1

LENOX INSTITUTE PRESS

Auburndale, Massachusetts 02466, USA
“EVOLUTIONARY PROGRESS IN SCIENCE,
TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, ARTS AND
MATHEMATICS (STEAM)” series

INNOVATIVE PROCESS SYSTEM CONSISTING OF

DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION, RECARBONATION AND
FILTRATION, USING LIME AND SODIUM
ALUMINATE FOR REMOVAL OF HARDNESS, IRON
AND MANGANESE FROM GROUNDWATER

By:

Lawrence K. Wang, PhD

Mu-Hao Sung Wang, PhD
LENOX INSTITUTE OF WATER TECHNOLOGY
Auburndale, Massachusetts 02466, USA

Wang, LK, and Wang, MHS (2022). innovative process system consisting of dissolved air flotation,
recarbonation and filtration, using lime and sodium aluminate for removal of hardness, iron and manganese
from groundwater. In: “Evolutionary Progress in Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and Mathematics
(STEAM)”, Wang, LK and Tsao, HP (eds.), 4 (10A), STEAM-VOL4-NUM10A-OCT2022. 35 pages. October
2022, Lenox Institute Press, Massachusetts, USA. https://doi.org/10.17613/fpb4-he04.
 2

INNOVATIVE PROCESS SYSTEM CONSISTING OF DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION,

RECARBONATION AND FILTRATION, USING LIME AND SODIUM ALUMINATE FOR
REMOVAL OF HARDNESS, IRON AND MANGANESE FROM GROUNDWATER

ABSTRACT

The Lenox Institute of Water Technology (LIWT) has conducted a basic research: (a) a new

softening and Fe-Mn removal process system consisting of dissolved air flotation (DAF),

recarbonation and filtration has been demonstrated by operating a continuous water treatment

plant (WTP); (b) a new chemical combination including lime, sodium aluminate and carbon

dioxide has been used successfully for simultaneous removal of Ca-Mg hardness, iron and

manganese from groundwater; (c) DAF (3-15 minutes detention time) replaces conventional

sedimentation (4-6 hours detention) to become much more cost-effective; (d) DAF-filtration

efficiently removes Fe-Mn without an additional oxidation step; (e) sodium aluminate enhances

or replaces conventional soda ash for better removal of non-carbonate hardness (NCH) and

better removal of manganese after DAF oxidation due to its flocculating nature; (f) the authors

call for further basic research regarding the chemistry of Ca-Mg removal by sodium aluminate

noting that both calcium aluminate and magnesium aluminate are insoluble substances; (g)

further call for research is directed toward simultaneous removal of hardness, Fe-Mn and

dissolved organic matter (DOM) by the new process system and new chemical combination; and

(h) LIWT new process systems and new chemical combinations can be applied to any

manufacturers' DAF, recarbonation and filtration process equipment (Sandfloat, Supracell,

AquaDAF, Clari-DAF, etc. )

Specifically a groundwater having 15 NTU of turbidity, 216 mg/L (as CaCO3 of total hardness,

3.56 mg/L of iron and 1.57 mg/L of manganese at pH 7.8 was successfully treated by a
 3

continuous WTP consisting of a rectangular static hydraulic flocculator (detention time = 5.6

minutes), a DAF clarifier (detention time = 3 minutes), a recarbonation facility, and three sand

filters (sand bed = 11 inches of silica sand; filtration rate = 2.5 gpm/ft2 = 101.75 Lpm/m2).

With lime for initial chemical precipitation and pH adjustment to 11.2 , and 20 mg/L (as Al2O3)

of sodium aluminate for enhanced precipitation and coagulation, excellent product water meeting

the U.S. Drinking Water. Standards was produced. The quality of final filter effluent was:

turbidity, 0.52 NTU; pH, 6.5 units; total hardness, 60 mg/L as CaCO3; iron, 0.04 mg/L; and

manganese, 0.02 mg/L. It appears that the new water treatment system including flocculator,

dissolved air flotation clarifier, recarbonation facility and filter is technically feasible for

groundwater treatment. Lime, sodium aluminate and carbon dioxide are excellent chemical aids

for simultaneous removal of turbidity, hardness, iron and manganese. Technical terminologies

are introduced. Environmental researchers around the world are invited to continue this research

.
 4

KEYWORDS

Softening process innovation, Iron and manganese removal process innovation, flocculation,

dissolved air flotation, recarbonation, filtration, chemical treatment innovation, sodium

aluminate, lime, carbon dioxide, groundwater treatment, simultaneous hardness, iron and

manganese removal, Sandfloat, Supracell, Aqua-DAF, Clari-DAF, Lenox Institute of Water

