual Knowledge Levels of Conceptual Skills

Techniques Weak Average Excellent Weak Average Excellent
Percentage
Mean
Standard Deviation
Correlation Analysis
Regression Analysis
Hypothesis Testing
What Is It
Statistical Techniques
1. Percentage is any proportion from the whole.
Formula:
Example:
Here’s a data gathered by Purok A City High School administration regarding the number of
Grade 7 parents who opted to receive digital copies of the learning modules.
Table 1: Percentage of Parents who Opted to Receive Digital Copies of Learning Modules
Total Number of Parents who opted to

Sections Number of received digital copies of learning Percentage (%)
Parents modules
7-A 30 24 (24÷30)X100 = 80%
7-B 25 25 (25÷25)X100 = 100%
7-C 32 16 (16÷32)X100 = 50%
7-D 30 11 (12÷30)X100 = 40%
TOTAL 117 76 (76÷117)X100 = 64.96%
2. Mean or average is the middlemost value of your list of values and this can be obtained by adding
all the values and divide the obtained sum to the number of values.
Formula:
Example:
1. Ungrouped Data
Refer to Table 1 above, to get the mean or average number of parents who opted to receive digital
copies of learning modules, do the following:
2. Grouped Data
Here’s the data gathered from the survey on Study Habits conducted by the Grade 12
students to the 150 Grade 7 students of Purok A City High School.
Table 2: Mean Distribution of the Study Habits of Students
A Questionnaire to Review Your Study Habits
Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree (2) Strongly Mean (𝑋̅) Verbal

Agree (4) (3) Disagree Description
(5) (1)
I study where 120x5 10x4 0x3 15x2 5x1 600+40+0+30+5 Strongly
there is good =600 =40 =0 =30 =5 Agree
lighting.
I study in a 100x5 20x4 5x3 10x2 15x1 500+80+15+20+15 Agree
room where =500 =80 =15 =20 =15
the 150
temperature =4.2
is cool.
3. Standard Deviation shows the spread of data around the mean.
Formula:
Example:
Table 2: Mean and Standard Deviation Distribution of the Study Habits of Students
Abbreviation Numerical Values

Strongly Agree (SA) - 5
Agree (A) - 4
Undecided (U) - 3
Disagree (D) - 2
Strongly Disagree (SD) - 1
One need to get the range from which the mean of a five-point Likert can be interpreted.
There are two methods to do this, if we treat the Likert scale as interval/ratio. First, the usual way is
to calculate the interval by computing the range (e.g. 5 − 1 = 4), then divided it by the maximum
value (e.g. 4 ÷ 5 = 0.80). Ultimately, we get the following result:
From 1 to 1.80 represents (strongly disagree).

From 1.81 to 2.60 represents (do not agree).
From 2.61 to 3.40 represents (true to some extent).
From 3:41 to 4:20 represents (agree).
From 4:21 to 5:00 represents (strongly agree).
The other way is to treat the selection as the range themselves, and so we get these results:
From 0.01 to 1.00 is (strongly disagree);
From 1.01 to 2.00 is (disagree);
From 2.01 to 3.00 is (neutral);
From 3.01 to 4:00 is (agree);
From 4.01 to 5.00 is (strongly agree)
Here’s how it will appear in your research paper.
Mean (𝑿̅) Standard
Study Habit Verbal Interpretation
Deviation (𝑺𝑫)
1. I study where there is good lighting. 4.5 4.12 Strongly Agree
2. I study in a room where the 4.2 3.91 Agree

temperature is cool.
4. Correlation Analysis (Pearson’s r) is a statistical method used to estimate the strength of

relationship between two quantitative variables.
Formula:
Example:
Here’s a data of five students with their corresponding grade in Math (Independent Variable) and
grade in English (Dependent Variable). Is there a significant relationship between the grade in Math
and the grade in English?
Table 3. Grade in Math and Grade in English of Five Students
Grade in Mathematics Grade in English (y)

