College of Business and Economics

Department of Public Administration and

Development Management
Introduction to Public Administration

By: Aman.G

2023 G.c
 chapter -1
The Nature of Public Administration

By: Aman.G
Administration vs Management
Administration lays down the fundamental
framework of an organization, within which the
management of the organization functions.
The nature of administration is bureaucratic. It is a
broader term as it involves forecasting, planning,
organizing and decision-making functions at the
highest level of the enterprise.
 Administration represents the top layer of the
management hierarchy of the organization.
These top level authorities are the either owners or
business partners who invest their capital in starting
the business.
 They get their returns in the form of profits or as a
dividend.
Conti..
 Management is defined as an act of managing people
and their work, for achieving a common goal by using
the organization’s resources.
 It creates an environment under which the manager
and his subordinates can work together for the
attainment of group objective
 It is a group of people who use their skills and talent in
running the complete system of the organization.
 It is an activity, a function, a process, a discipline and
much more.
Planning, organizing, leading, motivating, controlling,
coordination and decision making are the major
activities performed by the management.
 Management brings together 5M’s of the organization,
i.e. Men, Material, Machines, Methods, and Money
Key Differences Between Management and Administration
Management is a systematic way of managing people
and things within the organization. The administration is
defined as an act of administering the whole
organization by a group of people.
Management is an activity of business and functional
level, whereas Administration is a high-level activity.
While management focuses on policy implementation,
policy formulation is performed by the administration.
Functions of administration include legislation and
determination. Conversely, functions of management are
executive and governing.
Administration takes all the important decisions of the
organization while management makes decisions under
the boundaries set by the administration.
Governance vs Administration
• Governance is manner of managing state
• The words governance and administration seems to be
same but they differ in the following ways
• Governance is formulating the laws, policies and acts,
where as the administration is implementing the laws
and policies enacted by the governance.
• The governance is done by the elected representatives
but administration is done the officials selected trough
set of exams.
• Governance is head and administration is like the
body, body works as the head ask to perform. But both
has to be to respond correctly to have smooth
functioning of the whole system
What make them different?
Government
Administrator
Manager
Leader
outline
 chapter 1
• The Nature of Public Administration
 Introduction
The Meaning, Scope and Importance of Public
Administration
The Art and Science Expositions of Public
Administration
Public Vs. Private Administration
Approaches to Study Public Administration
The Environment of Public Administration (In
Developed And Developing Countries)
Public Administration Vs. Other Social Sciences

By: Aman.G
 Introduction
• Every system of public administration is the product
of many influences.
• Its form and content reflect its historical origin;
existing patterns are a composite of practices and
procedures of both ancient and contemporary.
• As White (1955:13) noted, no administrative system
can be well understood without some knowledge of
what it has been, and how it came to be what
it is now.
• Therefore, when we study public administration, it
would be indispensable to look at it from a historical
perspective.
By: Aman.G
cont.….
The study of Public Administration is strictly related
with the very existence and changing functions of the
government. It seen in the context of problems
confronting the government. Such problems, may
include:
The conflict between sovereignty and
responsibility, or the reconciliation of liberty with
the duty to govern.
The government must be strong enough to command
obedience and ensure compliance to its rules
The need to balance achievement of the common
good and with the demands of vested interests.
The need to balance present necessities with future
desirability
The need to balance traditional attitudes with
scientific curiosity.
By: Aman.G
Conti…
 What were the fundamental causes or factors behind the
changes in the functions of the government?
• Industrialization: the development of industry and the
associated growth of towns (urbanization) led to various
socioeconomic problems such as those related to housing, health,
unemployment and so on.
• Social cost: as the scale of commercialization increased, it
became apparent that the activities of one organization or
individual could impose extra costs upon the society in general;
for example environmental damage from pollution. Thus,
pressure upon the state both to regulate and to take certain
responsibilities upon itself became necessary.
• Market inadequacies: certain basic facilities that would bring
successful economic growth were not being effectively provided by
the private sector. .
• Political demands: as a result of many factors like those
mentioned above, various groups organized themselves in order to
present their views politically. . By: Aman.G
Although we acknowledge the age-old practice of
administration, governmental administration of the
earlier times (ancient and medieval) differed
considerably in its structure and goals from the
modern era.

By: Aman.G
 Administration of the state in the
ancient and medieval periods:
• Was authoritarian, patriarchal and elitist (or
discriminatory) in character, informal and fluid
structure,
• Maintenance of law and order, collection of revenue,
…etc were compulsory functions whereas welfare
activities were purely incidental or optionally
undertaken,
• The so-called administrators were few in number,
selected entirely at the discretion (upon the will) of the
monarch and their official status was no better than the
personal servants of the king,
• Administrative (state) functions were limited in scope
By: Aman.G
State administration of the modern era
In contrast, state administration of the modern era that gave
rise in the 19th Century to replace the old patriarchal, hereditary
state administrative system has, among others, the following
features
• Takes the form of public bureaucracy, and administrators were
recruited on the basis of public law, became more formal,
• More formal structure performing largely within a legal
framework,
• Performs multiple of functions, much beyond revenue
collection, maintenance of law and order, as well as security
functions.
• Tasks becoming by-and-large welfare concern and public
oriented,
• The present era is that of the modern administrative state.
conti..
• All mass movements since the 18th Century have
contributed to the increasing volume, variety and scope of
public administration. Increasing population,
urbanization, public communications, and mobility
diversified governmental activities.
• Public administration is indispensably (essentially) present in
all forms of states, capitalist, socialist, dev-ed or dev-ing
• Modern public administration has assumed more and
more functions within its scope and operates a vast array of
public laws and provides public services. The scope and
importance of public administration increases with an increasi
social complexity, specialization and differentiation.
• In the present age, there is hardly any aspect of a citizen's life,
which doesn't involve public administration.
• PA is increasingly loaded with additional works and
responsibilities like promoting efficiency, egalitarianism
(social equality), and rapid socio-economic dev’t
Gerald Caiden (1971) has listed the following
crucial roles as assumed by public
administration in contemporary societies:
(i) Preservation of the polity
(ii) Maintenance of stability and order
(iii) Institutionalization of socio-economic changes
(not haphazardly)
(iv)Management of large-scale commercial services
(v) Ensuring growth and economic development
(vi)Protection of the weaker section of the society
(vii) Formation of public opinion (working towards
public interest)
(viii) Influencing public policies and political trends
By: Aman.G
MEANING AND SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
• Public administration is the management of governmental
affairs or issues at all levels or tiers, national, regional (state), and
local.
• It is the branch of the wider field of administration. There are
slight differences between "administration" and "public
administration".
• Different writers defined the term "administration" in
various ways.
• For Marx (1964:4), "Administration is a determined action
taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose.
• It is a systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated
use of resources aimed at making those things happen
which one wants to happen".
• Pfiffner (1960:3) also defined administration as "…the
organization and direction of human and material
resources to achieve desired ends…getting the work of
government done by coordinating the efforts of the
people so that they can work together to accomplish
their set (predetermined) tasks".
By: Aman.G
Conti…
L. D. White (1955:1) explained, "Administration is a
process common to all group effort, public or
private, civil or military, large-scale or small
scale..."
The important elements of administration, according to
these definitions, are cooperative effort, systematic
application, and purposefulness.
Public Administration on the other hand can be
understood as any kind of administration in the public
interest.
This simply means governmental administration.
Therefore, the difference between "administration" and
"public administration" are essentially revealed in their
scope, the former being much broader than the later.
• Nigro (1965) defined public administration in a more
comprehensive way to include, besides the above-mentioned
aspects, the relationship between public administration and
the political and social systems as well.
 For him public administration:
Is cooperative effort in a public setting
Covers all the three branches of the government; i.e.
executive, legislative, and judiciary and their
interrelationships
Has an important role in the formulation of public policy and
is thus part of the political process
Is more important than, and also differs significantly from
private administration
Has been much influenced in recent years by the "human
relations approach" both as a field of study and practice
Is closely associated with numerous private groups and
individuals in providing services to the community
By: Aman.G
• There have been also attempt to define public
administration with respect to its internal and
external dimensions:
▫ Internal administration is defined to mean the
management of an organization or agency that
involves systems, processes and methods
through which needed resources of personnel,
material and technology are used to perform
certain prescribed functions.
▫ External administration on the other hand refers
to activities and processes of administration, which
are needed to establish and to activate relationships
with agencies and groups outside the
administrative control of an organization to
achieve its objectives.
•
By: Aman.G
THE ART AND SCIENCE EXPOSITIONS OF
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Public Administration holds two meanings; firstly it
stands for the activity of administering
governmental affairs, secondly it is also an
academic discipline.
The first is definitely an art.
What needs analytical explanation is the science
aspect of public administration

By: Aman.G
• There have been many people writing or arguing public
administration as possessing an element of science since
the 1880s.
• Woodrow Wilson, who was known as the pioneer of
public administration as a subject of study, called it the
"science of public administration" as early as 1887
• Willoughby (1927), who was one of the early writers
of the field, also declared that the subject matter
possessed uniformities analogous to the laws of physical
sciences.
• He wrote that there are certain fundamental principles
of general application in public administration
analogous to those characterizing any science

By: Aman.G
cont..
Collections of papers were also presented in 1937 on
the subject under the title of "Papers on the
Science of Administration".
 Writers of those papers reflected their positions in
that for any discipline to claim the title and status of
science, there should exist a body of principles
embodied in it.
The essential characteristics of science are
absence of normative (or ethical) values,
predictability of behavior, and
universal application.

By: Aman.G
• Hence, public administration can obviously be rated as a
science if it proves that it has developed a set of principles and
acquires all the above three features. The question again is that
does public administration have a set of such principles and features?
• Many writers agree in that counter arguments in public administration to
deserve a science position are feeble (weak, meager) and insufficient.
Rather, the last hundred years have seen remarkable development of the
science of public administration. Evidences of which are:
• The transformation of the laissez-faire (liberal, nonjudgmental)
state into the modern welfare state has enlarged its sphere, added to the
functions of government and aroused interest in the problems of
efficiency in government,
• The works of industrial engineers, like Taylor, pioneered the
scientific methods with emphasis on experimentation, observation,
collection of data, classification and analysis, and the formulation of laws
and principles.
• The development of other administration components such as
organizing, planning, personnel administration, and budgetary
control as a result of the progress of the scientific method.

By: Aman.G
conti..
• All these arguments are aimed to strengthen discussions in
understanding and accepting public administration to be
called as science.
• In this regard, we find commentators arguing against the
clarity of public administration to be entitled the status of
science.
• Rumki Basu (1994:5), for example, said that all the three
features are yet imperfectly present in public administration.
• In other words, the debate is that public administration
cannot be called a science until the following three conditions
are fulfilled.
• The place of normative values in public administration
should be clearly identified and made clear,
• Greater understanding should be gained of human nature in
the field of public administration.
• The principles of administration could be derived from a
body of cross-cultural studies, thereby making them
relatively free from cultural bias
By: Aman.G
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION vs. PRIVATE ADMINISTRATION

Generally speaking, although the administration of public and private

affairs differ at many points , there are underling similarities in their
processes. Among a number of distinguishing factors between public
administration and private business administration, the following could be
considered as the major ones.
• The Political environment: public administration is concerned with
the implementation of decisions made within the political system. In a
democratic system, the policies of the government duly approved by the
legislature should represent the political will of the people, or at least the
resultant of the activities of the various competing political interests in
the society. In consequence:
The government creates individual rights and imposes constraints on
individual and group behavior
The administrator is in frequent contact with his clients and his major
concern is with equity and impartiality
Administrative procedures are built around strict compliance with the
law. On the other hand, private industry is essentially guided by the
principles of profit maximization and doesn't act as an arbiter between
conflicting social interests.