Technology, memoir.
 5

ACRONYM

APHA: American Public Health Association

AWWA: American Water Works Association

Ca-NCH: Calcium non-carbonate hardness

Ca-Mg: Calcium and magnesium

DAF: Dissolved air flotation

DOM: Dissolved organic matter

Fe-Mn: Iron and manganese

IX: Ion exchange

LIWT: Lenox Institute of Water Technology

NCH: Non-carbonate hardness

WEF: Water Environment Federation

WTP: Water treatment plant

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

KEYWORDS

ACRONYM

SECTIONS

1. 1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND OBJECTIVES

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Objectives

1.3 Summary

2. CONTINUOUS WATER TREATMENT PLANT TESTING

2.1 Synthetic Groundwater

2.2 Continuous Flocculation, Flotation, Recarbonation and Filtration Process System

3. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

3.1 Experimental Results

3.2 Conclusion

4. TECHNICAL DISCUSSIONS AND CALL FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

4.1. Discussions
 7

4.2 Call for Further Research

5. TERMINOLOGIES OF CONVENTIONAL AND INNOVATIVE SOFTENING

PROCESSES FOR HARDNESS, IRON AND MANGANESE REMOVAL

REFERENCES

APPENDIXES
 8

INNOVATIVE PROCESS SYSTEM CONSISTING OF DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION,

RECARBONATION AND FILTRATON, USING LIME AND SODIUM ALUMINATE FOR
REMOVAL OF HARDNESS, IRON AND MANGANESE FROM GROUNDWATER

Lawrence K. Wang and Mu-Hao Sung Wang

1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND OBJECTIVES

1.1. Introduction

The vast majority of small communities in the U.S.A, rely on groundwater as their source of

drinking water. Over the past decade, thousands of wells serving millions of people in the rural

area have been dug.

Groundwater generally contains high concentrations of calcium, magnesium, iron and

manganese. Conventional water softening systems for groundwater treatment include lime-soda

ash clarification process and ion exchange (or cation exchange) process. Both processes require

high capital and annual operation and maintenance (O&M) costs, and are not affordable to small

communities. Besides, a different process system normally required for iron and manganese

removal.

1.2. Objectives

The primary objective of this research was to develop a cost-effective groundwater treatment

system for small communities. It has been known that the dissolved air flotation (DAF)

clarification and filtration system can remove many impurities from surface water at a fraction of
 9

the cost of a conventional clarification system. [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7]. Accordingly a

treatability study was conducted at Lenox Institute of Water Technology (LIWT) for possible

groundwater treatment by the same flotation clarification and filtration system. A real

groundwater was spiked with target impurities, such as, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese

and turbidity for continuous water treatment plant (WTP) testing. Various chemical aids were

evaluated and the best chemical combination was then chosen for the WTP demonstration.

The effectiveness and affordability of the flotation clarification system are demonstrated in this

research.

1.3 Summary

The Lenox Institute of Water Technology (LIWT) has conducted a basic research: (a) a new

softening and Fe-Mn removal process system consisting of dissolved air flotation (DAF),

recarbonation and filtration has been demonstrated by operating a continuous water treatment

plant (WTP); (b) a new chemical combination including lime, sodium aluminate and carbon

dioxide has been used successfully for simultaneous removal of Ca-Mg hardness, iron and

manganese from groundwater; (c) DAF (3-15 minutes detention time) replaces conventional

sedimentation (4-6 hours detention) to become much more cost-effective; (d) DAF-filtration

efficiently removes Fe-Mn without an additional oxidation step; (e) sodium aluminate enhances

or replaces conventional soda ash for better removal of non-carbonate hardness (NCH) and

better removal of manganese after DAF oxidation due to its flocculating nature; (f) the authors

call for further basic research regarding the chemistry of Ca-Mg removal by sodium aluminate

noting that both calcium aluminate and magnesium aluminate are insoluble substances; (g)
 10

further call for research is directed toward simultaneous removal of hardness, Fe-Mn and

dissolved organic matter (DOM) by the new process system and new chemical combination; and

(h) LIWT new process systems and new chemical combinations can be applied to any

manufacturers' DAF, recarbonation and filtration process equipment (Sandfloat, Supracell,

AquaDAF, Clari-DAF, etc. )

Specifically a groundwater having 15 NTU of turbidity, 216 mg/L (as CaCO3 of total hardness,

3.56 mg/L of iron and 1.57 mg/L of manganese at pH 7.8 was successfully treated by a

continuous WTP consisting of a rectangular static hydraulic flocculator (detention time = 5.6

minutes), a DAF clarifier (detention time = 3 minutes), a recarbonation facility, and three sand

filters (sand bed = 11 inches of silica sand; filtration rate = 2.5 gpm/ft2 = 101.75 Lpm/m2).

With lime for initial chemical precipitation and pH adjustment to 11.2 , and 20 mg/L (as Al2O3)

of sodium aluminate for enhanced precipitation and coagulation, excellent product water meeting

the U.S. Drinking Water. Standards was produced. The quality of final filter effluent was:

turbidity, 0.72 NTU; pH, 6.5 units; total hardness, 60 mg/L as CaCO3; iron, 0.04 mg/L; and

manganese, 0.02 mg/L. It appears that the new water treatment system including flocculator,

dissolved air flotation clarifier, recarbonation facility and filter is technically feasible for

groundwater treatment. Lime, sodium aluminate and carbon dioxide are excellent chemical aids

for simultaneous removal of turbidity, hardness, iron and manganese. Technical terminologies

are introduced. Environmental researchers around the world are invited to continue this research

2. CONTINUOUS WATER TREATMENT PLANT TESTING

2.1 Synthetic Groundwater

A synthetic raw ground water was prepared by dosing 150 mg/L of calcium chloride CaCl2, 106
 11

mg/L of magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2-6H2O, 25 mg/L of ferrous ammonia sulfate,

Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2-6H2O, and 5 mg/L of manganese nitrate Mn(NO3)2 to the local Lenox ground

water.