Student x2 y2 xy
(x)
A 96 97 9216 9409 9312
B 90 92 8100 8464 8280
C 93 96 8649 9216 8928
D 94 95 8836 9025 8930
E 92 90 8464 8100 8280
Sum 465 470 43265 44214 43730
Step 1. Compute
the value
of 𝑟 using
the Pearson’s r formula. 5(43730) (465)(470)
Step 2. From the table of values, there is a strong positive correlation between the grade in Math
and the grade in English.
5. Regression Analysis is can be used to explain the relationship between dependent and
independent variables.
Three major uses:
a. Causal analysis -shows you the possible causation of changes in Y by changes X.

b. Forecasting an Effect- allows you estimate and predict the value of Y given the value of X.
c. Linear Trend Forecasting- helps you trace the line best fit to tine series
Formula: 𝑌 = 𝑚𝑋 + 𝑏
Example:
Using the same data from Table 3, answer the following questions:
a. What linear equation best predicts the grade in English given the grade in Math?
Step 1: Compute the 𝑏 and 𝑚.
𝑏=1
Step 2: Substitute the value of m and b to the regression formula.
The regression equation for predicting the grade in English given the grade in Math is
𝑌 = 𝑋 + 1.
30
b. If a student made a grade of 91 in Math, what grade would you expect the student to obtain
in English?
Using the obtain equation 𝑌 = 𝑋 + 1, substitute 91 in X.
𝑌 = 91 + 1 = 92 (Grade in English)
According to this model, for every 1point increase in the Math grade, there is a
corresponding average increase of 1 point in the English grade.
c. How well does the regression equation fit the data?

Interpretation:
The Math grade is directly proportional to the English grade because the slope is
positive.
6. Hypothesis testing. A hypothesis test helps you determine some quantity under a given
assumption. The outcome of the test tells you whether the assumption holds or whether the
assumption has been violated.
From Module 3, you were exposed to creating your Null hypothesis (𝑯𝟎) which states that
there is no difference between the two values or variables and the Alternative hypothesis (𝑯𝟏)
which states that there is a difference between two values or variables.
The statistical test uses the data obtained from a sample to decide about whether the null
hypothesis should be rejected. In a one-tailed test (left-tailed or right-tailed test), when the test
value falls in the critical region on one side of the mean, the null hypothesis should be rejected.
On the other hand, in a two-tailed test, the null hypothesis should be rejected when the test
value falls in either of the two critical regions.
One-tailed, right-tailed test One-tailed, left-tailed test Two-tailed test
To perform hypothesis testing, you compute the mean from the sample and compare it with
the mean from the population. Then, you decide whether to reject or not reject the null
hypothesis. If the difference is significant, the null hypothesis is rejected. If the difference is not
significant, then the null hypothesis is not rejected. In the hypothesistesting, there are four
possible results.
𝐻0true 𝐻0𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒
Reject 𝐻0 Error Type Correct

I decision
Do not reject 𝐻0 Correct Error Type

decision II
The four possibilities are as follows:
1. It would be an incorrect decision and would result in a Type I error when you reject the
null hypothesis when it is true.
2. It would be a correct decision when you reject the null hypothesis when it is false.
3. It would be a correct decision when you do not reject the null hypothesis when it is true.
4. It would be an incorrect decision and would result in a Type II error when you do not
reject the null hypothesis when it is false.
The basic format for hypothesis testing:
1. State the hypotheses and identify them.

2. Find the critical value(s).
3. Compute the test value.
4. Make the decision.
5. Summarize the result.
Hypothesis testing can be done using the following t-value approach or critical value
approach and 𝑝-value approach.
1. The Critical Value Approach is used to determine whether the observed test statistic is more
extreme than a defined critical value. Hence, the observed test statistic (calculated on the basis of
sample data) is compared to the critical value, from t-table. If the test statistic (𝒕∗) is more extreme
than the critical value (t), the null hypothesis is rejected. If the test statistic is not as extreme as the
critical value, the null hypothesis is not rejected.
One-Sample t-test Formula:

Example:
A random sample of 10 Grade 7 students has grades in Math, where marks range from 90
(Good) to 98 (Excellent). The general average grade (Gen. Ave.) of all Grade 7 students as of the
last 5 years is 93. Is the Gen. Ave. of the 10 Grade 7 students different from the population’s
Gen. Ave? Use 0.05 level of significance.
Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Math Grade 90 98 97 93 94 91 97 93 93 94
Given: 𝑛=10 𝛼=0.05 𝜇0=93 𝑋̅=94 sd= 2.68
Computational Procedure:
1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis

𝐻0: There is no significant difference between the gen. ave. of 10 Grade 7 students from the
population’s gen. average of 93.
𝐻0: 𝜇 = 93
𝐻1: There is a significant difference between the gen. ave. of 10 Grade 7 students from the
𝐻1: 𝜇 ≠ 93
2. State the alpha and the degree of freedom.
𝛼 = 0.05
𝐷𝑓 = 𝑛 − 1 = 10 − 1 = 9
3. State the decision rule.
One-tailed Test: |𝑡| > 𝑧𝑎; Reject 𝐻0
Two-tailed Test: ; Reject 𝐻0 4.

Calculate the Test Statistic.
=1.18
5. State results (use t table to get the critical value, see

procedure below).
| |
6. Decision: Accept 𝐻0
7. Conclusion: Therefore, the average grade of 10 Grade 7 students is not different from the
population’s average grade in Math which is 93.
2. P-value Approach involves determining the probability (assuming the null hypothesis were true)
of observing a more extreme test statistic in the direction of the alternative hypothesis than the
one observed. If the P-value is less than (or equal to) 𝛼 then the null hypothesis is rejected in
favor of the alternative hypothesis. And, if the P-value is greater than 𝛼, then the null hypothesis
is not rejected.
Example:
Use the same data from Example 1 of Critical value approach:
Computational Procedure:
1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis

𝐻0: There is no significant difference between the gen. ave. of 10 Grade 7 students from the
𝐻0: 𝜇 = 93
𝐻1: There is a significant difference between the gen. ave. of 10 Grade 7 students from the
𝐻1: 𝜇 ≠ 93
2. State the alpha and the degree of freedom.
𝛼 = 0.05
𝐷𝑓 = 𝑛 − 1 = 10 − 1 = 9
3. State the decision rule.
One-tailed Test: |𝑡| > 𝑧𝑎; Reject 𝐻0
Two-tailed Test: ; Reject 𝐻0 4.

Calculate the Test Statistic.
=1.18
5. Use statistical software or an online calculator (https://www.statology.org/t-score-p-

valuecalculator/) to find the corresponding p-value.
One-tailed P-value: 0.13412
Two-tailed P-value: 0.26825

6. State results.
One-tailed |0.13412| > 0.05
Two-tailed |0.26825| > 0.05
7. Decision: Accept 𝐻0
Since this p-value is not less than our chosen alpha level of 0.05, we can’t reject the null
hypothesis.
8. Conclusion: Therefore, the average grade of 10 Grade 7 students is not different from the
population’s average grade in Math which is 93.
Here are the steps in finding the t-value or critical value at the t-table:
1. Locate your confidence level (alpha level) at the top row of the t-table found below (this
tells you which column you need).
2. Intersect this column with the row for your 𝑑𝑓 (degrees of freedom). The number you see is
the critical value (or the t-value) for your confidence interval. Table of T-Values
Examples:
Given t-value (critical value)

1. 𝑑𝑓=5, 𝛼=0.05, two-tailed test 2.571
2. 𝑑𝑓=12, 𝛼=0.05, one-tailed test 1.782
What’s More
Activity 1: What’s My Percentage?
Directions: Here’s a data gathered by Purok A City High School administration regarding the number
of Grade 7 parents who opted to receive printed copies of the learning modules. Fill out
the boxes for total and percentage. Then write a brief interpretation of the table.
Total Number of Parents who opted

Sections Number of to receive printed copies of Percentage (%)
Parents learning modules
7-A 30 6
7-B 25 0
7-C 32 16
7-D 30 19
Total
Interpretation:
_____________________________________________________________________________
Activity 2: What’s My Mean and Standard Deviation?
Directions: Here’s the data gathered from the survey on Study Habits conducted by the Grade 12
students to the 150 Grade 7 students of Purok A City High School.
A Review Your Study Habits