By: Aman.G
• Social costs: public administration decision-
making varies from that of private business in that
where private business is primarily concerned with
questions of financial cost and benefit, public
administration is intimately concerned with the
concepts of social costs and benefits in addition to
those of a mere financial nature.
• Public interest: Public administration is often
evaluated by the ability to operate in a manner so as
to maximize and integrate the public interest,
whereas private business is evaluated on the basis of
profit maximization. context of public
administrative system the aims are more complex to
include other concepts like public service, public
accountability, and social
cont...
• Responsibility. Therefore, the differing aims require
efficiency to be redefined in connection to public
administration. In practice it is much more difficult
quantify in financial terms the substantial investment of
resources undertaken by the public sector.
• Instability: As a result of operating in a political
environment, public administrators are faced with a
much greater turnover of political leadership and
consequent changes in policy than is encountered in
private business.
• Allocation of responsibilities: the method of
allocation of functions in the public sector is often based
more on political considerations than pure test of
efficiency, as it would be done in the private sector.
•.

By: Aman.G
• Functions: Public administration is faced with a much
wider variety of functions than those operating in private
business, and also deals with matters, which are the
exclusive jurisdictions of central administration such as
defense, and law and order.
• Decision criteria: Decision-making in public
administration is unlike that of a private organization
whose customers are free to take or leave the
organization's products or services. Public administration
decision-making is often not based on commercial forces.
Rather, the public, who are in a sense the "customers" of
its services, indicate their interests and views via their
political representatives. All decisions of public
administration take place against the background of public
criticism
THE ENVIRONMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
• Environment in the context of this topic
refers to actors and forces that affect or
determine public administration.
• The environment under which public
administration operates, that would have
major implications on its success or failure
as well as in shaping its basic features, can
generally be classified as
Internal and
External.
By: Aman.G
cont.….
• Internal environment refers to those conditions, which are in
most cases within the control of the administration, yet having their
own challenges and/or advantages. This may include the
Organization itself and groups
Individuals Within The Organization,
The material
Financial, and other resources available for the organization
and so on.
The organizational structure and the pattern of authority in the
formal hierarchy,
The purpose and tradition of the organization,
Historical legacies or traditional practices of the administrative
systems,
the internal network and working procedures, etc have influences
on the administrative efficiency and effectiveness of a given
organization or country. By: Aman.G
Conti…
The behavior and structure of formal and informal
groups like peer groups, labor unions, and advisory
council have also strong influence on the style of
administration.
The type and sufficiency of materials, skill,
knowledge, and finance are considered as
environmental factors internal to the organization that
highly determine the administrative style and the
accompanying success or failure of administration.
• External environment : on the other hand is that, which is outside the control of
the administration but having major impact in shaping the features and
determining the success or failures of the overall objectives that public
administration wants to achieve.
• The External environment can be generalized as political, economic/ecological,
social, Technological ,Environmental and Legal factors (PESTEL) each of
which reflected in many ways. For example we can consider:
 Politically, the type of government and the resultant constitution, policies, laws
and directives; national and international political trends and changes; bilateral
and multilateral agreements and policies;
 Economically, national economic trends and level of growth and development;
the global market and economic situation as well as the extent of mutual
economic assistance and cooperation;
 Socially, population/demographic trends and changes; societal beliefs, values,
attitudes, cultures, and lifestyles; public expectations and demands;
 Technologically, ability or access to use the type of technology being used
elsewhere in the world, such as in communication and production;
 Environmental and
 Legal factors . By: Aman.G
By: Aman.G
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN DEVELOPED
(INDUSTRIAL) COUNTRIES
• In the context of this portion, the term "developed" or
"industrial" societies refer to those countries of
Western Europe and USA where industrialization has
brought about major changes in economic structure and
growth accompanied by political and administrative
modernization.
• Nevertheless, it should be noted that administrative
modernization is not a typical or exclusive feature of
developed countries
• Because some developed countries might not have
modern administrative system, while we could find a
developing country that employs modern administration

By: Aman.G
The following are some of the important
features of administrative systems of
developed countries
 Government organization is highly distinguished and functionally
specific and the roles are based on achievement criteria than on attribute or
assumed power. The bureaucracy is marked by a high degree of
specialization. Recruitment of personnel is generally based on merits.
 Laws and political decisions are largely rational. Public policy making is
effectively made by professional public administrators.
 Administration has become to take all-encompassing functions that affect
major spheres of the lives of citizens.
 There is high correlation (association) between political power and
legitimacy (legality) and there is an extensive popular interest and
involvement in public affairs.
 Incumbents of political or governmental offices are generally considered as
lawful or reasonable holders of those positions, and transfer of power and
positions tend to occur in accordance with prescribed rules and procedures
• In summary, we can generally say that the nature of public
administration of these industrialized countries can be differentiated
from those of the developing ones in structure and function.
Structurally and functionally they tend to resemble to the Weberian
model of bureaucracy

By: Aman.G
Public administration in these countries is more responsive and
responsible to the public; provides efficient and effective public
services; performs both routine and welfare tasks
By: Aman.G
conti…
• For example, public administration in developed societies is
extremely affected by the development of modern science
and technology, and communication networks.
• Generally, according to Rumki Basu (1994:43), developed
countries (especially in Europe) are typical examples of what
is known as the "administrative state"; and the bureaucracy
in these states mainly perform three types of functions:
Regulatory and preventive functions, enforcing laws,
collecting revenue, and protecting the state against external
aggression.
Service functions, providing services like education,
health, culture and recreation, social insurance,
unemployment relief, housing, transportation, and
communication.
Entrepreneurial (commercial) functions, operating
industrial enterprises, loaning funds and so forth in order to
maintain or increase economic growth and development of
their respective societies.
By: Aman.G
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

• Many of the developing countries have got their

independence from colonialists immediately after
the Second World War.
• Despite a wide range of differences in terms of the
location, resources, history, culture, political
systems, and development patterns of these
countries, they as a group can be called
(characterized) as "developing".

By: Aman.G
cont.…
• The following points are indicative of general
administrative patterns currently found in developing
(nearly all the nations of Africa, the Middle East, Latin
America and Asia(third world) countries.
1. The basic pattern of public administration is imitative
(copied) rather than indigenous (original).
• All developing (third world) counties, including those
that were not colonized have deliberately tried to
introduce some version or style of the bureaucratic model
of administration from developed countries, most notably
from colonial masters.
• Hence, it would be predictable for ex-colonies to
resemble in terms of their administrative pattern.
By: Aman.G
2. The bureaucracies are deficient (lacking) in the requisite skills
necessary for development programs. In spite of abundance (plenty)
of labor (employable manpower) in relation to other resources in most
of the developing countries, trained administrators with
management capacity, developmental skills, and technical
proficiency are extremely in shortfall.

3.Emphasis to non-productive orientations is another

tendency (trend) of the bureaucracies of these countries.
Much bureaucratic activity is channeled towards the
realization of non-developmental goals.
By: Aman.G
According to Riggs, bureaucrats prefer to personal
expediency or convenience as against principled public
interest. This in turn may include practices like:
 Non-merit considerations influence greatly assignments,
promotions, dismissals, and other personnel practices,
 Widespread corruptions,
 Using the public service as a substitute for a social
security program, or to relieve the problem of
unemployment. Thus, there is always a surplus of
employees in the public services ,
 4. Extensive (huge) discrepancy or disagreement between
form and reality, which Riggs has called it "formalism",
is another distinguishing characteristic of administrative
trends of developing countries. They try to fill partially the
gap between expectation and reality by:
 Enacting laws that cannot be enforced,
 Adopting personnel regulations that are peacefully
 Announcing programs for delegation of administrative
authority while keeping tight control over decision-mak,
 Reporting as if production targets are met,
5.The bureaucracy in developing countries is likely to have high
degree of operational autonomy as a result of several operating
forces in newly independent states.
• These operating forces could be factions created by
colonialists within a given country, national and international
organizations etc.
• Political role of the bureaucracy in these countries vary
significantly.

By: Aman.G
 Chapter Two
EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
ADMINISTRATIVE THOUGHTS AND APPROACHES

By: Aman.G
As White (1955:13) puts it, no administrative system
can be well understood without some knowledge of
what it has been, and how it came to be what
it is.
Once we said that the age of public administration
as an activity is traceable to human civilization itself
while as an academic discipline is relatively younger,
we then need to see its phylogeny, how it evolved
and passed through several stages, how it became
important to study public administration as an
independent academic discipline.
The expansion of governmental functions
gave raise for public administration as an activity to
become highly diversified, complex and specialized.

By: Aman.G
• Many factors have contributed towards the growth of the study of public
administration in the USA and gradually all over the world as a separate
discipline.
• To mention the major ones;
The development of modern science and technology made an impact on
the lives of the people and the functioning of the government. This is to mean
that rapid technological development created large-scale social dislocations that
made state intervention desirable.
The scientific management movement founded by F.W. Taylor, which began
in the USA towards the end of the 19th century, gave great impetus to the study of
public administration throughout the world. The message of his thesis was that
all work processes are separable into units; the efficiency of each unit can be
tested and improved; the techniques can be extended upwards in every
organization, making efficient and rational.
The gradual evolution of the concept of welfare state, which decisively
shifted the philosophy of state functions everywhere from the traditional laissez-
faire to that of social welfare.
The movement of government and administrative reform which took
place in the early years of the 19th century in USA to look for remedies of the then
problems envisaged or encountering the civil service.

By: Aman.G
ADMINISTRATIVE THOUGHTS (ORGANIZATIONAL THEORIES)

• Organization theory has developed rapidly since 1920s,

which have much relevance to public administration.
• The primary purpose of organization theory as an
academic study is to understand and explain:
 Organizational problems as they relate to the
structure of public departments, their
interrelationships, coordination, and internal
functioning.
 How people in organizations behave and how
organizations function.

By: Aman.G
Cont.…

• However, two important points should be noted in

considering these theories:
• (1) Organization theory doesn't exist as a coherent and
universally accepted set of concepts.
• (2) Organization theory is not traditionally concerned
with public administration.
• It is thus necessary when applying such theory for public
administration to bear in mind that whilst organizational
features may be similar, public administration operates in
a much different institutional setting

By: Aman.G
Basically there are Three broad schools of
thoughts to organization or administrative
theory
Classical theory or equally known as
scientific administration
Human relations " or Behavioral theory
Systems theory .

Each of these broad thoughts, also consist

different sub-theories.

By: Aman.G
I. Classical Theory
The classical theory of organization is also known
as the structural theory or the scientific
administration theory and its foremost proponents
were Frederick W. Taylor, Henry Fayol, Luther
Gulick, James Mooney, to mention a few.
The most important concern of the classical theory
is the formation of certain universal principles of
organization.
It deals with formal organizational structure, the
study of activities, objectives, and the grouping of
such activities to achieve efficient specialization and
coordination
By: Aman.G
Main features of classical theory
Determining objectives:
Specialization and groupings:
Delegation
Divisionalisation and Decentralization:
Specifying responsibility.
Line and staff relations
-Additionally Henry Fayol's Administrative
Management theory was often considered as the
first complete theory of management, the focus of
which was on the job of the chief executive and on
the principle of unity of command.
He divided all activities in an organization under
six groups; technical, commercial, financial,
security, accounting and administrative.
By: Aman.G
cont.….
He further propounded (advocated) the following fourteen
principles of managing organization; namely,
 (1) Division of work,
 (2) Authority,
(3) Discipline
(4) Unity of command
 (5) Unity of direction
 (6) Subordination of individual interest to general
interest
(7) Remuneration of personnel
 (8) Centralization
 (9) Scalar chain
(10) order
 (11) Equity
(12) Stability of tenure of personnel
 (13) Initiative
 (14) Esprit de corps. Esprit de corps, is a French term
that denotes feelings of pride, care and support for each other

By: Aman.G
The school, most notably Frederick W. Taylor, also believed that management, not labor,
was the causes of and potential solution to problems in industry. Taylor called for a mental
revolution to combine the interest of labor and management into a mutually rewarding
whole. He emphasized the importance of mutual understanding and building better
management and labor relations
• Mooney and Reiley, in their famous work known as "the principles of
organization", have also argued that all organization structures are based on a
system of superior-subordinate relationships arranged in a hierarchical order
termed as "scalar principle". The "scalar principle" has its own principle, process
and effect termed as leadership, delegation and functional definition.
• Luther Gulick who has been considered as another notable thinker of the classical
school, defined major managerial techniques by an acronym known as
"POSDCORB",
• In general, the classical or scientific management school has contributed
tremendous administrative knowledge to us. Its essence is the development of an
inquiring mind, searching for more knowledge, more facts, and more relationships.
• Advocates of this school firmly believe that better management is possible by
using scientific method, with economic considerations such as cost, time use, and
efficiency supported by research methods of other disciplines.
• best management is never permanently attained because continuous new
knowledge paves the way for constant improvement.
By: Aman.G
cont.…..
• There are, however, certain criticisms made by different
commentators as the classical theory has its own defects. These
include:
• Underlying assumptions: the basic classical assumptions have
been challenged in that they oversimplify, and fail to take account
of the development of small informal groups and sub-groups,
which may be at odds with the overall organizational goals.
• Problem definition: the classical approach presumes both the
importance and the ease of defining objectives and fails to
recognize that in public administration the definition of such
objectives is interwoven with broad political process.
• Means not ends: the approach concentrates on the means whereby
objectives may be achieved, but gives little or no guide to the
relevant elements of establishing ends.
• Consequently, the approach is unrelated to the social and political
problems faced by public administration.