The quality of the synthetic groundwater was analyzed to be: turbidity, 15 NTU; pH, 7.8 units;

total hardness, 216 mg/L as CaCO3, iron, 3.56 mg/L; and manganese, 1.54 mg/L.

2.2 Continuous Flocculation, Flotation, Recarbonation and Filtration Process System

A continuous flotation filtration plant consisting of a rectangular static hydraulic flocculator

(detention time = 5.6 minutes), a dissolved air flotation (DAF) clarifier (detention time = 3

minutes) , a recarbonation facility, and three sand filters (sand bed = 11 inches or 27.94 cm of

silica sand; filtration rate = 2.5 gpm/ft2 = 101.75 Lpm/m2) was set up at Lenox Institute of Water

Technology (LIWT) for this investigation. The flotation filtration plant was documented fully

elsewhere [8],[9].

The continuous flotation filtration plant's operational conditions are presented below:

1. Continuous influent/effluent flow rate: 12 gallons per minute = 45.42 liters per

minute

2. Continuous recycle flow rate: 3 gallons per minute = 11.36 liters per minute
 12

3. Chemical treatment: (a) 100 mg/L of calcium hydroxide for initial pH adjustment to

11.2, and chemical precipitation; (b) 20 mg/L of sodium aluminate as Al2O3 for chemical

coagulation and precipitation.

4. Flotation air-gas flow rate: 1 +/- 0.5 SCFH at 90 psig (Note: 1 SCFH = 1 ft 3/hr =

0.02832 m3/hr) ( 1 psig = 1 ib/in2 gauge = 2.036 in-Hg gauge = 5.171 cm-Hg gauge =

703.07 kg/m2 gauge)

5. Sand filtration rate: 2.5 gpm/ft2 ( 101.75 Lpm/m2)

6. Recarbonation : pH adjustment using carbon dioxide gas as needed to reach pH 7.7.

7. Sand specifications: E = 0.35mm; U = 1.55

8. Sand bed: 11 inches (27.94 cm) of silica sand

9. Sand filter backwash rate: 12 gpm/ft2 ( 488.4 Lpm/m2)

All analytical procedures can be found from the "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water

and Wastewater", by APHA, AWWA and WEF. [ 10 ]

3. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

3.1 Experimental Results

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The flotation filtration plant was operated continuously for over three hours under steady state.

Water samples from the unit processes were then taken for various water quality analyses. The

flotation filtration plant data are presented in below:

1. Influent Water = pH 7.8; turbidity 15 NTU; total hardness, 216 mg/L as

CaCO3, iron 3.56 mg/L; and manganese 1.54 mg/L.

2. Flocculator Influent = pH 11.2; turbidity 25 NTU; total hardness 124 mg/L as

CaCO3; iron 1.3 mg/L; and manganese 0.2 mg/L.

3. Flocculator Effluent = pH 11.2; turbidity 29 NTU; total hardness 108 mg/L as CaCO 3; iron NA

mg/L; and manganese NA mg/L.

4. Flotation Effluent = pH 11.2; turbidity 33 NTU; total hardness 92 mg/L as CaCO 3; ; iron NA

mg/L; and manganese NA mg/L.

5. Recarbonation Effluent = pH 7.7; turbidity NA NTU; total hardness NA mg/L as CaCO 3; iron

NA mg/L; and manganese NA mg/L.

6. Sand Filter Effluent = pH 7.7; turbidity 0.52 NTU; total hardness 60 mg/L as CaCO 3; iron 0.04

mg/L; and manganese 0.02 mg/L.

3.2 Conclusion
 14

The quality of sand filter effluent met the U.S. Drinking Water Standards on pH, turbidity, total

hardness, iron and manganese.

It is concluded that the water treatment system including flocculation, flotation, recarbonation

and filtration is technically feasible for treatment of groundwater, and lime and sodium aluminate

are excellent chemical aids for removal of calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese and turbidity.
 15

4. TECHNICAL DISCUSSIONS AND CALL FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

4.1. Discussions

The Lenox Institute of Water Technology (LIWT) has conducted a basic research: (a) a new

softening and Fe-Mn removal process system consisting of dissolved air flotation (DAF),

recarbonation and filtration has been demonstrated by operating a continuous water treatment

plant (WTP); (b) a new chemical combination including lime, sodium aluminate and carbon

dioxide has been used successfully for simultaneous removal of Ca-Mg hardness, iron and

manganese from groundwater; (c) DAF (3-15 minutes detention time) replaces conventional

sedimentation (4-6 hours detention) to become much more cost-effective; (d) DAF-filtration

efficiently removes Fe-Mn without an additional oxidation step; (e) sodium aluminate enhances

or replaces conventional soda ash for better removal of non-carbonate hardness (NCH) and

better removal of manganese after DAF oxidation due to its flocculating nature; (f) the authors

call for further basic research regarding the chemistry of Ca-Mg removal by sodium aluminate

noting that both calcium aluminate and magnesium aluminate are insoluble substances; (g)

further call for research is directed toward simultaneous removal of hardness, Fe-Mn and

dissolved organic matter (DOM) by the new process system and new chemical combination; and

