Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems

Overview

The lymphatic system parallels the cardiovascular system (see the images below).
The lymphatic system is unique, in that it is a 1-way system that returns lymph
fluid via vessels to the cardiovascular system for eventual elimination of toxic
byproducts by end organs, such as the kidney, liver, colon, skin, and lungs.

The lymphatic system consists of the following: Fluid, known as lymph, Vessels
that transport lymph, Organs that contain lymphoid tissue (eg, lymph nodes,
spleen, and thymus)
Lymph Contains nutrients, oxygen, hormones, and fatty acids, as well as toxins
and cellular waste products, that are transported to and from cellular tissues

Lymphatic vessels: Transport lymph from peripheral tissues to the veins of the
cardiovascular system

Lymph nodes: Monitors the composition of lymph, the location of pathogen

engulfment and eradication, the immunologic response, and the regulation site

Spleen: Monitors the composition of blood components, the location of pathogen

engulfment and eradication, the immunologic response, and the regulation site

Thymus: Serves as the site of T-lymphocyte maturation, development, and

control

The lymphatic system’s main functions are as follows:

1. Restoration of excess interstitial fluid and proteins to the blood

2. Absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the digestive system and
transport of these elements to the venous circulation
3. Defense against invading organisms

Gross Anatomy

Lymph

Lymph is a fluid derived from blood plasma. It is pushed out through the capillary
wall by pressure exerted by the heart or by osmotic pressure at the cellular level.
Lymph contains nutrients, oxygen, and hormones, as well as toxins and cellular
waste products generated by the cells. As the interstitial fluid accumulates, it is
picked up and removed by lymphatic vessels that pass through lymph nodes,
which return the fluid to the venous system. As the lymph passes through the
lymph nodes, lymphocytes and monocytes enter it.

At the level of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, lymph has a milky consistency that is
attributable to fatty acids, glycerol, and rich fat content. Lacteals are lymph
vessels that transport intestinal fat and are localized to the GI tract. [1, 5, 3]

Lymphatic vessels

Lymphatic capillaries are blind-ended tubes with thin endothelial walls (only a
single cell in thickness). They are arranged in an overlapping pattern, so that
pressure from the surrounding capillary forces at these cells allows fluid to enter
the capillary (see the image below). The lymphatic capillaries coalesce to form
larger meshlike networks of tubes that are located deeper in the body; these are
known as lymphatic vessels. Lymph capillaries in spaces. Blind-ended lymphatic

Lymph capillaries in spaces. Blind-ended lymphatic capillaries arise within

interstitial spaces of cells near arterioles and venules.

The lymphatic vessels grow progressively larger and form 2 lymphatic ducts: the
right lymphatic duct, which drains the upper right quadrant, and the thoracic
duct, which drains the remaining lymphatic tributaries. Like veins, lymphatic
vessels have 1-way valves to prevent any backflow (see the image below). The
pressure gradients that move lymph through the vessels come from skeletal
muscle action, smooth muscle contraction within the smooth muscle wall, and
respiratory movement. [1, 6, 2, 5, 4, 7]
Lymph nodes

Lymph nodes are bean-shaped structures that are widely distributed throughout
the lymphatic pathway, providing a filtration mechanism for the lymph before it
rejoins the blood stream. The average human body contains approximately 600-
700 of them, predominantly concentrated in the neck, axillae, groin, thoracic
mediastinum, and mesenteries of the GI tract. Lymph nodes constitute a main line
of defense by hosting 2 types of immunoprotective cell lines, T lymphocytes and B
lymphocytes.

Lymph nodes have 2 distinct regions, the cortex and the medulla. The cortex
contains follicles, which are collections of lymphocytes. At the center of the
follicles is an area called germinal centers that predominantly host B-lymphocytes
while the remaining cells of the cortex are T-lymphocytes. Vessels entering the
lymph nodes are called afferent lymphatic vessels and, likewise, those exiting are
called efferent lymphatic vessels.

Extending from the collagenous capsule inward throughout the lymph node are
connective tissue trabeculae that incompletely divide the space into
compartments. Deep in the node, in the medullary portion, the trabeculae divide
repeatedly and blend into the connective tissue of the hilum of the node. Thus
the capsule, the trabeculae, and the hilum make up the framework of the node.
Within this framework, a delicate arrangement of connective tissue forms the
lymph sinuses, within which lymph and free lymphoid elements circulate.