By: Aman.G
II. THE HUMAN RELATIONS (BEHAVIORAL) THEORY

This theory involves the study of motives and

behavior and the development of criteria to help
design of an organization that stimulates members
to cooperate in achieving organizational aims.
The behavioral approach generally belongs to the
neo-classical school of thought, focusing on the
behavioral, humanistic or human relation aspects of
administration for which Elton Mayo is known as
the major contributor of the thought

By: Aman.G
It is primarily concerned with the analysis of the
behavior of groups and individuals within the
organizational context.
 Much of their work is experimentally based and
concludes that social classification must be taken
into account when explaining behavior.
According to behavioral thinking, it is important
that organizations should devise objectives taking
into account the needs of their staff as well as those
of the organization as a whole.

By: Aman.G
• In practice, the neo-classical (behavioral) approach is concerned with the following:
• Needs and wants: the approach involves the study of an individual's wants and needs,
stimulating factors that help to satisfy needs and achieve organizational goals. Needs have
to be classified as physical, safety, social, egoistic, and self-actualization. Thus, an
organization should offer incentives to satisfy such needs as well as effectively subjugate
(suppress) personal values of individuals to those of the organization.

By: Aman.G
• Incentives may be defined as "the appeals an organization makes to
the personal values of employees to induce them to accept
organizational values". Incentives can generally be classified as:
Material inducement,
Opportunities for distinction, honor and recognition,
Good physical working conditions,
Personal confidence and satisfaction in social relationships within
the organization,
Conformity with habitual practices, and
Feeling of participation and belongingness,
• Work groups: the approach recognizes the influence of a group on
the individual's attitude and behavior. Most of the time
▫ He/she tends to conform to group pressure.
▫ His/her attitudes and morale are influenced by group associations.
▫ Problem solving and leadership are often group functions.

By: Aman.G
Cont…..
• Supervisory behavior: this is treated as a vital factor in
influencing work group behavior, as the supervisor represents the
link between the group and the formal organization.
• Generally, the approach is concerned with inter-group behavior and
study of relations between groups rather than between individuals
and emphasizes the power of groups in decision-making. However,
group participation criticized for the following reasons:
 It increases group domination of its members
 Responsibilities become blurred
 Group and expert judgments may conflict
 The cost of reorienting supervisory functions may exceed the
benefits of group participation
 The process is not automatically effective and depends greatly on
supervisory and management attitudes
• The Behavioral (neo-classical) criticism of the classical school
shows that scientific administration is ignores the impact of staff
• In conclusion, the classical (scientific
administration) and neo-classical (human
relations or behavioral) approaches vary in the
following important aspects:
 Whereas the human relations school is concerned with
the organization evolving effectively from inter-personal
behavior, the classical school predetermines the
organization within which individuals are required to
function
 The human relations approach results in a
comparatively flat organizational structure, whereas the
classical approach results in a pyramidal structure
 Authority is regarded by the human relations approach
as a social factor, but as organizational factor by the
classical approach
Interdependence is a key factor in the human relations
approach, which considers that the classical definition of
responsibility creates competition.
By: Aman.G
III. THE SYSTEMS THEORY
• In some literatures, we may find systems theory as being one
of the theories that are within the category of the
"Modernization School of Thought" along with Contingency
Theory and Management Process Theory, while in some
others systems theory is recognized as an independent ST
• This approach concentrates on decisions that need to be made
to achieve objectives, and the organization is thus designed to
facilitate decision-making.
• The systems approach treats organization as an example of a
"system", i.e. a set of interdependent parts forming a whole
with the objective of fulfilling some definable function.
• An organization is essentially regarded as a decision-making
system and treated as being built up from the analysis of
information requirements and communications networks.
• It, thus, treats the process of decision-making as basic to the
determination of objectives and policies.
cont.…..
• The methodology of the systems approach consists of the
following steps:
Specifying objectives
 Establishing subsystems (main decision areas)
Analyzing these decision areas and their information needs
 Designing the communication channels to facilitate information
flow within the organization
 Grouping decision areas to minimize communication problems. In
practice, the approach illustrates the importance of organization of
information, the advantages of projects rather than functional
divisions and the need to concentrate centrally the information
network
• Within the systems theory, the organizations are regarded as
semiautonomous systems, which develop their own internal goals;
having their own performance and conservation (survival)
objectives.
• All schools of thoughts on organization have developed mainly to
explain aspects of performance and behavior that can be observed.

By: Aman.G
THE BUREAUCRACY THEORY
• The term "bureaucracy" is a combination of two words; i.e.
"bureau" and "cracy".
• "Bureau" means an office or organization established to
perform certain activities, or it may mean a government
department,
• "cracy" denotes a form of governmental rule. In this
consideration, bureaucracy simply means a form of rule or
activity exercised/practiced by governmental offices.
• In its literal meaning, "bureaucracy is a system of official
rules and ways of doing things that a government or an
organization has, which are complex in nature; or
• A system of government in which there are a large number of
state officials who are not elected".
• Bureaucracy was first used in France as "bureaucratic" in
the eighteenth century to refer to "the government in
operation".

By: Aman.G
 The various meanings, which have been
given to the term, include the following:
• Institutional meaning: the term "bureaucracy" may refer to
government by appointed or recruited officials as opposed to government
by elected representatives. Alternatively, it may be used to indicate that,
although representative government exists, the dominant role is held by
officials. These definitions, however, tend to be inadequate in that they
fail to distinguish those common situations where government consists of
a combination of elected and non-elected members and officials.
• Activity of officials: in contrast, a definition may be attempted from
the aspect of what officials do or how they behave. In this regard the
following interpretations exist;
• (i) Derogatory: the synonymous use of "bureaucracy" and "red tape",
resulting from the real and supposed difficulties of dealing with the
official environment. This is however an extremely offensive yet
subjective meaning of bureaucracy.
• (ii) Regulated system: a regulated administrative system operating
through complex interrelated organs,
• iii. Methodological: a study of methods based on either the first (i) or
the second (ii) points above,
By: Aman.G
THE WEBERIAN MODEL OF BUREAUCRACY
Bureaucracy as an organizational model was first
developed systematically by Max Weber, a
distinguished German sociologist in the 19Th century.
According to him, every organization can be defined as
"a structure of activities (means) directed towards the
achievement of certain objectives (ends)".
 Every organization develops a system of specialization
(division of tasks) and a set of systematic rules and
procedures to maximize efficiency.
Weber stressed that the bureaucratic form of
organization is capable of attaining the highest degree of
efficiency since the means used to achieve goals are
rationally and objectively chosen towards the desired
ends.
By: Aman.G
Weber identified the following factors and conditions for
their contribution to growth of bureaucracy in modern
times.
The development of modern large-scale
organizations and corporations
 The role of expanding technical knowledge, and the
development of modern technology
 The capitalist system itself has been also
considered as the main contributive factor.

By: Aman.G
Weber specified the following structural and behavioral
characteristics or conditions that an organization must possess
before properly being called or distinguished as a bureaucracy
Division of labor: ,
Hierarchy:
Rules
Rationality:
Impersonality ,
Rule orientation:
Neutrality:
• While the first three points are structural characteristics
of bureaucracy, the rest four points are behavioral
characteristics
By: Aman.G
• Weber concluded that a fully developed bureaucracy has those advantages of
• Speed, precision, non-ambiguity, continuity, discretion, unity, strict
subordination, and reduction of friction and of material and personal costs.
• The following are among the critics that turned against the advantages of
bureaucracy:
 People in bureaucracy fulfill merely segmental roles over which they have no
control
 In consequence, they have little or no opportunity to exercise individual judgment
 In order to be effective, bureaucratic personnel must behave consistently and
follow regulations strictly. This automatically limits a bureaucrat's capacity to
adapt to changing circumstances not envisaged by those who drew up the rules
 The general rules, which may make for overall efficiency could produce
inefficiency and injustice in individual cases
 The impersonal treatment of clients envisaged by Weber is not always operable in
 Weber's view that bureaucrats should not become closely involved in personal
relations with colleagues has undesirable practical effects
 The key limit on the efficiency of bureaucratic administration lies on the
difficulty of coping with uncertainty and change
By: Aman.G
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
• There have been different approaches to the study of public administration since 1887,
since the subject was born as a separate academic discipline. A concise review of the
different approaches are presented as follows:
 HISTORICAL APPROCH
• The historical approach is essentially based on the belief that knowledge of history is
absolutely important for an in-depth study of the subject. For a proper understanding of
the subject, the study of public administration of the past particular periods is necessary to
link-up with the present administrative system.
 LEGAL APPROCH
• Exponents of this approach would like to study public administration as part of law and
concentrate on the formal legal structure and organization of public bodies. Its chief
concern has been with power-its structure and functions. Its main sources are
constitutions, codes of laws, office manuals of rules and regulations, and judicial
decisions.
 ISTITUTIONAL APPROACH
• This approach tried to establish linkages between the study of public administration and
government institutions. It approached the study of administration through the study of
structure, and functioning of separate institutions of the state such as the executive,
legislature, departments, boards and commissions. .