(h) LIWT new process systems and new chemical combinations can be applied to any

manufacturers' DAF, recarbonation and filtration process equipment (Sandfloat, Supracell,

AquaDAF, Clari-DAF, etc. )

It should be noted that the synthetic raw ground water was prepared by dosing 150 mg/L of

calcium chloride CaCl2, 106 mg/L of magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2-6H2O, 25 mg/L of ferrous

ammonia sulfate, Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2-6H2O, and 5 mg/L of manganese nitrate Mn(NO3)2 to the local
 16

Lenox ground water. The spiked calcium chloride is a non-carbonate hardness (NCH) which is

normally removed by adding soda ash Na2CO3 according to the following chemical reaction:

[11], [12], [13]

Ca2+ + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 (s) + 2Na+.....................................................(1)

The insoluble calcium carbonate formed in Equation 1 can then be removed by conventional

clarification and filtration. [12]

The authors propose the following chemistry for researchers to further explore or demonstrate:

Ca2+ + Na2Al2O4 = Ca (Al2O4) (s) + 2Na+......................................(2)

Mg2+ + Na2Al2O4 = Mg (Al2O4) (s) + 2Na+......................................(3)

Both calcium aluminate Ca (Al2O4) (s) and magnesium aluminate Mg (Al2O4) (s) are

insoluble substances.

Is it possible that in this research calcium ions (including NCH) and magnesium ions reacted

with aluminate ions forming insoluble calcium aluminate and magnesium aluminate (see

Equations 2 and 3) which were then removed by DAF clarification and filtration?

Conventional clarification-filtration softening processes can only remove hardness. Different

processes will be needed for iron and manganese removal.

The new process system involving the use of DAF and sodium aluminate simultaneously
 17

removes both total hardness and Fe-Mn because DAF itself is an aeration or oxidation process

which is a required pre-treatment for Fe-Mn removal. Since the added sodium aluminate was a

flocculating agent, it naturally can remove any natural dissolved organic matter (DOM) , such as

humic acids, tannin, lignin, etc. together with hardness and Fe-Mn removal using the new process

system.

The terminologies of conventional and innovative softening processes for hardness, iron and

manganese removal are introduced in Section 5 for the convenience of the readers. [11], [12],

[14] , [15], [16], [17], [18]

4.2 Call for Further Research

The authors invite the researchers around the world to continue this research studying further

regarding the new engineering process and its fundamental chemistry.

 18

5. TERMINOLOGIES OF CONVENTIONAL AND INNOVATIVE SOFTENING

PROCESSES FOR HARDNESS, IRON AND MANGANESE REMOVAL [11], [12], [14-18]

Calcium hardness: It is caused by the calcium ions dissolution in the water, expressed as mg/L

CaCO3.

Carbonate hardness: (a) It is caused by cations from the dissolution of calcium or magnesium

carbonate and bicarbonate in water.; (b) Since most of the alkalinity in natural waters is caused

by the bicarbonate and carbonate ions, chemically carbonate hardness is equivalent to the

alkalinity.

Chemical coagulation: A chemical process in which one coagulating chemical coagulates

(reacts) with another colloidal or suspended solid forming insoluble fine flocs due to charge

neutralization, stabilization and agglomeration.

Chemical precipitation: A chemical process in which one soluble chemical agent precipitates

another soluble chemical.

Conventional single-stage excess lime softening process: It is one of the conventional

softening processes including the process sequence of rapid mixing (excess lime addition),

flocculation, sedimentation clarification, recarbonation (pH = 8.6), and filtration. This single-

stage excess lime process is suitable for a raw source water having no non-carbonate hardness

(NCH), high calcium , and high magnesium carbonate hardness (more than 40 mg/L as CaCO3).

Conventional single-stage excess lime-soda ash softening process: It is one of the

conventional softening processes including the process sequence of rapid mixing (excess lime +

soda ash addition), flocculation, sedimentation clarification, recarbonation (pH = 8.6), and
 19

filtration. This single-stage lime-soda ash softening process is suitable for treating a source water

having high calcium, high magnesium carbonate hardness (more than 40 mg/L as CaCO 3), and

some calcium non-carbonate hardness (Ca-NCH) exceeding water quality standards.

Conventional single-stage lime softening process: It is one of the conventional softening

processes including the process sequence of rapid mixing (lime addition), flocculation,

sedimentation clarification, recarbonation (pH = 8.6), and filtration. This single-stage lime

process is suitable for a raw source water having no non-carbonate hardness (NCH), high

calcium , and low magnesium carbonate hardness (less than 40 mg/L as CaCO3)

Conventional single-stage lime-soda ash softening process: It is one of the conventional

softening processes including the process sequence of rapid mixing (lime + soda ash addition),

flocculation, sedimentation clarification, recarbonation (pH = 8.6), and filtration. This single-

stage lime-soda ash softening process is suitable for treating a source water having high calcium,

low magnesium carbonate hardness (less than 40 mg/L as CaCO3), and some calcium non-

carbonate hardness(Ca-NCH).

