Guide Organic Agriculture Tropics

ORGANIC FARMING
with particular reference to

vegetables, fruit and tea production
Resource Guide for Farmer-Trainers

Based on:
Organic Farming - Organic Agricultural College, Denmark
IFOAM Training Manual for Organic Agriculture in the Tropics
(Not for official publication)

Table of Contents
1. Introduction 1
1.1. A Brief History of Organic Farming 1
1.2. Organic Farming in Vietnam 1
1.3. Why Organic Agriculture? 2
1.4. Organic Agriculture - A Holistic Approach 3
1.5. Principles of Organic Agriculture 5
1.6. Benefits of Organic Agriculture 7
1.7. Is Traditional Farming Organic? 7
1.8. "Safe" Agricultural Production 8
2. The Living Soil 9

2.9. Living Soil - A Necessity 9
2.10. The Soil as a Nutrient Pool 9
2.11. Soil Organisms 11
2.12. Earthworms = Biological Activity 11
2.13. Mycorrhiza – A Beneficial Fungus 12
2.14. A Good Environment for Soil Organisms 13
2.15. The Importance of Soil Organic Matter 15
2.16. Humus 16
2.17. How to Increase the Amount of Organic Matter in the Soil? 17
2.18. Becoming Familiar With Your Soil 18
3. Soil and Water Management 21

3.1. Aims of Soil Cultivation 21
3.2. Methods to cultivate the soil 22
3.3. Soil Erosion: A Major Threat 23
3.4. Water Conservation 24
3.5. Mulching 26
4. Farm Nutrient Balance 29

4.1. The Farm's Nutrient Resources 29
4.2. Nutrient Cycles – Optimising Nutrient Management in the Farm 30
4.3. Farm Nutrient Balance 32
4.4. Purchased farm inputs 32
4.5. Farm outputs 33
4.6. Inputs from the environment 33
4.7. Nutrient balance assessment 34
5. Plant Nutrition - Keeping the Balance 37

5.1. The Main Plant Nutrients and how to Ensure their Supply 37
5.2. Nutrient Supply by Managing Soil Organic Matter 38
5.3. Choice of Crops 39
5.4. Associating Crops 40
5.5. Crop Rotation 41
5.6. Green Manure 41
5.7. The Process of Nitrogen-Fixation 42
5.8. How to Use Green Manures 44
5.9. Composting 47
5.10. Vermicomposting 51
5.11. Manure 51
5.12. Other available organic fertilisers 52
6. Weed Management 55
6.1. The Nature of Weeds 55
6.2. Types of weeds 55
6.3. Managing Weeds 56
7. Pest and Disease Management 59

7.1. Plant Health 59
7.2. Ecology of Pests and Diseases 61
7.3. Preventive Measures 63
7.4. Promoting Natural Enemies 65
7.5. Curative Crop Protection Methods 67
8. Crop Rotation: Putting it All Together Error! Bookmark not defined.

8.1. Crop rotation is the basis for farm management Error! Bookmark not defined.
9. Vegetables Production 76
9.1. Introduction 76
9.2. Soil and water management 76
9.3. Cultivation techniques 76
9.4. Plant nutrition and nutrient flow 77
9.5. Pest and disease management 78
9.6. Mixed cropping and crop rotation 80
9.7. Maintaining the organic integrity of the production areas 81
9.8. Available resources for organic production 82
9.9. A qualitative and quantitative description of the nutrition circulation on the farm 84
10. Litchi Production 85

10.5. Orchard management 89
11. Citrus Production 93

11.5. Orchard Management 96
12. Tea Production Error! Bookmark not defined.
13. Organic Animal Production Error! Bookmark not defined.
14. Farm Economy 119

14.1. The Economic Performance of Organic Farms 119
14.2. Is Organic Farming Economically Viable? 119
14.3. Reducing Expenses 120
14.4. Ways to increase the returns 121
15. Conversion to Organic Farming 123

15.2. The conversion process 123
15.3. Ready for conversion? 124
15.4. Conversion Planning 126
Annex 1 127
Annex 2 129
1. Introduction
Organic farming tries to work with nature as much as possible. This applies both to
the crops and animals, which provide the basis for our survival, as well as the
surrounding natural environment.
1.1. A Brief History of Organic Farming

It is difficult to say when organic agriculture first appeared. Concepts of an "organic",
alternative way of farming were already developed before the invention of synthetic agro-
chemicals. Already in the 1920's - 1940's, some innovative pioneers tried to improve
traditional farming systems with methods characteristic of organic farming. These at that time
new approaches were focusing on soil fertility based on humus and were aiming on an
ecological balance within the farm.
When the use of agro-chemicals combined with the introduction of high-yielding varieties and
intense mechanisation ("Green Revolution" agriculture) became widespread, some people
opposed this new development and set out on organic farming practises like composting,
improved crop rotations or green manuring. The gap between organic farming and
conventional ("chemical") agriculture thus widened.
As the negative impacts of the Green Revolution on health and environment became more
evident in the 1970's and 1980's, the awareness of "organic" issues slowly increased both
among farmers and consumers. Related farming systems like "Permaculture" or "Low
External Input Agriculture (LEIA)" got developed.
Only in the 1990's, organic farming experienced a strong rise. A number of environmental
disasters and food scandals supported a growing consumer awareness and an increasingly
supportive policy in some countries. At the same time, a range of innovative organic
technologies (especially in biological pest management) and more efficient distribution
systems were developed.
Still, organic agriculture constitutes only a small portion in the world's agriculture, rarely
constituting a few percent of a country's farming sector. Governmental support for research,
extension or marketing in organic farming is still very low in most countries. Nevertheless,
organic farming at present has promising growth rates all over the world.
1.2. Organic Farming in Vietnam