By: Aman.G
Cont.
 BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
• This approach is mainly concerned with the scientific study of human behavior in
diverse social environments. It started as a protest against the traditional, historical,
normative and largely descriptive approaches in the social sciences. In public
administration, behavioral study started in the 1930s with the "Human Relations
Movement".
 SYSTEMS APPROACH
• One of the most significant landmarks in the evolution of organization theory is the
development of general systems concept for organizational analysis. The term
"system" has been defined as a complex whole, a set of connected things or parts. ,a
system is a collection of interrelated parts, which receives inputs and produces
certain results.
 STRUCTURAL/FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
• The two basic concepts to this approach are structure and function. All social
structures exist to perform certain functions.
 ECOLOGICAL APPROACH
• Various scholars and administrators have often referred to the need to relate public
administration to the environment in which it functions. The ecological perspective
in the study of PA included such factors as people, institution, scientific technology,
social technology, wishes and ideas, catastrophe and personality
STAGES IN THE STUDY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

• The Evolution of public administration as an

academic discipline falls mainly into the following
six crucial stages
• Stage 1-stage 6, Historical Evolution of Public
Administration will be discussed under this portion

By: Aman.G
Stage One
 The first stage, which began with the publication of Woodrow Wilson's work, "The Study
of Administration" in 1887, can be called "the era of politics-administration
dichotomy". Wilson is considered as the founder of the academic discipline of public
administration.
 Making a distinction between politics and administration, he argued that administration is
concerned with the implementation of political policy decisions
• Another notable event of the period (first stage) was the publication of Goodnow's in title
"politics and administration" in 1900, which supported the Wilsonian idea further by
conceptually distinguishing the two functions.
• According to him, "politics has to do with policies or expressions of the state will"
whereas "administration has to do with the execution of these policies".
• Apart from this, the institutional locations of these two functions were differentiated;
• the location of politics were identified with the legislature and higher levels of the
government where major policy decisions were taken,
• while the location of administration was identified with the executive branch of the
government and the bureaucracy.
• With an increasing recognition of the study of public administration in American
universities, Leonard D White (1926) wrote a book known as "Introduction to the Study
of Public Administration", which was recognized as the first textbook on the subject.
• This book, while advocating a politics-administration dichotomy, stressed the human
side of administration, dealing comprehensively with administration in government.
Stage Two
• The second stage of evolution is marked by the tendency to reinforce the idea of politics-
administration dichotomy and to evolve a value-free "science of management".
• The central belief of this period was that there are certain "principles" of administration,
which were the task of scholars to discover and advocate. Important works of this period
sharing the same approach were:
 "Principles of Public Administration" by Willoughby (1927),
 "Principles of Organization" by Mooney and Reiley,
 "Creative Experience" by Mary P Follett,
 "Industrial and General Management" by Fayol,
 "Papers on the Science of Public Administration" by Gulick and Urwick, eds (1937),
• The main reason for the upsurge of interest of administration in this period was absence of
enough skilled personnel to perform the rapid multiplication of government functions
following the 1930s Great depression.
• Therefore, schools of public administration were established to quickly train as many people
as possible in the techniques of administration.
• The main difference between the protagonists of the politics-administration dichotomy of the
first and second stages in the evolution of the discipline is that, while the former ones
emphasized the legal and constitutional aspects, the new school of scientific management of
the second period emphasized a purely scientific approach to the study of public
administration, but retaining ideas of the first period.
• With the help of scientific management methods, Gulick and Urwick (1937) coined the word
POSDCORB to promote some of these principles of administration. POSDCORB These
maxims (principles of administration were said to be of universal applicability organizations
Stage Three
 The third stage began with a creation against the mechanical
approach.
The so-called "principles" of administration were challenged and
dubbed as "naturalistic fallacies" and "proverbs".
 The third stage approach was based on experiments and
organizational analysis. The experiments, which focused upon
work groups, have brought a major shook on the foundations of
the scientific management school of thought by clearly
demonstrating the influence of social and psychological factors on
the worker's output.
 This approach also drew attention to the effect of informal
organization in the formal setup, the phenomenon of leadership
and influence, and impact of conflict and cooperation among
groups in the organizational environment.
 Thus, the approach revealed the vital importance of human
relations in organizations.
 Lastly, this approach criticizes the politics-administration
dichotomous analogy of the first and second period thinkers.
Politics and administration couldn't be separated; one couldn't be
taken out of the other.
By: Aman.G
Stage Four
• The fourth stage was usher by two significant publications in the 1940s; i.e.
• Simon's "Administrative Behavior" that associates itself to the behavioral
field and
• Robert Dahl's "The Science of Administration: Three Problems". Simon's
approach widened the scope of the subject by relating it to psychology, sociology,
economics, and political science. He rejected both the classical "principles" of
administration and the "politics-administration dichotomy" in administrative
thought and practice.
• He argued that all administration revolves around rationality and decision-
making.
• Simon identified two mutually supportive streams of thought;
I. One was engaged in the development of a pure science of
administration, which required a solid base in social psychology, and
II. the other was concerned with the normative aspects of administration
and prescription for public policy.
• The second approach would require a broad understanding of political science,
economics, and sociology as well.
• He the principles of public administration were attacked. They were not
scientific but normative, not universal but culture-bound. They were not
grounded in evidence but based on misplaced corporate analogies and autocratic
assumptions

By: Aman.G
Stage Five
 The fifth stage is concerned with the nature of post-war
developments and transformations, taking place in both the theory
and practice of public administration. Emphasis considerably in
the light of new developments.
Firstly, administration came to be viewed increasingly as a unit in
the process of continuous interactions between the people inside
and outside the organization at any given period of time.
Secondly, separate studies of public and private business
administrations tended to merge into a single science of
organization, whose theories and concepts were to be equally
applicable to both private and public administration
Thirdly, the increasing use of the systems and the behavioral
approaches encouraged the comparative study of administrative
systems in diverse social settings and environments
In the transfer of administrative know-how to the developing
countries, western administrative concepts were found to be
inadequate. The result was questioning of the traditional
framework of public administration and its universal applicability

By: Aman.G
Stage Six
• The final (six) stage of the evolution of public
administration coincides with a general concern in
the social sciences for public policy analysis.
• This approach was a post WW II war phenomenon,
and was built upon two basic themes:
The inter penetration of politics and administration
at any levels; and
 The programmatic character of all administration.
• The interdisciplinary policy process and planning
approach has become the most useful and relevant
guide to practical administrators in developing and
developed societies alike
By: Aman.G
 CHAPTER THREE
THE MANAGEMENT PROCESS IN PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
(FUNCTIONS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION)

By: Aman.G
Public administration as a dynamic and ongoing activity
entails knowing the processes how to perform its broad
functions in terms of Planning, Organizing, Staffing,
Directing, and Controlling (POSDC) known as the
"management process in public administration
• ". In some literatures, we may find also Reporting and
Budgeting, being included as separate functions of
public administration.
• Since these functions or management processes of
public administration are crucial to effective
administration,
By: Aman.G
PLANNING
Planning is a management or administrative
process or function that involves setting goals and
deciding how best to achieve them
• Planning is the primary (first) administrative or
managerial function that sets the stage for other
functions.
• It is a process of deciding exactly what one wants to
accomplish and how to best go about it before action
is required .
• Planning is a means to an end.
• Planning is preparing today for tomorrow

By: Aman.G
By: Aman.G
By: Aman.G
THE NATURE/FEATURES/ OF PLANNING

• Basically planning has the following key

features:
The contribution of planning to purpose and objectives
The primacy of planning
The pervasiveness /Universality/ of planning function
The efficiency of plans

By: Aman.G
THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING
It provides purposeful and orderly activities:
It points out the need for future change/ preparing
for change:
It answers “what-if” questions:
It provides basis for controlling
It forces managers see the organization as a system .
It provides the opportunity for obtaining the
required resources as well as for a greater utilization
of the available organizational resources:
It provides the base for teamwork/ coordinating
efforts:
Developing managers:

By: Aman.G
THE PLANNING PROCESS
• Like other managerial activities planning involves processes
or series of steps. In other words, planning is a statement of
action steps to be taken in order to accomplish objectives.
These steps in the systematic process are interrelated, and
there is no rigid boundary between or among these steps, and
one is the base for the other. These may include the
following:
I. Establishing objectives
II. Developing premises
III. Determining alternative courses of actions
IV. Evaluating (analyzing) alternative courses of action
V. Selecting a course of action
VI. Formulating derivative plans
VII. Numbering plans by budgeting
VIII. Implementing the plan
IX. Controlling and evaluating the results
By: Aman.G
 90

Types of plan

Plans can be classified on:

 Repetitiveness/use
 Time dimension, and
 Scope/breadth dimension

Mr. AMAN. G
 91
Classification of plan based on repetitiveness
Mr. AMAN. G

• Standing plans: - are established set of decisions

used by managers to deal with recurring or
organizational activities.
• Whenever organizational activities occur repeatedly a
single decision or set of decisions can effectively guide
those activities.
• One established, standing plans allow managers to
conserve time used for planning and decision making
because similar situations are handled in a
predetermined, consistent manner.
• For example , bank managers can more easily approve
or reject a loan requests if criteria are established in
advance to evaluate credit ratings, collateral assets,
and related application information
 92

Mr. AMAN. G

Cont’d

The standing plans include the

following:
Mission, Objectives, strategies, Policies,
Procedures, methods & rules
 93

Cont’d Mr. AMAN. G

2. Single- use Plans

 Detailed courses of action that probably will not be
repeated in the same form in the future.
 They are plans which are prepared for a particular
situation.
 Example:
 Plan to Expand firms,
 Adama –Finfine expressway project
 construction costs,
 labour availability, location
 The major type of single use plans include: Programs,
Projects & Budgets
 94
Cont’d Mr. AMAN. G

• programs :-They are complex of:

▫ goals, policies, procedures, rules,
▫ task assignments, resources to be employed and
▫ other elements to carry out a given course of
action.
• Projects: - Projects are smaller, separate portions of
programs limited in scope and distinct directives
concerning assignments and time.
• Budgets: - A budget is a single use plan that states
projected income and expenditures for specific
period of time.
• Contingency planning can be added up to
those major types of plans (standing and single
use plans) within the "use dimension of plans".
 95

Cont’d Mr. AMAN. G

Based on Time
They are classified as:
a. Long range
 Time frames extending beyond three years
b. Intermediate range
 B/n long range and short range
c. Short range
 Time frames of one year or less
 96

Cont’d Mr. AMAN. G

Based on Scope/Breadth
1. Strategic planning: -
 It is the process of analyzing and deciding on:
 the organizations mission, objectives,
 major course of actions or strategies and
 major resource allocations.
 It deals with:
 Broad issues and performed by top level managers.
 It is general plan.
 It is a long-range planning that focuses on the organization as a
whole.
 97

Cont’d
2. Tactical planning
 Process of developing action plans
 Converting the strategic plans into action.
 Developing annual budget for each department,
division and project,
 Choosing specific measures of implementing
strategic plans.
 98

Cont’d
Mr. AMAN. G

3. Operational planning
Most specific and detailed action plan.
Made at the operating level and
Concerned with the day to day, week to week
execution of the organizational activities.
What should be done in the short range.
• The following are distinguishing characteristics of
strategic plan.
It requires looking outside the organization for threats
and opportunities.
It requires looking inside the organization for strengths
and weaknesses
It takes a longer view, i.e. it covers a relatively long time
horizon > 5 years.
It tends to be top management responsibility, but it
reflects a mentality useful at all levels.
• Strategic plans address such questions as:
What business are we in?
What business should we be in?
Where will we be in after some years (for example, after
ten years) if we continue doing what we are now doing?
By: Aman.G
Summary
Level of
Type of plan Scope management Time Specificity
Strategic plan Wide TLM Long:  5 years Less

Tactical plan Medium MLM Medium: 1-5 years Medium

Operational plan Narrow LLM Short: < 1 year Detailed

By: Aman.G
Characteristics of a Good plan
• Every sound /effective plan must have the following
characteristics:
 Objectivity:
 Futurity: .
 Flexibility:
 Stability: .
 Comprehensiveness:
 Simplicity and clarity:
 Action-oriented: Good planning helps us to stay proactive
rather than reactive to things because it makes more:
 Result-oriented- creating a performance-oriented sense
 Priority-oriented- making sure that the most important things get
first attention
 Advantage-oriented- ensuring that all resources are used to the
best advantage
 Change-oriented- anticipating problems and opportunities, so
they can be best dealt with.

By: Aman.G
• Planning Tools and Techniques
• Some of the useful planning tools and techniques
include :
Forecasting
Benchmarking and
Participation.

By: Aman.G
THE ORGANIZING FUNCTION
• The Meaning of Organizing
• its all about arranging material and non-material to achieve
desired objective
• Once a manger develops a workable plan, the next step is
bringing resources together in the most effective manner to
accomplish the plan .
• Planning, consequently, requires organizing the efforts of
many people.
• Organizing: is the management process or function that
focuses on allocating and arranging human and nonhuman
(physical) resources so that plans can be carried out
successfully and attained organizational objectives.
• Organizing - refers to the coordination of resources; i.e.
labor, managerial talent, material, machinery and money
cont.…
• Forces us to address several basic questions:
What specific tasks are required to implement our
plans?
How many organizational positions are needed to
perform all the required tasks?
How should these positions be grouped?
How many layers of management (Organizational
levels) are needed to coordinate them?
How many people should a manager supervise
directly?
By: Aman.G
THE ORGANIZING PROCESS
• The organizing process has the following
basic steps.
Identification of objectives
Identification of the specific activities needed which help
the organization achieve its objectives.
Grouping of activities necessary to attain objectives
Assigning group of activities (work) and delegate the
appropriate authority.
Provision for coordination/Design a hierarchy of
relationships.