Conventional softening process for simultaneous hardness and dissolved organic matter

(DOM) removal: It can be any conventional softening process with lime and an extra alum

addition to the rapid mixing and flocculation units.

Conventional softening process for simultaneous hardness, iron and manganese removal:

It can be any conventional softening process with an additional aeration process step usually

ahead of rapid mixing and flocculation units. Sedimentation is used for clarification.

Conventional two-stage excess lime treatment process: It is one of the conventional softening
 20

processes including the process sequence of rapid mixing (excess lime addition), flocculation,

primary sedimentation clarification, recarbonation, secondary sedimentation clarification,

recarbonation, and filtration. Disinfection and corrosion control are also required for potable

water application. The process is suitable for treating a source water with high calcium, high

magnesium carbonate hardness, but no non-carbonate hardness.

Conventional two-stage lime/soda ash softening process: It is one of the conventional

softening processes including the process sequence of rapid mixing (lime addition; pH > 10.8),

flocculation, first-stage sedimentation clarification, firs-stage recarbonation, rapid mixing (soda

ash addition), flocculation, second-stage sedimentation, second-stage recarbonation (pH = 8.6),

and filtration. Disinfection and corrosion control are also required for potable water application.

The process is suitable for treating a source water with high calcium, low magnesium carbonate

hardness (less than 40 mg/L as CaCO3), and some non-carbonate hardness (NCH).

Dissolved air flotation (DAF): DAF is a process involving pressurization of air at 25-95 psig

for dissolving air into water, and subsequent release of pressure (to one atm) under laminar flow

conditions for generating extremely fine air bubbles (normally 20 to 80 microns) which become

attached to the impurities to be removed. The air flow rate is about one percent of influent liquid

flow rate. The attachment of air bubbles to the impurities can be a result of physical entrapment,

electrochemical attraction, surface adsorption, and/or gas stripping. The specific gravity of

bubble-impurity agglomerate is less than one, resulting in buoyancy or non-selective flotation

(i.e. a save-all process) . In the past 40 years, DAF has been used mainly for sludge thickening

and fiber recovery. Now dissolved air flotation becomes a high technology for potable water

purification and wastewater treatment.

 21

Excess lime softening process: It is any softening process that requires to add excess lime for

treating a source raw water with high calcium and high magnesium carbonate hardness (higher

than 40 mg/L as CaCO3),. It can be either one- or two-stage process.

Filter run length (run time): The time in filtration service between filter cleanings is termed the

run length or run time.

Filtration: Dual media filtration by gravity is one of the most economical forms of granular

media filtration. Dual media filtration involves the use of both sand and anthracite as filter

media, with anthracite being placed on top of the sand. Single medium, such as sand only, is

called sand filtration. If only granular activated carbon is used, it is called granular activated

carbon (GAC) filtration. Granular media filtration involves the passage of water through a bed

of filter media with resulting deposition of solids. Eventually, the pressure drop across the bed

becomes excessive or the ability of the bed to remove suspended solids is impaired. Cleaning is

then necessary to restore operation head and the filter effluent quality. The time in service

between cleanings is termed the run length or run time. The head loss at which filtration is

interrupted for cleaning is called the terminal head loss, and this head loss is maximized by the

judicious choice of media sizes.

Hard water: It is the water containing 151-300 mg/L (as CaCO3) of total hardness.

Innovative single-stage excess lime & sodium aluminate & sodium carbonate softening

process for simultaneous removal of total hardness, iron, manganese and dissolved organic

matter : It is one of the innovative softening processes including the process sequence of rapid

mixing (excess lime + sodium aluminate + sodium carbonate addition), flocculation, dissolved
 22

air flotation clarification, recarbonation (pH = 8.6), and filtration. This single-stage lime-sodium

aluminate softening process is suitable for treating a source water having high calcium, high

magnesium carbonate hardness (higher than 40 mg/L as CaCO 3), some calcium non-carbonate

hardness (Ca-NCH), and some dissolved organic matter (DOM).

Innovative single-stage lime-soda ash softening process: It is one of the innovative softening

processes including the process sequence of rapid mixing (lime + soda ash addition),

flocculation, dissolved air flotation clarification, recarbonation (pH = 8.6), and filtration. This

single-stage lime-soda ash softening process is suitable for treating a source water having high

calcium, low magnesium carbonate hardness (less than 40 mg/L as CaCO3), and some calcium

non-carbonate hardness (Ca-NCH).

Innovative single-stage lime & sodium aluminate & sodium carbonate softening process for

simultaneous removal of total hardness, iron, manganese and dissolved organic matter : It

is one of the innovative softening processes including the process sequence of rapid mixing (lime

+ sodium aluminate + sodium carbonate addition), flocculation, dissolved air flotation

clarification, recarbonation (pH = 8.6), and filtration. This single-stage lime-sodium aluminate

softening process is suitable for treating a source water having high calcium, low magnesium

carbonate hardness (less than 40 mg/L as CaCO3), some calcium non-carbonate hardness (Ca-

NCH), and some dissolved organic matter (DOM).

