Chapter 1

Chemistry: The Study of Change

This introductory chapter tells students the importance and relevance of studying chemistry.
Upon completion of this chapter, the students should be able to:

1. Give examples of how chemistry is used in everyday life.

2. Explain the scientific method and how it is used.
3. Distinguish between pure substances and mixtures.
4. Classify materials in terms of homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
5. Distinguish between compounds and elements.
6. Explain physical versus chemical properties.
7. Name the commonly used SI unit prefixes.
8. Solve problems involving density, volume, and mass.
9. Convert between degrees for the Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit temperature scales.
10. Apply scientific notation and use proper number of significant figures in problem solving.
11. Discuss the difference between accuracy and precision.
12. Utilize the factor-label method (dimensional analysis) of problem solving.
13. Name the common conversion factors for the metric system to English system. Examples of
such conversion factors include grams to pounds, centimeters to inches and liters to gallons.
14. Solve real-world problems involving making assumptions and simplifications.

Section 1.1 Chemistry: A Science for the Twenty-First Century

Students often wonder why they are required to take chemistry. Show them how chemistry, the
Central Science, applies to their career choices. Assign them to find an article in a trade
magazine of their field or in the popular press that involves chemistry. As your author has
pointed out, everything from modern medicine to energy sources to “molecular computing”
involve chemistry.

Section 1.2 The Study of Chemistry

It is important to emphasize that chemists – in fact, all scientists – make observations. Students
have made observations through their own experiences (macroscopic world). Building on
students’ observations makes the information from relevant, thus making it easier for them to
comprehend. The microscopic world is more difficult for students since they have not
experienced it. It is important that students “see” what is happening on the microscopic level in
order to understand their experience at the “macroscopic level”.
Section 1.3 The Scientific Method

Most students are introduced to the scientific method early in their education. The scientific
method includes: a) defining the problem; b) make qualitative and quantitative observations; c)
recording the data; d) interpreting the data into a hypothesis; e) testing the hypothesis with more
observations until a theory is developed; and f) examining the theory over time until a law is
accepted. It should be emphasized to students that scientists should continually test theories.
Encourage students to apply the scientific method to examples from their everyday life.

Section 1.4 Classification of Matter

A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain their distinct
identities. Different mixtures can have different compositions just like two solutions of sugar
water can have different composition. However, if a mixture has constant composition
throughout, then it is classified as homogeneous. If it has a variable composition depending on
where it is sampled, then it is a heterogeneous mixture. Mixtures, both homogeneous and
heterogeneous, can be separated into their original substances. Compounds, however, can be
separated into their original elements only by chemical processes.

Section 1.5 The Three States of Matter

Students are familiar with the three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. In a demonstration
using toy “slime”, ask students which state of matter the toy “slime” represents.

Section 1.6 Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

Physical changes do not change the composition of the material while chemical changes do.
Liquid water and steam seem to be considerably different; however, they are interchangeable
simply by changing temperature. The burning of a sample of gasoline, at first glance, could be
considered to be a physical change because the liquid is becoming a gas. It is not possible,
however, to change those vapors back into gasoline.
The way to assist your students in distinguishing between extensive and intensive
properties is to explain to them that intensive properties are independent of the quantity of
material that you have (density, temperature, etc.) while extensive properties depend upon how
much you have (mass, volume, etc.).

Section 1.7 Measurement

“Mass” and “weight” are not the same. Our students understand that astronauts are “weightless”
when working in a space station, but are not “massless”. Often mass and weight is interchanged;
however, they are distinctly different and should be used properly. We define a gram as 1 × 10–3
kilogram. Many students have a difficult time comprehending numbers less than one. It is easier
for many to understand that 1000 grams equal one kilogram rather than one gram equals 1 × 10–3
kilogram. For example, the conversion of 352 grams to kilograms can be shown two ways:

⎛ ⎞
( 352 grams ) ⎜⎜ 10001 kg ⎟ = 0.352 kg
grams ⎟
⎝ ⎠
OR
⎛ 1×10 −3 kg ⎞
( )
352 grams ⎜
⎜ 1 grams ⎟
⎟ = 0.352 kg
⎝ ⎠

While both methods are correct, if one uses the concept that it takes a great number (1000 to be
exact) of grams to equal one kilogram, then the first method seems easier for students to
understand. Since students should have memorized that kilo means 1 × 103; they will likely use
1× 10 3 kg
the conversion which is totally incorrect. If the students are asked to review their
1g
conversion, such a mistake can be avoided.
The author points out that there are three temperature scales, the ones described in the text
are Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin. There is yet another scale known as the Rankin scale which
engineering students will encounter later in their academic career. It should be noted that the
Kelvin scale omits the degree sign.
Equations 1.2 and 1.3 in Section 1.7 show the conversion of Fahrenheit to Celsius and
Celsius to Fahrenheit, respectively. These equations can be explained by using the following
logic:
450oF is what temperature on the Celsius scale?