By: Aman.G
While developing organizational structure,
managers make a variety of decisions; especially
they decide:
 Division of labor
Delegation of authority
Departmentalization
Centralization and Decentralization
Span of control, and coordination.
This is further called element of organizing
function
By: Aman.G
The Process of Delegation
• Delegation of authority has the following
steps.
Assignment of tasks
Delegation of authority
Acceptance of responsibility
Creation of accountability

By: Aman.G
The Importance of Delegation
It relives the manager from his/her heavy
workload.
It leads to better decisions:
It speedup decision-making:
It helps subordinates to train and builds
moral
It encourages the development of
professional managers: .
It helps to create the organization structure:

By: Aman.G
Factors determining the delegation of
authority
• Managers cannot ordinarily be for or against
decentralization of authority. They may prefer to
delegate authority, or they may like to make all the
decisions. Some factors that affect the degree of
centralization or decentralization- delegation of
authority- are:
• The history and culture of the organization
• The nature of the decision
• Availability and ability of managers (LLMs)
• Management philosophy
• Size and character of the organization
• Geographic dispersion of operations
• Environmental uncertainty
By: Aman.G
• In spite of the advantages, many managers are reluctant to delegate
authority and may subordinates are reluctant/ unwilling/ to accept it.
Both these barriers hinder effective delegation
• Reluctance to delegate/Problems from Managers
• There are a number of reasons that managers commonly offer to explain
why they do not delegate. Some are:
 Fear of loss of power - if
 “I can do it better myself” fallacy:
 Lack of confidence in subordinates: .
 Fear of being exposed:
 Difficulty in briefing:
• Reluctance to Accept Delegation/problems from subordinates
 Fear of failure and criticism:
 Subordinate may believe that the delegation increases the risk of making
 Lack of incentive or reward for assuming a greater workload.
 Lack of adequate information and resources.
 Lack of self – confidence
 Believing / Thinking that decision-making
By: Aman.Gis the boss’s job.
• Authority Relations in Organization (Line, Staff,
Functional)
• In an organization different types of authority are created by
the relationships between individuals and between
departments. There are three types of authority.
• I. Line Authority: Defines the relationship between superior
and subordinate. It is a direct supervisory relationship. It exists
in all organizations as an uninterrupted score or series of steps.
In line authority, a superior exercises direct command over a
subordinate.
• It is the authority to direct the work of others and to require
them to confirm to decisions, plans, policies, systems,
procedures and goals. Line authority is the heart of the
relationship between superiors and subordinates.
• So line authority’ is the direct authority which a superior
exercises over his subordinates to carry out orders and
instructions. By: Aman.G
• II. Staff Authority - is advisory in nature. The
function of people in a pure staff capacity is to give
advice, expertise, technical assistance, and support to
help line managers to work more effectively in
accomplishing objectives
• Staff officers are functional experts. They provide advice
to the line authorities in the performance of duties. They
render advisory service to the departmental heads. They
refer to those groups of individuals who provide line
managers with advice and services.
III. Functional Authority
• This means the authority of staff department members to control
the activities of other departments that are related to specific staff
responsibilities.
• It occupies a midway position between line and staff authority.
• “Functional authority is the right which an individual or
department has delegated to it over specialised processes,
practices, policies or other matters relating to activities
undertaken by personnel in department other than its own.”
• The functional authority is granted to people for maintaining
quality and uniformity of functions in an organisation.
• Functional authority is subordinate to line authority and it is a
way of putting specialists to work in the organisation.
Major Elements in Organizing
Function
1. DIVISION OF LABOR
 The degree to which the grand task of the
organization is broken down and divided into
smaller component parts is referred to as
division of labor.
 It begins by determining (sub tasks) called
jobs that are necessary to accomplish the
identified objectives.

Mr. AMAN. G 114

Cont’d
 The sub-task assigned to the sub task
performer is called job.
 Labor division also includes the determination
of job description and job specification.

Mr. AMAN. G 115

Cont’d
2. Departmentalization
 Departmentation is the process of
combining jobs into groups.
 A manager must have a basis, or
rationale, for combining jobs.

Mr. AMAN. G 116

Bases of Departmentalization
1. Functional:
 A business firm includes such functions as
production marketing, finance, accounting, and
personnel.
2. Territorial (Geographic):
 All activities in a geographic area are assigned
to a particular manager.

Mr. AMAN. G 117

 Cont‟d
Example: Functional Dept

Mr. AMAN. G 118

 Cont‟d
Example: Territorial Dept

Mr. AMAN. G 119

Cont’d
A business firm that is dispersed
geographically often will use territory as
departmentalization basis.
3. Product :
 Activities and personnel are grouped
on the basis of product.

Mr. AMAN. G 120

Cont’d
 As a firm grows, coordinating its various
functional departments become more difficult,
and product departmentation can ease
coordination problems
 The need for coordinating production,
engineering, sales, and service cannot be
overestimated.
Mr. AMAN. G 121
 Cont’d
 Example: Product Dept

Mr. AMAN. G 122

Cont’d
 Each division also must have accountants,
lawyers, engineers, market researchers, and
scientists assigned to it .
 Therefore, the product based organization runs
the danger of duplication of effort among its
divisions.

Mr. AMAN. G 123

Cont’d
4. Customer:
Grouping activities so that reflect a primary interest
in customers is common in a variety of enterprises.

Mr. AMAN. G 124

 Cont’d
 Example: Customer Dept

Mr. AMAN. G 125

Cont’d
5. Departmentalization on process Base
 It is a base in which multiple bases are used
at different organizational levels of a
particular organization.
 Most of the time organizations use
combined structure.

Mr. AMAN. G 126

Cont’d
3. Delegation of Authority
 Authority - is the right to commit resources
(that is, to make decisions that commit an
organization‟s resources), or the legal
(legitimate) right to give orders (to tell
someone to do or not to do something).
 It is the right to make decisions, carry out
actions, and direct others in matters related to
the duties and goals of a position.
Mr. AMAN. G 127
Cont’d
 Higher-level managers have greater authority,
with ultimate power resting at the top.
 Authority decreases all the way to the bottom
of the chart, where positions have little or
none.
 Authority is vested in a manager because of
the position he/she occupies in the
organization, that is why we say, “authority
comes with the territory.”
Mr. AMAN. G 128
Cont’d
 Delegation of Authority is the downward pushing of
authority from superiors to subordinates to make decision
within their area of responsibilities.
 It is the process of allocating tasks to subordinates,
giving them adequate authority to carry out those
assignments, and making them obligated to complete the
tasks satisfactorily.
 Delegation is a concept describing the passing of formal
authority to another person.

Mr. AMAN. G 129

Cont’d
The Process of Delegation

Four Major tasks:

 Assignment of tasks
 Delegation of authority
 Acceptance of responsibility
 Creation of accountability

Mr. AMAN. G 130

Cont’d
Importance of Delegation
 It relieves the manager from his/her heavy workload
 It leads to better decisions
 It help subordinates to train and build moral
 It encourages the development of professional
managers
 It helps to create the organizational structure

Mr. AMAN. G 131

Cont’d
Factors Determining Delegation
 The history and culture of the organization
 The nature of the decision
 Availability and ability of managers (Lower
level managers)
 Management philosophy
 Size and character of the organization
 Geographic dispersion of operations
 Environmental uncertainty
Mr. AMAN. G 132
Cont’d
Problems in Delegation
Managers‟ reluctance to delegate:
 Fear of loss of power
 “I can do it better myself” fallacy
 Lack of confidence in subordinates
 Fear of being exposed
 Difficulty in briefing

Mr. AMAN. G 133

Cont‟d
Subordinates‟ Reluctance to accept delegation
 Fear of failure and criticism
 Subordinate may believe that the delegation
increases the risk of making mistakes but
doesn‟t provide adequate rewards for
assuming greater responsibility
 Lack of adequate information and resources
 If subordinates are already overworked

Mr. AMAN. G 134

Cont’d
 Lack of self-confidence
 Believing / Thinking that decision-making is the boss‟s job

Mr. AMAN. G 135

Cont‟d
Overcoming the barriers in delegation
 The most basic prerequisite to effective
delegation is the willingness of managers to
give their subordinates real freedom to
accomplish delegated tasks
 Subordinates must be allowed to develop their
own solutions to problems and learn from their
mistakes.

Mr. AMAN. G 136

Cont‟d

 The solution to subordinates mistake is not for

the manager to delegate less, but to train or
otherwise support subordinate more.
 Improved communication between managers
and subordinates.
 Managers who know the abilities of their
subordinates can more realistically decide
which tasks can be delegated to whom.

Mr. AMAN. G 137

Cont’d
 Subordinates who are encouraged to use
their abilities and who feel their managers
will “back them up” will in turn be more
accepting of responsibility.

Mr. AMAN. G 138

Cont‟d
4. Centralization and Decentralization
 Centralization is the extent to which power
and authority are systematically retained by
top managers.
 If an organization is centralized decision
making power remains at the top
 The participation of lower level managers in
decision-making is very low

Mr. AMAN. G 139

Cont’d
 Decentralization is the extent to which power
and authority are systematically dispersed/
delegated throughout the organization to middle
and lower level managers.
 It is the tendency to disperse decision making
authority in an organized structure.

Mr. AMAN. G 140

Cont‟d
When decentralization is greater:
 The greater is the number of decisions made at
lower level of the organization; the more
functions are affected by decisions made at
lower levels; the less a subordinate has to refer
to his/her manager prior to a decision and the
less checking required as decisions are made at
the lower level.

Mr. AMAN. G 141

Cont‟d
5. Span of Management
 The term span of management is also referred
to as a span of control, span of supervision,
span of authority or span of responsibility.
 Span of management refers to the number of
subordinates who report directly to a manager,
or the number of subordinates who will be
directly supervised by a manager.

Mr. AMAN. G 142

Cont’d
Types of span of management

1. Narrow Span of Management

2. Wide Span of Management

Mr. AMAN. G 143

Cont‟d
1. Narrow Span of Management:
 This means superior controls few numbers of
subordinates or few subordinates report to a
superior.
 When there is narrow span of management
in an organization, we get:

Mr. AMAN. G 144

Cont‟d
A. Tall organization structure with many levels
of supervision between top management and
the lowest organizational level.
B. More communication between superiors and
subordinates.
C. Managers are underutilized and their
subordinates are over controlled.
D. More trained managerial personnel and
centralized authority.

Mr. AMAN. G 145

Cont’d
Advantages of Narrow Span of Management:

i. Close supervision and control

ii. Fast communication between subordinates and superiors.
iii. Easy to coordinate and control activities.

Mr. AMAN. G 146

Cont‟d
Disadvantages of Narrow Span of Management:
i. Superiors tend to get too involved in the subordinates
work
ii. The problem of getting more trained managerial
personnel
iii. Excessive distance between lowest level and top level
management. This kills intuition for top level positions.
iv. High costs due to many levels

Mr. AMAN. G 147

Cont‟d
2. Wide Span of Management
 This means many subordinates report to a
superior or a superior supervises many
subordinates.