Mean Standard
Strongly Strongly (𝑋̅) Deviation
Agree Undecided Disagree Verbal
Agree Disagree (𝑆𝐷)
(4) (3) (2) Interpretation
(5) (1)
The desk 90 30 10 5 15
where I study
is always clear
from
distractions.
I use 10 50 30 20 40
earplugs to
minimize
distracting
sounds.
I study facing a 15 35 30 20 50
wall.
Activity 3: What’s My Relationship?

Directions: Here’s the data about the Math Pretest and Posttest scores of ten (10) Grade 12 students
of Purok A City High School. Is there a significant relationship between the pretest and
posttest scores in Math?
Student Pretest Posttest

1 49 45
2 32 37
3 34 39
4 45 47
5 41 40
6 20 40
7 27 39
8 32 45
9 37 41
10 31 48
1. Compute the value Pearson’s r: ______________________________________
2. Interpretation:
___________________________________________________________________
3. What linear equation best predicts the posttest given the pretest in Math?
___________________________________________________________________
4. If a student made a pretest score of 43 in Math, what grade would you expect the posttest
score the student will obtain?
___________________________________________________________________
5. Show the line of best fit and its interpretation.
Activity 4: Am I Rejected or Accepted?

Directions: A random sample of 10 Grade 7 students has grades in MAPEH, where marks range from
90 (Good) to 98 (Excellent). The general average grade (Gen. Ave.) of all Grade 7
students as of the last 5 years is 95. Is the Gen. Ave. of the 10 Grade 7 students
different from the population’s Gen. Ave? Use 0.05 level of significance.
Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
MAPEH 92 95 95 96 97 98 95 94 98 92
Grade
Given: 𝑛=10 𝛼=0.05 𝜇0=95 𝑋̅=___ sd= ___
1. Perform hypothesis testing using the Critical Value Approach.

2. Perform hypothesis testing using the P-Value Approach.
Drawing Conclusions
What’s In
After learning the previous lesson in Module 5, which was the interpretation
of data, you now have the idea of what is the result and findings of your study. You
have to be very clear with your results and findings of your study since that would be
the basis for your conclusion which would create an impact to your readers.
It is also expected that at this point, you have already drafted your Summary
of Findings. As part of the research paper, Summary of Findings include the overall
purpose, the main and specific research problem, the research methodology, and the
major findings. Make sure that this part is presented briefly in a straightforward
manner.
The summary of findings is where you are going to generate your

conclusions. In this lesson, you are going to generate answers or conclusions as what
you have interpreted from the data gathered from your research study.
What I Need to Know

A conclusion is an important part of your research study. It wraps up your
writing by summarizing the main idea for your readers. This brings your writing to a
smooth close and creates well- written answers to your research questions. You have
to consider the main idea that you want to convey to your readers and have a sense
of closure in the study. It usually starts answering the specific moving to the general
inquiry. It must avoid further elaboration which has already been done in the
presentation of the results and discussion, and summary of findings.
In the conclusion part, no new information is expected. Researchers

reconsider the research questions and draw answers for these questions. It is very
important that the conclusions are limited within the main objective of the study and
research questions presented at the beginning of the research paper. Hence,
conclusions are precise statement that directly answers the stated research
questions.
Furthermore, the purpose of your conclusion is to make the readers

understand the impact of your research on them. It is a synthesis of the key points
and not just a summary of the entire research study.
What’s New
Activity 1: Therefore, I Conclude…
Direction: Read the statements at the left column and write your conclusion at the
right column.
\
Guide Questions:
1. Reflect on your given conclusions, do you think it is valid? Explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. In writing research conclusions, what factors should be considered?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
What Is It
Guidelines in Writing Your Research Conclusion
In writing your conclusion, make sure to have a brief introductory statement
before itemizing the answers to your research questions. Remember that your
conclusion should address or answer every research inquiry you have in your
research study. Here are some points you have to keep in mind.
1. Avoid merely summarizing.