It is understood the 100 units on the Celsius scale equals 180 units on the Fahrenheit scale. This is
known from the fact that water freezes at 0oC and boils at 100oC (100 C units) while it freezes and
boils at 32oF and 212oF (180 F units), respectively. Therefore, 450oF is 450 – 32 or 418 F units
above freezing.
⎛ 100 C Units ⎞
( 418 F units ⎜ )
⎝ 180 F Units ⎠
⎟ = 232 C units above freezing

232 C units above freezing is 232oC. If one examines equation 1.2, it is seen that the two step
logical process described above gives the same result.

85.0oC is what temperature on the Fahrenheit scale?

85.0oC is 85.0 C units above freezing
 (85.0 C units ) ⎛⎜⎝ 100
180 F Units ⎞
⎟ = 153 F units above freezing
C Units ⎠

This corresponds to 153 + 32 = 185oF

Temperatures below freezing are handled in a similar fashion. For example, 10oF is what
temperature on the Celsius scale? 10oF is 32 – 10 or 22 F units below freezing.

⎛ ⎞
( 22 F units ) ⎜⎜ 180
100 C Units
⎟ = 12 C units below freezing
F Units ⎟
⎝ ⎠

12 C units below freezing = –12oC.

–40oC is what temperature on the Fahrenheit scale?

–40oC is 40 C units below freezing

( 40 C units ) ⎛⎜⎝ 100

180 F Units ⎞
⎟ = 72 F units below freezing
C Units ⎠

Since water freezes at +32oF, 72 F units below freezing would be (72 – 32) or 40 F units below
zero or –40oF. This is the only temperature where Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures are
equal.
The Kelvin scale has the same unit size as the Celsius scale. The Kelvin scale starts at
absolute zero with 0 K and is 273.15 K at the freezing point of water thus the conversion is to add
273.15 to the Celsius temperature to get the temperature in Kelvins. The Rankin scale mentioned
earlier is not covered in this textbook. It has the same size degree as the Fahrenheit scale with 0oR
being absolute zero. Zero degrees Rankin corresponds to –460oF; thus water freezes at 492oR and
boils at 672oR. The Rankin scale is used in some engineering courses; however, it is probably not
wise to confuse the students by introducing this fourth scale. It should be noted that many
calculators have pre-programmed temperature conversion keys which make problems dealing
with this issue obsolete.

Section 1.8 Handling Numbers

Students often feel that scientific notation and significant figures are not important in “real world”
practice. It may be of interest to point out the ASTM (American Society of Testing & Materials)
has a standard method, E-380 “Excerpts from Standard Practice for use of the International
System of Units (SI) (the Modernized Metric System)” which deals specifically with these topics.
It should be understood that one needs to have all numbers to the same power of ten if
using scientific notation in order to correctly count the number of significant figures to the right
of the decimal. For example,
8.323 × 103 + 1.35 × 102
is correctly expressed as

8.323 × 103 + 0.135 × 103 = 8.458 × 103

Note that the answer has three significant figures to the right of the decimal. One gets the same
result if the numbers are expressed as

83.23 × 102 + 1.35 × 102 = 84.58 × 102 or 8.458 × 103

or as

8323. + 135.458 = 8.458 × 103

Your author does not address problems that include a combination of addition/subtraction
and multiplication/division. The rules apply as shown in the following example:

(15.49 + 9 )( 24 )( 3.9506 ) ( 24 )( 3.9506 )

=
5.7623 5.7623

= 16
Students often confuse accuracy and precision, thinking that if they can reproduce a value
it must be correct. Emphasize that accuracy is based on the true value for the quantity. Ask
students if they would rather have good accuracy or good precision.

Section 1.9 Dimensional Analysis in Solving Problems

The author uses the terms factor-label method or dimensional analysis. A third term to describe
the same system of problem solving is unit analysis. In the example of converting 2.46 dollars to
pennies, your author uses
⎛ 100 pennies ⎞
(
2.46 dollars ⎜ )
⎝ 1 dollar ⎠
⎟ = 246 pennies

The author used the logic of finding a conversion factor that has dollar in the denominator. Some
students find it more logical to start with the conversion factor first (the factor that has pennies in
the numerator) and then multiply by terms to get rid of the denominator.
 ⎛ 100 pennies ⎞
⎜
⎝ 1 dollar ⎠
( )
⎟ 2.46 dollars = 246 pennies

Both methods are very similar in that it may be more logical for some students to start with the
correct numerator first.
In Example 1.7, it should be emphasized that the factor

3
⎛ 1m ⎞ 1 m3
⎜ ⎟ is
⎝ 100 cm ⎠ 1 × 106 cm3

shows that both the numerator and denominator have been cubed. Failure to cube both terms is a
very common error for students just beginning to study chemistry.

Section 1.9 Real-World Problem Solving: Information, Assumptions, and

Simplifications

Many students do not know how to perform “ball-park estimates”. Encourage students to always
ask if their answers make sense. Many errors can be discovered by doing order-of-magnitude
estimates.