 If the span of management is wide, we

get:

Mr. AMAN. G 148

Cont‟d
I. A flat organization structure with fewer
management levels between top and lower
level
II. Many number of subordinates and
decentralized authority
III. Managers are overstrained and their
subordinates receive too little guidance and
control
IV. Fewer hierarchal level

Mr. AMAN. G 149

Cont’d
Advantages of Wide Span of Management

 Superiors are forced to delegate

 It initiates the development of clear policies

Mr. AMAN. G 150

Cont’d
Disadvantages of Wide Span of Management:

1.Tendency of overloaded superiors to become

decision bottle necks
2.Danger of superior‟s loss of control
3. Require exceptional quality of managers

Mr. AMAN. G 151

Cont‟d
 Conversely, a philosophy of centralized decision
making should result in a narrower span of control
and more levels of management.
 If it is the philosophy of the company to have
managers make the majority of decisions, the
managers will closely supervise their subordinates
and delegate little.
 Contacts with subordinates should increase in
number and in length, thus narrowing the span of
control.

Mr. AMAN. G 152

Cont‟d

Factors Determining an Effectiveness of Span

of Management
 Ability of the manager
 Manager‟s personality
 The abilities of subordinates
 Motivation and commitment
 Need for autonomy
 Type of work
 Geographic dispersion of subordinates

Mr. AMAN. G 153

Cont’d
 The availability of information & control
systems
 Levels of management
 Economic Factor

Mr. AMAN. G 154

Staffing: Definition
 Staffing is a process of securing and
developing people to perform the jobs
created by the organizing function.
 The goal of staffing is to obtain the best
available people, develop the skills and
abilities of those people & attract,
maintain and utilize efficient and
effective workforce.

Mr. AMAN. G 155

Cont‟d

Mr. AMAN. G 156

Staffing functions
Major functions of staffing are:

Procurement
Training/development
 Maintenance and utilization
 Separation

Mr. AMAN. G 157

1.The procurement
function
 It concerned with determining and
obtaining the proper kind of personal
both In quality and quantity.
Human Resource Planning:
 It is getting the right number of
qualified people into the right job at the
right time.

Mr. AMAN. G 158

Cont’d
Reasons for human resource planning:
 Scarcity of personnel in some specialized
areas
 High expenses involved in hiring

Mr. AMAN. G 159

Cont’d
The Demand and Supply Aspect of Human
resource Planning:
Causes for human resource demand:
External challenges
economic,
social and
technologies competition

Mr. AMAN. G 160

Cont’d
Internal decisions:
strategic plans on growth, production,
marketing, etc;
work force factors such as retirement,
resignation, termination, and death.

Mr. AMAN. G 161

Cont’d

 Demand forecasting is an essential part

of human resource planning process.
 It is an attempt to predict an
organization future demand for
employees.

Mr. AMAN. G 162

Directing/Leading

Mr. AMAN. G 163

What is Leadership?

 Leadership is the process of influencing

others toward objectives.
 It is an ongoing activity,
 It is oriented toward having an impact
on the behaviors of others,
 Focused on realizing the specific aims
of the organization.

Mr. AMAN. G 164

Cont’d
 Leadership is the art of influencing
people
 Leadership is the ability to secure
desirable actions from a group of
followers voluntarily without the use of
coercion or force.

Mr. AMAN. G 165

Elements/Ingredients of
Leadership

The Three Important Elements:

1. The leader: qualities of personality and
character
2. The situation/Environment: partly
constant, partly varying
3. The group/the followers: their needs
and values
Mr. AMAN. G 166
Cont’d

Mr. AMAN. G 167

Leadership Vs
Management
 Management is a broad subject that
encompasses:
 Planning,
 Organizing,
 Staffing,
 Directing &
 Controlling

Mr. AMAN. G 168

Cont’d
Leadership focuses on the „people‟
aspects of getting a job done.
 Inspiring,

 Motivating, Directing, and

 Gaining Commitment

Mr. AMAN. G 169

Leadership function is essentially influenced by the type of
leaders an organization might have. There are three basic
types of leaders who exercise leadership roles differently:
 Authoritarian Leaders: they lead by using power, followers
are alienated, performance is proportional to power
 Transactional Leaders: they lead by using rewards,
followers are willing but calculative, use linkages between
performance and goals as well as between performance and
rewards
 Transformational Leaders: they lead by articulating and
communicating realistic vision, intellectually paying attention
to individual differences, make followers committed and
loyal.

Mr. AMAN. G 170

Controlling Function

Mr. AMAN. G 171

Controlling: Definition
 Controlling is the process through which
managers assure that actual activities conform
to planned activities.
 Controlling is the process of regulating
organizational activities so that actual
performance conforms to expected
organizational standards and goals.
 It is checking current performance against
predetermined standards contained in the
plans.

Mr. AMAN. G 172

 Importance of
Controlling
 Adapting to changing
conditions
 Limiting the magnification of
errors
 To prevent failure

Mr. AMAN. G 173

 Controlling shouldn't be associated only with its negative
sense; . Administration therefore involves:
 Looking ahead,
 Making good plans, and then
 Helping people to take actions needed today in order to best
meet the challenges of the future.
 Have standards or yardsticks, which are the measuring
instruments through which performances and plans could be
compared,
 Get outputs compared with inputs with reference to approved
plans and identify the gaps and the causes of deviations,
 Correct deviations, if there is any, by properly addressing the
identified problems,

Mr. AMAN. G 174

The Controlling Process
The Controlling Process has 5 Major Steps:
1. Determine Areas to Control
2. Establishing Standards
 Performance standards
 Corollary standards
 Standards of conduct
3. Measuring Actual Performance
4. Comparing Performance against Standards
5. Taking Corrective Action (on time):
Mr. AMAN. G 175
Types of Controlling
1. Preventive/Steering/ preliminary /
Input Control
2. Concurrent/Screening/Yes-No/Checking
Control:
3. Feedback/Post-Action/ Output Control

Mr. AMAN. G 176

Characteristics of Effective Control
System
Future oriented
Multidimensional
Economically Realistic (Cost Effective)
Accurate
Acceptable to Organization Members
Timely

Mr. AMAN. G 177

Cont’d
Reliability and Validity
Monitorable
Organizationally Realistic
Flexible
Focus on Critical Control Points
Easy to Understand
Emphasis on Exception

Mr. AMAN. G 178

 CHAPTER FOUR

MAJOR AREAS OF PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION

By: Aman.G
Major areas of PA
• Public policy
• Public Personnel Administration
• Financial Administration
• Administrative law and ethics
 PUBLIC POLICY
• Public administration theorists have been concerned with
attempts conceptually to distinguish policy and
administration. The distinction, which was probably based
on a confusion of politics and administration, has always
been somewhat fictional. There are therefore two principle
features of policy:
Policy is concerned with either change (its dynamic aspect), or with
the preservation of the stats quo (its static aspect), and
There is no clear distinction between policy and administration and
both contain dynamic elements. The existence of a passive executor
administration is no longer a justifiable assumption.
• Policy formulation is necessary prior to every action in
every form of organization, be it private or public.
• It is thus a prerequisite for all management.
• The different definitions of public policy reflects its multi-
faceted nature, yet all draw elements of public decisions,
choices, positions and statements of intents
By: Aman.G
• According to Rumki Basu (1994:270), Policy can be
broadly defined as a "proposed course of action of an
individual, a group, an institution or government, to
realize a specific objective or purpose within a given
environment".
• Policy is a set of interrelated decisions taken by a
political actor or group of actors concerning the
selection of goals and the means of achieving them
within a specified situation.
• Public policy can be comprehensively defined as a
"purposive and consistent course of action produces as a
response to a perceived problem of constituency,
formulated by a specific political process; adopted,
implemented and enforced by a public agency".

By: Aman.G
• Policy lays down the framework within which
organizational goals are set to be accomplished.
• The Very "the essence of public administration is
policy-making".
• Dimock defines policy formulation as "the
consciously acknowledged rules of conduct
that guide administrative decisions".
The special characteristics of public policies as
differentiated from other policies emanate from the
fact that they are by "authorities" in a political
system namely, "elders, chiefs, executives,
legislatures, judges, administrators, councilors,
monarchs, and the like".
By: Aman.G
• The following are implications of the concept of public policy:
 Purposive or result oriented action rather than random behavior
or chance happenings is the hallmark (characteristic" of public
policy,
 Public policy refers to the action or decisional pattern by public
administrators on a particular issue over a period rather than their
separate discrete decisions on that matter in an ad hoc fashion,
 Policy is what governments actually do and what subsequently
happens, rather than what they intend to do or say they are going
to do,
 Public policy may be either positive or negative in form. Positively,
it may involve some form of government action regarding any
issue or problem; negatively, it may involve a decision by
government officials not to take action on a matter on which
governmental opinion, attitude, or action is asked for,
 Public policy in its positive form is based on law and is
authoritative; it has a legal sanction behind it, which is potentially
coercive in nature and is binding on all citizens,

By: Aman.G
• The question here is that why do we study public policy? There
are both academic and political reasons for studying public
policy or engaging in policy analysis.
The study of public policy formulation processes may help to
gain greater knowledge and understanding of the complexities
of the interacting social, economic and political processes and
their implications for society. Policy may be viewed either as a
dependent or independent variable.
• If the former is the case, then attention is placed on the political
and environmental factors that help to determine the content of
policy. If public policy is viewed as an independent variable, the
focus shifts to the impact of policy on the political system and
the environment.
Factual knowledge about the policy-making process and its
outcomes are a prerequisite for prescribing on dealing with
social problems normatively. The study of public policy should
be directed towards ensuring that governments adopt
appropriate policies to attain certain desirable social goals.
• In practice, policy formulation overlaps with policy decision
in the policy-making process. Policy formulation aims at
getting a preferred policy alternative approved. .
• Another point of discussion in the study of public policy is
about the factors determining policy formulation.
• Policy-making cannot be adequately understood apart
from the environment in which it takes place. ,
• Environment is a decisive factor on public policy
formulation.
• Environment, in turn, includes geographical characteristics
as natural resources, climate and topography; demographic
variables like population size, age and sex ratio distribution
and spatial location; political culture; social structure; and
the economic system.
• Of these environmental aspects, political culture and
socioeconomic variables are considered as the more
influential factors in public policy formulation.
•

By: Aman.G
A). Political Culture:
culture has been defined as the entire pattern of
social life, the inherited modes of living and conduct
that the individual acquires from the community or
environment.
Most social scientists agree that culture is one of the
many factors that shape or influence social action.
 Political culture is also part of the general culture,
which denotes widely held values, beliefs, and
attitudes concerning governmental policies and
actions.
 Differences in public policy making of various
countries can be partly explained in terms of
variations in their political culture. .
By: Aman.G
• Rumki Basu (1994:273) further identified three types of political cultures
as parochial, subject, and participant.
• In a parochial political culture, citizens have little awareness of or
orientation towards either the political system as a whole or the citizen as
a political participant. Citizen's participation in the policy formulation in
a parochial political culture is essentially non-existent, and government
will be of little concern to most citizens.
• In a subject political culture as that of in many developing countries,
citizens are oriented towards the political system, yet they have little
awareness of themselves as a participant. They are aware of
governmental authority and they may have political views, but they are
essentially passive. In the subject political culture, an individual may
believe that he/she can do little to influence public policy, which may
lead to his/her passive acceptance of governmental action.
• In the participant political culture, like that is evidenced in the
United States, citizens have a high level of political awareness and
information and have explicit orientations towards the political system as
a whole, and a notion of meaningful citizen's participation in politics.
Such orientation includes understanding of how individuals and groups
can influence decision-making. By: Aman.G
• In the participant political culture, individuals may
organize into groups to influence government action
to rectify their grievances.
• Government and public policy are viewed as
controllable by citizens.
• It is also assumed that more demands will be made
on government in a participatory political culture
than in the other two types.
• In general, the study of political culture is important
because values, beliefs, and attitudes could inform,
guide, and constrain the actions of both decision
makers and citizens

By: Aman.G
B). Socio-economic variables: The term
socioeconomic condition or variable is used here in the
widest sense to include geographical characteristics and
demographic variables as being economic resources.
Public policies can be seen as emanating from conflicts
between different groups often with opposing interests
and attitudes. Groups that are underprivileged,
dissatisfied, or threatened by economic changes often seek
governmental intervention
• The three decision models, which Simon
identified in 1960 include:
• Non-programmed decision-making based on
instinct, judgment, intuition, and other extra-
rational factors,
• Pure rationality optimal decision-making, and
• Satisfying decision-making,
By: Aman.G
• Charles Lindblom (1959) has noted the
differences between the ways policy-
making has been described in theory
(the rational comprehensive approach)
and the way it is actually made
(incremental steps).
• The rational comprehensive approach
• In the rational comprehensive method, an administrator has to
follow certain principles such as identifying a priority objective,
rationally ranking all the relevant "values" or "advantages" to
pursue the best policy, formulating several possible alternatives to
achieve the stated objective, selecting the best alternative, and so
on.
• This approach to decision-making is rational and comprehensive,
because all alternatives and values are taken into account and
logically selected and weighed in their relative importance. But
rational decision-making is difficult in practice since there are a
variety of factors that complicate the task of the policy maker.