Make inferences from the summary of results.
2. State your conclusion in a clear and simple language.
Emphasize the purpose of your study then relate how your findings differ from other
studies.
3. Do not just reiterate the discussion of your results.
Provide a synthesis of arguments presented in the paper to show how these converge to
address the research problem and the overall objectives of your study.
4. Avoid using numerals, figures, or simply repeating the results.
The focus of this part of research paper is not presenting results nor findings.
Inferences and implications are emphasized in the conclusions of the study.
5. Indicate opportunities for future research.
Highlighting the need for further studies provides the reader with that evidence
that you have an in-depth awareness of the research problem.
Please take note that there are different ways of formatting your conclusion.
You can have it numbered or in paragraphs, depending on your institutional format.
Research Implications
Research Implications are important content of your conclusion. It refers to the logical relations
and their result in a given situation. The conclusions you draw from the findings, how you linked
those to a specific theory or practice comprises the implication of the study. There are two forms of
implications: the practical and theoretical implications.
Practical Implication is also called as convenient implication. It is a

realistic explanation of what your research findings might mean and the fact that
would arise if those circumstances were met.
Example: Studying the implications of room-to-room campaign reveals that,

it is more effective in increasing awareness of how to fight COVID-
19 than announcing it during the students’ morning assembly.
Theoretical implication is a statement that supports or contradicts a
theory, previous study findings, or creates something entirely new. It also represents
the literature in your theoretical section.
Example: Based on Bolman’s Leadership Framework, results indicate that

majority of the Student Government officers significantly possess
symbolic leadership. Given that this is their strength, it supports that
the results that leadership style is significantly correlated to two-way
communication of the organization. Results also support that avenue
for open forum or discussion were provided.
Here is an example of how conclusion answers the research questions and
was drawn from summary of findings.
What I Can Do
Activity 4: Summarizing the findings
Directions: Perform the following tasks. Use the space below or you may use a
separate paper for your answers. Submit your output to your teacher
for checking. Refer to your research study. Summarize the findings of
your research study and fill in the table below. You may have less or
more than three (3) research questions.
Research Questions/Objectives Summary of Relevant Findings
1.
2.
3.
Activity 5: Drafting Conclusion

Directions: Read the Results and Discussion in Chapter 4 of your research study,
craft your conclusions, and include also the implications. Be guided by
answering your research questions.
Research Questions:__________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Conclusions:_________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Note : Now that your summary of findings and conclusions have been
corrected in accordance with the given guidelines, it is time for you to incorporate it
into your research manuscript.
Formulating Recommendations
What’s In
In the previous lesson, you learned to how to draft your conclusions based on
the Results and Discussion in Chapter 4 of your research study. From your summary
of findings, you draw conclusions. In writing your conclusions, the objective/s and
research question/s including the theoretical and practical implications must be
considered.
Now, in this lesson, it is time to write your recommendations. It is based on

your analysis and conclusions which means that you will write down on what actions
should be taken as a result of your research findings. Other people use the term
‘suggestion’ in research recommendations.
What I Need to Know

Research Recommendations
Recommendations can be described as a suggestion regarding the best

course of action to take as a result of your summary of findings and conclusion. The
purpose of a recommendation is to provide a useful guide that will not only address
certain problems but result in a successful outcome.
Take note that, no matter how similar the studies are in content and context,
their findings may be different because they will depend heavily on the outcomes
and current situations that have occurred during the timeframe of the study. Your
recommendations should point specific actions to be addressed. An excellent advice
would direct those affected by the situation to take concrete action on what needs to
be done to solve the issue or to resolve the situation.
Generally, recommendations include how to further improve the pertinent

variables or treatment used in the study, suggestions to concerned individuals or
agencies, future researchers who may want to pursue similar studies, and suggests
variables or research methods for future use.
Two Functions of Recommendations
Two major purposes of the research recommendations should be considered to

be to craft a good recommendations.
1. Implications of your findings must identify the areas of concern that needs to be
addressed.
2. How can future studies address the limitations you encountered in your research?
What’s New
Activity 1: I’ll recommend you to…
Read the statement at the left column and write your conclusion at the right column.
Situation I’ll recommend you to…