Innovative single-stage excess lime softening process: It is one of the innovative softening

processes including the process sequence of rapid mixing (excess lime addition), flocculation,

dissolved air flotation clarification, recarbonation (pH = 8.6), and filtration. This single-stage

excess lime process is suitable for a raw source water having no non-carbonate hardness (NCH),
 23

high calcium , and high magnesium carbonate hardness.

Innovative single-stage excess lime-soda ash softening process: It is one of the innovative

softening processes including the process sequence of rapid mixing (excess lime + soda ash

addition), flocculation, dissolved air flotation clarification, recarbonation (pH = 8.6), and

filtration. This single-stage lime-soda ash softening process is suitable for treating a source water

having high calcium, high magnesium carbonate hardness (higher than 40 mg/L as CaCO3), and

some calcium non-carbonate hardness (Ca-NCH) exceeding water quality standards.

Innovative single-stage lime softening process: It is one of the innovative softening processes

including the process sequence of rapid mixing (lime addition), flocculation, dissolved air

flotation clarification, recarbonation (pH = 8.6), and filtration. This single-stage lime process is

suitable for a raw source water having no non-carbonate hardness (NCH), high calcium , and

low magnesium carbonate hardness (less than 40 mg/L as CaCO3)

Innovative softening process for simultaneous hardness and dissolved organic matter

(DOM) removal: It can be any innovative softening process with lime and an extra sodium

aluminate addition to the rapid mixing and flocculation units. Dissolved air flotation is used for

clarification.

Innovative softening process for simultaneous hardness, iron and manganese removal: It

can be any innovative softening process using dissolved air flotation for clarification because no

additional aeration process step is needed ahead of rapid mixing and flocculation units.

Magnesium hardness: It is caused by the magnesium ions dissolution in the water, expressed as

mg/L CaCO3.
 24

Moderately hard water: It is the water containing 76-150 mg/L (as CaCO3) of total hardness.

Non-carbonate hardness (NCH): (a) NCH is caused by cations mainly from calcium and

magnesium compounds of chloride, sulfate or silicate that are dissolved in water; (b) NCH equals

to the total hardness minus the carbonate hardness.

Recarbonation: (a) It is a physicochemical process of adding carbon dioxide gas to lime-

softened, clarified water for the purpose of reducing the pH and promoting chemical stability.

Carbon dioxide reduces pH through the conversion of hydroxide ions to carbonate and

bicarbonate alkalinity; (b) A process in which carbon dioxide gas is bubbled into the water being

treated to lower the pH, or into the wastewater to precipitate organic matter (such as dissolved

protein), or inorganic matter.

Soda-ash softening process: It is any softening process that requires to add soda ash for treating

a source raw water with some noncarbonate hardness that exceeds the water quality standards.

Soft water: It is the water containing 0 to 75 mg/L (as CaCO3) of total hardness.

Softening process: It is any physicochemical process that reduces the total hardness of "hard

water" or "very hard water " to the "moderately hard" level of 76-150 mg/L (as CaCO3) for

domestic consumption, or to the "soft" level of 0-75 mg/L (as CaCO3) for specific industrial

applications.

Total hardness: (a) Total hardness is caused by the sum of multivalent metallic cations (such as

Ca2+, Mg2+, Sr2+ , Fe2+ , and Mn2+ , etc.) from the dissolution of these cations in water (expressed

as mg/L CaCO3) although normally only calcium ions and magnesium ions are considered; (b)

Normally only the total hardness and calcium hardness in water are analyzed, magnesium
 25

hardness is then calculated as the difference between total hardness and calcium hardness; (c)

Total hardness is the sum of calcium hardness and magnesium hardness in mg/L as CaCO3; (c)

Total hardness minus the carbonate hardness is equal to noncarbonate hardness.

Very hard water: It is the water containing over 300 mg/L (as CaCO3) of total hardness.
 26

REFERENCES

1. Krofta, M and Wang, LK (1985). Application of Dissolved Air Flotation to the Lenox ,

Massachusetts Water Supply: Water Purification by Flotation. Journal New England Water

Works Association, 99(3), pp. 245-264.

2. Krofta, M and Wang, LK (1985). Application of Dissolved Air Flotation to the Lenox ,

Massachusetts Water Supply: Sludge Thickening by Flotation or Lagoon. Journal New England

Water Works Association, 99(3), pp. 265-284.

3. Wang, LK, and Wang, MHS (2021). First wave of flotation technology evolution: once the

world's largest DAF-filtration plant and its hydroelectric facility. In: Integrated Natural

Resources Research, Wang, LK, Wang, MHS, and Hung, YT (editors), Springer Nature

Switzerland, pp. 449-480.