By: Aman.G
• The rational method has been criticized as being
impracticable for a number of reasons:
It is practically impossible to collect all information and
make a complete list of policy options,
The process involved in this approach is time consuming
and expensive,
The assumptions that values can be ranked and
classified is erroneous, since there are always differences
among the legislatures, administrators and the public on
the values that a nation should pursue,
The assumptions to consider everything before a new
policy is decided is impossible since the consequences of
adopting a new policy is in most cases unknown
• The incremental approach
• Although the rational comprehensive approach is
theoretically good, what actually occurs in administrative
decisions is quite different; i.e. "successive limited
comparison" technique or incremental step. Firstly,
administrators operating under limited resources take up on
a priority bases programs of immediate relevance. Secondly,
they do not outline a wide range of possibilities in
• Two advantages of instrumentalism are identified,
namely:
• (1) Decision-makers could proceed through a succession of
small incremental changes, thereby have the advantage of
avoiding serious alterations in case of mistakes in decision
making,
• (2) This method is truly reflective of the policy-making
process by means of consensus and gradualism and
contemplates possible changes in public policies,

By: Aman.G
• Though it is widely accepted that instrumentalism
describes the reality of the policy making process, it has
its own disadvantages or weaknesses, among which:
• instrumentalism can result in important policy
options being overlooked,
• instrumentalism discourages social innovation and
is partisan in approach, which in reality means the
interests of the most powerful get maximum attention
by policy-makers,
• instrumentalism cannot be applied to fundamental
decisions such as declaration of war, hence cannot be
considered as an approach without flaws or mistakes,
• Another important topic in the study of public policy is
that who the official policy makers are? Official policy-
makers are those who are legally empowered to
formulate public policy. These include legislatures,
executives, administrators, and judges
By: Aman.G
• Another important topic in the study of public policy is that who the official policy
makers are? Official policy-makers are those who are legally empowered to formulate
public policy.
• Legislature: The legislature formally performs the task of law making in a political
system. This doesn't necessarily mean that the legislature has an independent decision-
making power or actually frames the official policy since political parties, pressure
groups, and so forth can influence it. But it can safely be concluded that the legislature is
more important in policy formulation in democratic than in dictatorial systems, .
• Executive: Modern governments everywhere mainly depend upon executive leadership
both in policy formulation and execution. In developing countries in particular, the
executive has even more influence in policy making than in developed countries because
of the greater concentration of power in the hands of the government with less
responsiveness to the legislature.
• Administrative Agencies: although it has been an accepted doctrine in political science
that administrators were merely implementers of policies determined by other organs of
the government, such distinctions are now found to be fallacious as politics and
administration are blended, and as administrators are highly involved in policy
formulation in the modern world.
• The Courts: in countries where the courts have the power of judicial review, they have
(as in the US) played an important role in policy formulation. They can affect the nature
and content of public policy through exercising their judicial review and statutory
interpretation power in cases brought before them.
• There are generally three recognized methods of
policy evaluation; namely:
• Policy impact evaluation: It is an assessment of program
(policy) impact and effectiveness, the extent to which programs are
successful in achieving the intended objectives,
• Policy strategy evaluation: This refers to the assessment of the
relative effectiveness of program strategies and variables with
emphasis on determining the most effective and productive
strategies, methods and procedures,
• Policy project appraisal: It is a process of assessing individual
projects through site visits and other means with emphasis on
managerial and operational efficiency.
• In discussing policy evaluation, we need also to understand the
differences between policy output and policy outcome. Policy
output refers to the quantifiable actions of the government that
can be measured in concrete terms, while policy outcomes refers to
the qualitative impacts of public policies on the lives of the people

By: Aman.G
In discussing policy evaluation, we need also to
understand the differences between policy output
and policy outcome.
Policy output refers to the quantifiable actions of
the government that can be measured in concrete
terms,
While policy outcomes refers to the qualitative
impacts of public policies on the lives of the people.

By: Aman.G
 PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION (MANAGEMENT)
• Personnel administration or management is that part of administration
concerned with the management of people at work.
• In other words the central concern of personnel management is the efficient
utilization of employees of an organization.
• In recent years, the term "human resource management" has been frequently
being used in reference to "personnel management". Most organizations have a
specialist personnel department that gives support to managers and supervisors
who have direct responsibility for the management of people.
• Ideally, we may sometimes find differences of administrative systems within the
"public sector" as the "civil service" and "public corporations" or "public
enterprises" distinguished on the ground of their basic functions or
engagements,
• "Civil Service" engaged in regulatory function or services
• "Public Corporations" or "public enterprises engaged in production or service
provision activities.
• Public personnel administration (management), "civil service" came to
encompass the other segment of the public sector (public corporation/enterprise)
since the principle are essentially the similar.
•
By: Aman.G
The Concept of a Career Civil Service
• Herman Finer, quoted in Rumki Basu (1994:295), defines the civil
service as a "professional body of officials, permanent, paid and
skilled".
• In this connection, a civil servant may be understood as a "servant
of the general public (not being the holder of a political or judicial
office), who is employed in a civil capacity and whose
remuneration is wholly paid from the budget provided by the
parliament any legitimatized body of the government".
• This excludes members of the armed forces and judicial services.
• The civil service constitutes the "permanent" executive in the
modern state.
• The major requirement of the civil service is that it shall be
"impartially selected, administratively competent, politically
neutral, and imbued (instilled) with the spirit of service to the
community".

By: Aman.G
• Willoughby defined career civil service as:
• "A system that offers equal opportunities to all citizens to
enter the government service, equal pay to all employees
doing work requiring the same degree of intelligence and
capacity, equal opportunities for advancement, equal
favorable conditions and equal participation in retirement
allowances and makes equal demands upon the
employees".
• Career civil service has been understood as a system
aimed at recruiting young people having the talent and
ambition, with capacity for learning and growth, training
them in order to develop their potentialities for the service
of the state.
• The Civil service is the chief instrument for the
implementation of the will of the state as expressed through
public policy.
• It is indispensable to the functioning of the modern state.
The basic task of the civil servants is to transform politics
into action
• Professionalization of the civil service became absolutely necessary to attract the
best available talent to government jobs and enable them to make a rewarding
career of it. For example a Commission established in 1933 in the US defined the
concept of career civil service and identified its main characteristics as:
 High prestige and status attached to government service,
 Appropriate recruitment procedures,
 Broad avenues for promotion and transfer of personnel,
 Clear pay scales, and
 Adequate retirement and pension system
• In addition/similar to the above outlined ones, the main
characteristics of a career civil service that have got common
acceptance are:
 Permanence of tenure and stability of service,
 Equal opportunity of competing for government services,
 Merit to be the sole criteria of recruitment with due recognition to ability and
personal efficiency in a sound promotion system,
 Fairly large extent of territorial jurisdiction of public employees to enlarge their
scope of activity and improve their avenues for promotions, and
 Adequate steps taken to provide in-service training to civil servants to keep them
in touch with the latest trends and developments in administrative theory and
practice

By: Aman.G
 April 17, 2023

1. Job Analysis (Job Description, Specification)

2. Human Resource Planning
3. Recruitment and Selection
4. Orientation
5. Training and Development (Coaching)
6. Performance Appraisal (Feedback)
Cont’d
April 17, 2023

7. Encouraging teamwork
8. Rewarding employees (Compensation)
9. Benefits and Services
10.Counseling employees
11.Labor Relations
12.Discipline and Termination
 April 17, 2023

1. Definition of Job Analysis

• The reason why people are required in an organization is
to fill job vacancies and to do the job.

• This requires human resource management to

understand the nature of the job and the nature of the
person required for the job.
Cont’d
April 17, 2023

• Job analysis is a systematic process of collecting and

making judgment about all of the important
information related to the nature of the job.
• It is the basis of all human resource management
activities.
• Job analysis objectives are to achieve information on
the following job and person aspects.
1. HRP: Definition
April 17, 2023

• Human resource planning (HRP) is the

process of analyzing and identifying the
need for and availability of human
resources so that the organization can
meet its objectives.
• The organizational strategy of the firm as
whole becomes the basis for human
resource planning
 April 17, 2023

 Recruitment
Selection
 Placement
Induction/Orientation
1. Recruitment
April 17, 2023

1.1. Definition

•Recruitment is the process of reaching out

and attempting to attract potential and
qualified job candidates for a particular job
•To avoid costs, the recruiting effort should be
targeted solely at applicants who have the
basic qualifications for the job.
Cont‟d April 17, 2023

1.3 Sources of Recruitment

• Sources of recruitment are the places, agencies and
institutions, recruiters go to seek potential and
qualified candidates that will fill the vacant jobs.
• There are two practical sources from which recruiters
seek potential candidates to fill job needs-internal
source and external source.
Cont‟d April 17, 2023

▫ Internal Source
• Internal source recruitment is recruiting from
within the organization (in-house)
• Many organizations have internal
recruitment policy. Unions require internal
source
• Internal recruitment is usually done through
promotion and transfer. The way in which
internal applicants are located is often
through job posting and job bidding
Cont‟d April 17, 2023

▫ Transfer: Is moving people to positions that

are similar and equal in status usually
horizontal
▫ Promotion: Moving people to higher level
position with higher status usually vertical
Cont‟d April 17, 2023

External Sources and Methods of Recruitment

Sources
• Employee referral programs
• Other companies
• Employment agencies
• Temporary help agencies
• Trade associations and Unions
• Schools
• Foreign nationals
Public recruitment may be defined as that process through which
suitable candidates are included to compete for appointments to the
public service . The recruitment and selection process includes a
number of different steps, which are as follows:
Develop/obtain accurate job description: .
Defining the ideal candidate:
Announcement of vacancies (invitation of candidates) through
newspapers, journals, and any other appropriate media,
Short-listing of the most appropriate applicants:
Holding of examinations for testing or determining the abilities of
recruits (exams would be in the form of interviews, written tests,
or practical tests),
 Selecting the best or eligible candidate/s from among those who
have been examined or tested
Placement or appointment of selected recruits. Appointment
could be permanent, temporary, provisional, or probationary.
Induction or orientation of the employee: s a formal mechanism
before the new entrant is engaged in performing the task.
• The aims of the induction process are:
• (i) to make the new employee efficient as quickly
as possible
• (ii) to encourage new employees to become
committed to the organization,
• (iii) to familiarize new employees with the job.
• A public servant is required to posses many
personal qualifications like integrity,
resourcefulness, tact and sincerity.
• Besides devotion to public duty, other desirable
personal qualifications are:
Flexible and recognition of the need for
coordination,
 Familiarity with the subject matter of organization
and management,
Facility at problem solving,
 Highly developed reading and writing ability,
 Ability to settle vexing situations through
interpersonal contact,
• There are also various ways of determining
qualifications, which have been adopted in most
countries today; such as:
Personal judgment of the appointing authority,
Certificates of character, ability, and educational
qualification,
Record of various experiences-educational and
occupational,
Examinations (written, oral, practical or performance
demonstration),
Psychometric tests:psychomotor test is a test that
assesses the subject's ability to perceive
instructions and perform motor responses often
including measurement of the speed of the
reaction
Written tests may further fall under the following main
categories:
 Ability tests, the purpose of which is to assess the general
mental ability of the candidate, hi memory, response to
problems, and power of logic. This in turn could be sub
divided as;
General intelligence test:
Unit trait system:
Social intelligence test:
Administrative ability test:
Mechanical intelligence test: ,
 Aptitude tests, which are meant to test particular aptitude
of the candidate towards the job,
Achievement tests, which are meant to the standard
academic qualifications laid down for recruitment to various
services,
Personality tests, devised to measure, for example,
emotion and temperament, confidence and sociability,
qualities of ascendance and submission, hidden traits,
 April 17, 2023