1. You failed in your posttest.
2. You had a heated conversation with your friend.
3. You are forgetful.
4. You can’t sleep.
5. You’re stressed.
Guide Questions:
1. Reflect on your given recommendations, do you think it is valid? Explain
your answer.
_______________________________________________________
2. In writing research recommendations, what factors should be considered?
_______________________________________________________________
What Is It
These are the Guidelines in writing your Recommendations according to Barrot, (2017, p. 214).
1. Write your recommendations based from your conclusions and limitations of
your study. Align it to the purpose and scope of your research.
2. Write a practical and doable recommendations. Be specific.
3. Make it concise and clear.
4. Avoid recommendations that are easy to address.
Please take note that there are different ways of formatting your
recommendations. You can have it numbered or in paragraphs, depending on your
institutional format.
Here is an example of how recommendations must relate to the findings and

conclusions.
What’s More
Activity 2: I Value Your Recommendations
Directions. Look for sample studies and identify the parts of the research paper asked
below. Then answer the guide questions.
Guide Questions:
1. To whom the researchers addressed the recommendations of this study?
2. Was the recommendations comprehensive? What was lacking?
Study 1 ___________________________________________________________
Study 2
____________________________________________________________
Note: Now that your research recommendations have been approved, it is now time
to incorporate it in your research paper. Take a time to review and organize your
entire paper accordingly from the beginning to the end, including your appendices
and references. Instructions will be given by your research adviser to polish and have
the final printing of your entire research study. Follow all the instructions given by
your research teacher as to the guidelines and protocols regarding your research
defense.
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Sampling Procedure and the Sample

What I Need to Know

Population and Sample

where: n is the sample size

N is the population size

E is the desired margin of error

Sample Size per Subgroups

180/600 = .30x 240 = 72 Grade 7 students

For example, a researcher would like to interview of

Activity 1. Determine the Sampling Procedure

1. What do I know about the population and sample of the study?

3. Now I know that sampling procedures involve…..

Describes your Sampling Procedure and Sample

Research Instrument, Validity and Reliability

Activity 1. Let’s read

Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument

Ways in Developing Research Instrument

Common Scales Used in Quantitative Research

Example: On a description of an active student in school activities.

Another important consideration in constructing a research instrument is how to

Types of Validity of Instrument

Construct Validity. It refers to the validity of instruments as it corresponds to the theoretical

Reliability refers to the

Activity 1. Qualify and Rate the Instrument

Valid and Reliable

1. Why is it important to have a good research instrument?

Construct your research instruments and establish validity and reliability.

1. The goal of your research instrument/s

2. Parts of your instrument/s

3. Number of items per sub-factor: total items

6. How will the reliability be established?

Title of your study:

What I Need to Know

Techniques in Collecting Quantitative Data

Three Phases in Data Collection

Activity 2. Arrange your Steps

Data Collection Instruments

In this pandemic situation specifically, the following questions can be considered.

• How many Filipinos are positive of COVID-19?

A questionnaire consists of a series of questions about a research topic to gather data

The terms survey and questionnaire have different meanings. A questionnaire is an

There are three structures of making a questionnaire. The first, structured

Advantages of Using Questionnaire

1. Data can be quickly gathered from a big number of participants.

Disadvantages of Using Questionnaire

1. The questions can be interpreted differently by the participants.

Guidelines in Using Questionnaires for Data Collection

9. Avoid negative statements unless necessary.

Non-standardized test may not be scored uniformly. It is administered to a certain set of

Types of Test Questions

The following table shows the types of test and examples

Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Interviews

Quantitative Interviews Qualitative Interviews

Quantitative Interviews Questionnaires

Observation is another method of collecting data that is frequently used in qualitative

1. Controlled Observation. It is usually used in experimental research and is done under a

2. Natural Observation. It is carried out in a non-controlled setting. It has greater ecological

3. Participant Observation. It allows the observer to become a member of the group or