4. Wang, LK, Wang, MHS, and Kolodziej, PJ (2022). Removal of Trihalomethane Precursors

and Coliform Bacteria by Lenox Flotation-Filtration Plant. In: "Environmental Science,

Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM)", Wang, LK, Wang, MHS, and Pankivskyi,

YI (editors). 2022 (5), May 2022; pp.23. Lenox Institute Press, MA, USA.

https://doi.org/10.17613/zd11-dj95

5. Wang, LK, Wang, MHS, and Fahey, EM (2021). Innovative dissolved air flotation potable

water filtration plant in Lee, Massachusetts, USA. In: Environmental Flotation Engineering,
 27

Wang, LK, Wang, MHS, Shammas, NK, and Aulenbach, DB (editors), Springer Nature

Switzerland, pp. 73-94.

6. Wong, JM, Hess, RJ, Wang, LK (2021). Operation and performance of the AquaDAF

process system for water purification. . In: Environmental Flotation Engineering, Wang, LK,

Wang, MHS, Shammas, NK, and Aulenbach, DB (editors), Springer Nature Switzerland, pp.

301-342.

7. . Wong, JM, Farmerie, JE, Wang, LK (2021). Operation and performance of the Clari-DAF

process system for water purification. In: Environmental Flotation Engineering, Wang, LK,

Wang, MHS, Shammas, NK, and Aulenbach, DB (editors), Springer Nature Switzerland, pp.

343-370.

8. Wang, LK and Wang, MHS (2022). Development of mobile dissolved air flotation and

filtration (DAFF) package plants for emergency water supply or pollution control . In:

"Evolutionary Progress in Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics (STEAM)",

Wang, LK and Tsao, HP (editors). 4 (7D), July 2022; pp.50. Lenox Institute Press, MA, USA.

https://doi.org/10.17613/k0yd-jt54

9. Wang, LK and Wang, MHS (2022). Cocoa processing waste pretreatment and mobile flotation

plants; In:“Evolutionary Progress in Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and Mathematics

(STEAM)”, Wang, LK and Tsao, HP (eds.), 4 (7F), 43 pages. July 2022, Lenox Institute Press,

MA, USA. https://doi.org/10.17613/sjj4-9z67.

 28

10. APHA/AWWA/WEF (1992). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and

Wastewater. 18th Edition. American Public Health Association, Washington DC, USA.

11. Wang, LK, Wu, JS, Shammas, NK, and Vaccari, DA (2004). Recarbonation and softening.

In: Physicochemical Treatment Processes, Wang, LK, Hung, YT, and Shammas, NK (editors),

Humana Press, NJ, USA. pp. 199-228.

12. Shammas, NK, Hahn, HH, Wang, MHS, and Wang, LK (2021). Fundamentals of chemical

coagulation and precipitation. In: Environmental Flotation Engineering, Wang, LK, Wang,

MHS, Shammas, NK, and Aulenbach, DB (editors), Springer Nature Switzerland, pp.95-142.

13. Wang, LK, Vaccari, DA, Li, Y, and Shammas, NK (2004). Chemical precipitation. In:

Physicochemical Treatment Processes, Wang, LK, Hung, YT, and Shammas, NK (editors),

Humana Press, NJ, USA. pp. 141-198.

14. Wang, MHS and Wang, LK (2021). Glossary of water quality , treatment and recovery. In:

Integrated Natural Resources Research, Wang, LK, Wang, MHS and Hung, YT (editors),

Springer Nature Switzerland, pp.569-630.

15. Wang, LK. (2021). Humanitarian engineering education of the Lenox Institute of Water

Technology and its new potable water flotation processes. In: Environmental Flotation

Engineering, Wang, LK, Wang, MHS, Shammas, NK, and Aulenbach, DB (editors), Springer

Nature Switzerland, pp. 1-72.

 29

16. Shammas, NK and Wang, LK (2016). Water Engineering : Hydraulics, Distribution and

Treatment. John Wiley and Sons, NJ, USA. 806 pages.

17. AWWA. Water Quality and Treatment. (1999). American Water Works Association,

Denver, CO., USA.

18. Krofta, M and Wang, LK (1982). Potable water treatment by dissolved air flotation

filtration, Journal American Water Works Association, 74(6), pp. 304-310.

 30

APPENDIX A
Editors of
"EVOLUTIONARY PROGRESS IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING,
ARTS AND MATHEMATICS (STEAM)"

1. Dr. Lawrence K. Wang (王 抗 曝)

Editor Lawrence K. Wang has served the society as a professor, inventor, chief engineer, chief

editor and public servant (UN, USEPA, NY, Albany) for 50+ years, with experience in entire

field of environmental science, technology, engineering, arts and mathematics (STEAM). He is a

licensed NY-MA-NJ-PA-OH Professional Engineer, a certified NY-MA-RI Laboratory Director,

a MA-NY Water Operator, and an OSHA Train-the-Trainer Instructor.

He has special passion, and expertise in developing various innovative technologies, educational

programs, licensing courses, international projects, academic publications, and humanitarian

organizations, all for his dream goal of promoting world peace. He is a retired Acting

President/Professor of the Lenox Institute of Water Technology (LIWT), USA, a United Nations

Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) Senior Advisor in Vienna, Austria, and a former

professor/visiting professor of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Stevens Institute of Technology,

University of Illinois, National Cheng Kung University, Zhejiang University, and Tongji

University.
 31

Dr. Wang is the author of 750+ papers and 60+ books, and is credited with 29 invention patents.