Oral Interview:
• It provides opportunity managers to verify information on
hand and to find out more about the applicant’s interests,
aspirations, and expectations.
• In addition, it will provide opportunity to share
information about the company, the job and its
environmental condition.
• Hence, the aim is to have a two-way communication that
is mutually beneficial.
• Interview could be structured or unstructured.
• is the commonest, least complex, and inexpensive
method of personnel recruitment test, which is also
known as "viva voce
Cont‟d April 17, 2023

Structured interview:
• Interview questions are predetermined before the
interview takes place.
• It applies a series of job-related questions with
predetermined answers consistently across all
interviews for a particular job.
 April 17, 2023

Cont’d
Unstructured interview
 Interview questions are not predetermined before the
interview takes place.
◦ Questions are raised during the interview
session.
 Training: April 17, 2023

• Training is another crucial task in personnel management

(administration). The terms training and education are often used as if
they are synonymous. But they are not, and an understanding of the
differences between them is important to understand the training
process in organizations. Both training and education are processes,
which help people to learn, but they differ in orientation and objectives.
Attwood and Dimmock (1996:96) simply described:
• Training as "...oriented towards the needs of the organization, specific
to the employee's work situation, aimed at making workers more
effective in their jobs, relatively short in timescale, and often fairly
narrow in content".
• Education as "...oriented to the needs of the individual, more abstract
in nature, gear to the needs of the individual and to the society
generally, generally a long-term process in terms of timescale, and
widely drawn in content".
• It focuses on providing employees with specific skills which help correct
deficiencies in their performance.
• Training focus is on the current job, on how to do the job for which they
were hired.
• The scope is the individual-operational employees.
 April 17, 2023

Performance Appraisal
Performance Appraisal April 17, 2023

• Performance Appraisal is a process of

determining how well an employee is doing
his/her job.
• It is the evaluation of employees‟ current
and potential levels of performance to allow
managers to make objective human
resources decisions.
• Performance appraisal has the following main objectives:
April 17, 2023

• To help improve current performance,

• To set objectives for individual performance,
• To assess training and development needs,
• To assess future potential for promotion,
• To give employees feedback on their performances,
• To counsel employees for career opportunities,
• To rate employees' performance for salary review
purposes,
• To encourage managers to think carefully about the
general factors that influence the performance of their
employees, including their own leadership style and
behavior
 Performance appraisal is a continuous process.
It is one of the most difficult and important part of
supervision.
• There are different types of appraisal systems
• Trait-based or personality-based performance
appraisal system largely depends on the judgments of
managers about their subordinates on such dimensions or
personality characteristics as intelligence, initiative or loyalty
in most cases.
• Result-oriented or performance-based appraisal
system concentrates on the actual performance of an
employee measured on the basis of agreed upon plans
between the manager and subordinate, and specific
objectives or performance targets. In other words, this
method focuses on specific outcomes achieved as a result of
job performed by employees as measured by predetermined
success criteria.
• Critical incident appraisal system is more of an ideal
type, hence seldom used in practice. It refers to the rating of
an employee when he/she produces an extra-ordinary result
that might not be part of the plan in the normal task job
Purposes of Performance Appraisal
April 17, 2023

 Feedback to employees: It provides

feedback to employees about the quality
and quantity of job performance.
 Self-development: Individuals learn
about their strengths and weaknesses as
seen by other people and can influence
self-improvement programs.
Cont‟d April 17, 2023

 Reward systems: It can be used to administer merit

based compensation systems.
 Personnel decisions: Decisions such as promotions,
transfers and terminations are made based on
performance appraisal.
 Training and development: It can help managers
identify areas in which employees lack critical skills.
 April 17, 2023

Promotion: Definition
Cont‟d April 17, 2023

• Advancement within a organization is ordinarily

labeled as „Promotion‟.
• It is an upward movement of an employee from
current job to another that is higher in pay,
responsibility, status and organizational level.
• It is a vertical movement in rank and
responsibility.
• A proper promotion system helps to retain the services of the
ablest amongst its employees and also in giving them
opportunity to improve their capabilities and qualifications
• a promotion system must be based on the principles of equity
and fair pay.
• Unjust prejudice, favoritism, corruption, or bias on the part of
the promoting officer, by pushing up unqualified employees are
some of the factors that affect the application of better
promotion system.
• Willoughby outlined the following conditions as the basis of a
promotion system:
 Adoption of standard specifications setting forth the duties and
qualifications required for all promotions in the organization,
 The classification of these positions into sub-classes, series,
grades and services,
 The adoption of principle of merit in determining the selection
of employees for promotion,
 The provision of adequate means for determining the relative
merits of employees eligible for promotion
Two main principles have been fixed for promotion:
• The Seniority Principle: this principle is widely prevalent
in government services as a method of promotion in most
countries.
• This principle is automatic, and avoids the need for making
invidious distinctions among persons.
• It is greatly followed in the public service everywhere since it
is objective and easy.
• It greatly eliminates chances for favoritism and corruption.
It also reduces unhealthy rivalry in the organization thereby
promotes harmony and increased morale.
• Merit principle: this system ensures that the best person is
promoted to the higher post based on specified criteria
alone.
• This would encourage hard work, and efficiency, reward
talent and increase morale in the service.
• It often leads to unhealthy rivalry and causes considerable
ill-will among those who may miss for promotion
Purpose of Promotion April 17, 2023

 To recognize an employee‟s performance

and commitment/loyalty and motivate
him/her towards better performance
 To boost the morale and sense of
belonging of employees.
 To retain skilled and talented employees.
Cont’d
April 17, 2023

 To develop a competent internal source

of employees for higher level jobs
 To utilize the knowledge and skills of the
employees more effectively.
 To attract suitable and competent
workers for the organization.
Types of promotion
April 17, 2023

Four Major Types:

 Dry Promotion: Where an employee is promoted to
higher position and responsibility without any
increment in salary
 Vertical Promotion: In this type the employee is
moved to the subsequent higher level accompanied
by greater power ,responsibility, position and salary
Cont’d
April 17, 2023

 Up gradation: The job is promoted in the

organizational hierarchy. as a result ,the employees
obtain additional salary, higher responsibility and
power.
 Up or Out: In this, person must earn promotion or
search employment elsewhere.
• Some Issues in Personnel Administration
• (A) Civil Service Neutrality
• The theory of the neutrality of the civil services was developed in England
to maintain the continuity of the civil service within the unstable political
system due to periodic elections and the resultant change of government.
• Career administrators perform mainly the following functions:
 Execution of laws and government decisions,
 Providing expert guidance, information and managerial assistance to the
political executive,
 Maintaining the continuity of administration
 Helping the political executive to understand the probable consequences
of alternative courses of action,
• A career official is professional in administrative affairs and enjoys a
permanent tenure, and is expected to be non-partisan and politically
neutral.
• Political neutrality of the civil service is an essential complement to the
merit system (in recruitment and promotion of personnel).
• Political neutrality means not only the absence of political activity or bias
on the part of civil servants, but also that they will serve every
government that comes to power irrespective of its part affiliations.
• The relevance of the classical theory of neutrality
has often been come to be questioned for the
following reasons:
 The process of policy decision-making is no longer
confined to the political executive
In the context of large-scale welfare governments,
neutrality is neither possible nor desirable.
In the sphere of policy advice and execution,
modern bureaucracy takes an active part.
As a human being, civil servant cannot be
psychologically neutral on issues and problems,
which confront them.
• B) The Generalist-Specialist Controversy
• The generalist-specialist classification of civil servants
is mainly implemented mainly in those countries, which
follow the British model of civil service administration.
• It means the dichotomy of the civil service into a
"higher administrative class and subordinate technical
services", making subordination of the specialist to the
generalist.
• A generalist is a public servant who has no specialized
background and who can be moved to any department
or branch of administration.
• The generalist is well versed in the procedures of
administration and generally performs POSDCORB
functions.
• Specialist public servant call for any compulsory
technical qualification.
•
• (C) Integrity in Public Administration
• The problem of administrative corruption is perhaps as old as administration
itself, but the problem of public accountability is as old as the theory and practice
of democratic administration. The enormous expansion of the government
bureaucracy, touching all aspects of the citizens' live, has brought the problem of
effective public checks and control on public administration to the forefront.
• The most common institutional devices against administrative
excesses are the following:
• (i) Administrative Courts or Tribunals: .
• The administrative court exercises general supervision over administration and
possess ultimate authority over all disciplinary matters concerning civil servants.
Decisions in these courts are taken as promptly as possible and are much less
expensive than in the other ordinary courts.
• (ii) The Procurator: the procurator system, which originated in the USSR, has
now spread to many other countries, especially in countries of East Europe. It is
an important institutional mechanism for redressing citizens' grievances and
ensuring observance of legality at all levels of the administration. The procurator
is in charge of many functions including prosecution of crimes, supervision over
legality in the activity of the investigating agencies, judicial sentences and
judgments, and legality of the execution of sentences. However, its most
significant function is that of "general supervision".
• (iii) The Ombudsman: is a Swedish word that stands for an officer appointed
by the legislature to handle complaints against administrative and judicial action.
FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
Meaning of Financial administration
• Financial administration is the management of the finance
of a state or of a public authority endowed with taxing and
spending powers.
• Sound Financial administration is vital to the success of any
organization.
• Financial administration seeks to arise, spend and account
for the funds need for public expenditure.
• Financial administration involves the activities of
four agencies:
The Executive, which needs and spends the funds;
The Legislature, which grants the funds and appropriates
them to particular agencies;
the Finance Ministry, which controls the expenditure; and t
the Auditory Agencies which sits in judgment over the way
in which the funds have been spent. All these agencies have
their own role in financial administration.
• Sources of Public Finance
• The main sources of finance in most governments are
• Taxes
• Borrowing
• sales of assets
• User charges and fees.
The method of government financial administration affects the
economic situation of a nation.
Taxes are the main sources of public finance or revenues.
• Taxes are defined as involuntary or compulsory payments
associated with certain activities of physical or legal persons without
explicit relationship.
• Taxes could also be further divided as direct and indirect.
• The difference between direct and indirect taxes is that the later is
paid in connection to production, consumption, imports or exports.
• Whereas, direct taxes are levied on employed, self-employed and
owners of partnerships.
• An indirect tax can be general like Value Added Tax (VAT), or
specific tax on certain goods and services like excise tax. It can also
be levied on imported goods, such as customs duties. Indirect taxes
can be levied to counteract the external effects of consumption and
production, in addition to its aim of generating public finance.
• Budget
• In public administration, the term "budget" refers to a
financial document, which is annually placed before the
legislature by the executive, giving a complete statement
regarding the government revenues and expenditure of
the past financial year and an estimate of the same for
the next financial year.
• Despite differences in defining the term, most people
agree that the budget is the keystone of financial
administration and the various operations in the field of
public finance are correlated through the instrument of
the budget.
• Budget is generally, an instrument of financial
administration, and for the analysis of a government
policy in financial administration.
• A budget is a financial report of statement and
proposals are periodically placed before the legislature
for its approval and/or sanction.