A subcapsular or marginal sinus exists between the capsule and the cortex of the
lymph node. Lymph passes from the subcapsular sinus into the cortical sinus
toward the medulla of the lymph node. Medullary sinuses represent a broad
network of lymph channels that drain toward the hilum of the node; from there,
lymph is collected into several efferent vessels that run to other lymph nodes and
eventually drain into their respective lymphatic ducts (see the image below). [1,
6]

Thymus

The thymus is a bilobed lymphoid organ located in the superior mediastinum of

the thorax, posterior to the sternum. After puberty, it begins to decrease in size; it
is small and fatty in adults after degeneration. The primary function of the thymus
is the processing and maturation of T lymphocytes. While in the thymus, T
lymphocytes do not respond to pathogens and foreign organisms. After
maturation, they enter the blood and go to other lymphatic organs, where they
help provide defense. Structurally, the thymus is similar to the spleen and lymph
nodes, with numerous lobules and cortical and medullary elements. It also
produces thymosin, a hormone that helps stimulate maturation of T lymphocytes
in other lymphatic organs. [2, 5, 3, 4]

Spleen

The spleen, the largest lymphatic organ, is a convex lymphoid structure located
below the diaphragm and behind the stomach. It is surrounded by a connective
tissue capsule that extends inward to divide the organ into lobules consisting of
cells, small blood vessels, and 2 types of tissue known as red and white pulp. Red
pulp consists of venous sinuses filled with blood and cords of lymphocytes and
macrophages; white pulp is lymphatic tissue consisting of lymphocytes around the
arteries. Lymphocytes are densely packed within the cortex of the spleen.
The spleen filters blood in much the same way that lymph nodes filter lymph.
Lymphocytes in the spleen react to pathogens in the blood and attempt to
destroy them. Macrophages then engulf and phagocytose damaged cells and
cellular debris. The spleen, along with the liver, eradicates damaged and old
erythrocytes from the blood circulation. Like other lymphatic tissue, it produces
lymphocytes in an immunologic response to offending pathogens. [5, 3, 4]

Therefore, the spleen conducts several important functions, as follows:

1. It serves as a reservoir of lymphocytes for the body

2. It filters blood
3. It plays an important role in red blood cell and iron metabolism through
macrophage phagocytosis of old and damaged red blood cells
4. It recycles iron by sending it to the live
5. It serves as a storage reservoir for blood
6. It contains T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes for immunologic response

Tonsils

Tonsils are aggregates of lymph node tissue located under the epithelial lining of
the oral and pharyngeal areas. The main areas are the palatine tonsils (on the
sides of the oropharynx), the pharyngeal tonsils (on the roof of the nasopharynx;
also known as adenoids), and the lingual tonsils (on the base of the posterior
surface of the tongue). Because these tonsils are so closely related to the oral and
pharyngeal airways, they may interfere with breathing when they become
enlarged. The predominance of lymphocytes and macrophages in these tonsillar
tissues offers protection against harmful pathogens and substances that may
enter through the oral cavity or airway. [1, 2]
Other Considerations

Diseases of the lymphatic system include lymphedema, lymphoma,

lymphadenopathy, lymphadenitis, filariasis, splenomegaly, and tonsillitis.

Lymphedema

Lymphedema results when the lymphatic system cannot adequately drain lymph,
resulting in an accumulation of fluid that causes swelling. It may be either primary
or secondary. Primary lymphedema is an inherited condition that occurs as a
result of impaired or missing lymphatic vessels; it may be present at birth, may
develop with the onset of puberty, or may occur in adulthood, with no apparent
causes

Secondary lymphedema is basically acquired regional lymphatic insufficiency,

which may occur as a consequence of any trauma, infection, or surgical procedure
that disrupts the lymphatic vessels or results in the loss of lymph nodes [8]

Treatment consists of compression bandages or pneumatic stockings to alleviate

the swelling after appropriate diagnosis is made. [9, 4]

Lymphoma

Lymphoma is a medical term used for a group of cancers that originate in the
lymphatic system. Lymphomas usually begin with malignant transformation of the
lymphocytes in lymph nodes or bunches of lymphatic tissue in organs like the
stomach or intestines. Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma are the 2
major categories of lymphoma, characterized by enlargement of lymph nodes,
usually present in the neck. Symptoms of lymphoma include chronic fatigue, weak
immune function, weight loss, and night sweats. [4]

Lymphadenopathy

Lymphadenopathy is a lymphatic disorder in which the lymph nodes become

swollen or enlarged as a consequence of an infection. For example, swollen lymph
nodes in the neck may occur as a result of a throat infection or sinus infection. [3]

Lymphadenitis

Lymphadenitis is an inflammation of the lymph node that is due to a bacterial

infection of the tissue in the node, which causes swelling, reddening, and
tenderness of the skin overlying the lymph node. [3]

Filariasis

Filariasis is a lymphatic system disorder that results from a parasitic infection that
causes lymphatic insufficiency. [3]