He holds a BSCE degree from National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan, ROC, a MSCE degree

from the University of Missouri, a MS degree from the University of Rhode Island and a PhD

degree from Rutgers University, USA. Currently he is the book series editor of CRC Press,

Springer Nature Switzerland, Lenox Institute Press, World Scientific Singapore, and John Wiley.

Dr. Wang has been a Delegate of the People to People International Foundation, an American

Academy of Environmental Engineers (AAEE) Diplomate, a member of WEF, AWWA, ASCE,

AIChE, ASPE, CIE and OCEESA, and a recipient of WEF Kenneth Research Award (NY),

Five-Star Innovative Engineering Award (first DAF drinking water plant in Americas), and

Korean Pollution Control Association Award (Transfer of flotation technology to South Korea).
 32

2. Dr. Hung-ping Tsao (曹 恆 平)

Editor Hung-ping Tsao has been a mathematician, a university professor, and an assistant

actuary, serving private firms and universities in the United States and Taiwan for 30+ years.

Dr. Tsao has been an Associate Member of the Society of Actuaries and a Member of the

American Mathematical Society.

His research have been in the areas of college mathematics, actuarial mathematics, management

mathematics, classic number theory and Sudoku puzzle solving. In particular, bikini and open

top problems are presented to share some intuitive insights and some type of optimization

problems can be solved more efficiently and categorically by using the idea of the boundary

being the marginal change of a well-rounded region with respect to its inradius; theory of

interest, life contingency functions and pension funding are presented in more simplified and

generalized fashions; the new way of the simplex method using cross-multiplication substantially

simplified the process of finding the solutions of optimization problems; the generalization of

triangular arrays of numbers from the natural sequence based to arithmetically progressive

sequences based opens up the dimension of explorations; the introduction of an innovative way

to solve Sudoku puzzles makes everybody’s life so much easier and other STEAM project

development.

Dr. Tsao is the author of 10+ books and over 40 academic publications. Among all of the above

accomplishments, he is most proud of solving manually in the total of ten hours the hardest

Sudoku posted online by Arto Inkala in early July of 2012 and introducing an easy way to play

Sudoku in 2019.
 33

He earned his high school diploma from the High School of National Taiwan Normal University,

his BS and MS degrees from National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan, his second

MS degree from the UWM in USA, and a PhD degree from the University of Illinois, USA.

Editors of the eBOOK Series of the "EVOLUTIONARY PROGRESS IN SCIENCE,

TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, ARTS AND MATHEMATICS (STEAM)"

Dr. Lawrence K. Wang (王抗曝) - - left

Dr. Hung-ping Tsao (曹恆平) -- right

 34

APPENDIX B

THE E-BOOK SERIES OF

"EVOLUTIONARY PROGRESS IN SCIENCE,TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING,

ARTS AND MATHEMATICS (STEAM)"

The acronym STEM stands for “science, technology, engineering and mathematics”. In

accordance with the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), “A common definition of

STEM education is an interdisciplinary approach to learning where rigorous academic concepts

are coupled with real-world lessons as students apply science, technology, engineering, and

mathematics in contexts that make connections between school, community, work, and the

global enterprise enabling the development of STEM literacy and with it the ability to compete

in the new economy”.

The problem of this country has been pointed out by the US Department of Education that “All

young people should be prepared to think deeply and to think well so that they have the chance

to become the innovators, educators, researchers, and leaders who can solve the most pressing

challenges facing our nation and our world, both today and tomorrow. But, right now, not

enough of our youth have access to quality STEM learning opportunities and too few students

see these disciplines as springboards for their careers.” STEM learning and applications are very

popular topics at present, and STEM related careers are in great demand.

According to the US Department of Education reports that the number of STEM jobs in the

United States will grow by 14% from 2010 to 2020, which is much faster than the national
 35

average of 5-8 % across all job sectors. Computer programming and IT jobs top the list of the

hardest to fill jobs.

Despite this, the most popular college majors are business, law, etc., not STEM related. For this

reason, the US government has just extended a provision allowing foreign students that are

earning degrees in STEM fields a seven month visa extension, now allowing them to stay for up

to three years of “on the job training”. So, at present STEM is a legal term.

The acronym STEAM stands for “science, technology, engineering, arts and mathematics”. As

one can see, STEAM (adds “arts”) is simply a variation of STEM. The word of “arts” means

application, creation, ingenuity, and integration, for enhancing STEM inside, or exploring of

STEM outside. ,

It may also mean that the word of “arts” connects all of the humanities through an idea that a

person is looking for a solution to a very specific problem which comes out of the original

inquiry process. STEAM is an academic term in the field of education. The University of San

Diego and Concordia University offer a college degree with a STEAM focus.

Basically STEAM is a framework for teaching or R&D, which is customizable and functional,

thence the “fun” in functional. As a typical example, if STEM represents a normal cell phone

communication tower looking like a steel truss or concrete column, STEAM will be an artificial

green tree with all devices hided, but still with all cell phone communication functions. This e-

book series presents the recent evolutionary progress in STEAM with many innovative chapters

contributed by academic and professional experts.