Although it can be said that, as in all other countries in the world, all farmers were growing
crops organically hundred years ago, organic farming according to the international
understanding is quite new to Vietnam. Around 10 years ago some foreign companies started
working with local companies and farmers to grow crops organically for export. After many
years with only a few hundred hectares under organic management, there is presently an
estimated 6,475 hectares of organic land. The main organic products are herbs such as
cinnamon, star anise and ginger, fruits, tea, cashew, shrimps and basa fish. These products are
certified according to the standards of the importing countries, such as Europe and the USA,
and foreign certification agencies carry out the inspection and certification work.
-1-
The local market has not been developed at all, although one company tried to introduce
organic vegetables to consumers in Hanoi some years ago. Few international and local
organizations are supporting organic agriculture (main exceptions ADDA and GTZ). The
Government also has no specific policies to support the development of organic agriculture
in the country and as a result there is still little attention for research and extension services.
However, in December 2007 the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD)
issued national basic standards for organic production, which can now be used as a reference
for producers, processors and others interested in organic products for the local market.
MARD plans to set up a certification system for the local market together with Vietnamese
Government institutions, international NGOs, private sector and others.
1.3. Why Organic Agriculture?

The term "conventional agriculture" is not very clear, but usually refers to mainstream
agriculture, i.e. agriculture which includes the use of agro-chemicals, in contrast to organic
agriculture.
The "Green Revolution" – was it Green?

The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides is a technology that has spread out in most
tropical countries since the 1960's. In a new approach referred to as the "Green Revolution",
a package of technologies aimed at increasing the yields per cultivated area. This technology
package consists of:
 Monocropping of high yielding varieties (HYV)
 Intensive soil tillage (usually with machines)
 Use of herbicides to eliminate competing weeds
 Use of pesticides (insecticides, fungicides, molluscicides etc.) for eliminating pests and
diseases
 Intensive fertilization with chemical fertilizers (N, P, K) often combined with intensive
irrigation
After the initial success of the "Green Revolution" it became evident that this kind of farming
has many unwanted side effects, both on natural resources (soil, water, bio-diversity) and on
human health:
 Soil: Vast areas of once fertile lands got degraded due to soil erosion, salinisation or a
general loss of soil fertility.
 Water: Freshwater resources have been polluted or overexploited through intense use of
agro-chemicals and excessive irrigation.
 Bio-diversity: Many wild and cultivated plant and animal species have been extinct and
landscapes became dull.
 Human Health: Residues of harmful pesticides in food or drinking water endanger both
farmer's and consumer's health. Further health risks from antibiotics in meat, BSE
infection (mad cow disease) and genetically modified organisms (GMO).
In addition, this kind of agriculture is based on an excessive use of external inputs and
consumes a lot of energy from non-renewable resources.
Success and shortcomings of the Green Revolution

It must be acknowledged that with the help of the Green Revolution technologies crop yields
increased tremendously, especially in the temperate zones of Europe and North America.
Several Southern countries also experienced the Green Revolution as a success story, though
-2-
the yield increase usually lagged behind the North. India for example managed to become self
sufficient in its cereal production, whereas formerly it was subject to severe famines quite
often.
However, the success of the Green Revolution in the South was unevenly spread: while the
technology brought considerable yield increase in fertile river plains or irrigated land, it rather
failed on marginal soils which constitute the majority of the land in the tropics. As the fertile
lands usually belong to the more wealthy farmers, marginal farmers did not benefit that much
from the new technologies.
One reason for its failure on marginal lands is the low efficiency of fertilizer application on
tropical soils: Unlike soils in temperate regions, many tropical soils do not retain chemical
fertilizers well (see chapter 3.1.1). The nutrients get easily washed out from the soil or
evaporate as gas (N). A majority of the applied fertilizers may therefore get lost.
In countries where labour is comparatively cheap but inputs are expensive, expenses for agro-
chemicals can make up a large proportion of the production costs. Frequently, these inputs
are purchased on loans, which are to be paid back when the harvest is sold. If yields are lower
than expected (e.g. because soil fertility decreased) or crops entirely fail (e.g. due to attack of
an uncontrollable pest or disease), farmers still have to cover the costs of the agro-chemicals
they used. Thus, indebtedness is a widespread problem among farmers in the South, and
many are getting deeper and deeper into the "debt trap". As prices for agricultural products
tend to decrease continuously while prices for inputs increase (e.g. due to reduced subsidies),
it is getting difficult for many farmers to earn a sufficient income with conventional
agriculture.
1.4. Organic Agriculture - A Holistic Approach

Looking at the "big picture"
Conventional farming puts its focus on achieving maximum yields of a specific crop. It is
based on a rather simple understanding: crop yields are increased by nutrient inputs and they
get reduced through pests, diseases and weeds, which therefore must be combated. Organic
agriculture is a holistic way of farming: besides production of goods of high quality, an
important aim is the conservation of the natural resources fertile soil, clean water and rich
biodiversity. The art of organic farming is to make the best use of ecological principles and
processes. Organic farmers can learn a lot from studying the interactions in natural
ecosystems such as forests. The following part of this section shows how principles of a
natural ecosystem can be used for designing an organic farming system.
Nutrient cycles in forests

Trees and other plants take up nutrients from the soil and incorporate them in their biomass
(leaves, branches etc.). The nutrients go back to the soil when leaves fall or plants die. Part of
the biomass is eaten by various animals (including insects), and their excrements return the
nutrients to the soil. In the soil, a huge number of soil organisms are involved in the
decomposition of organic material, which makes nutrients available to plant, roots again. The
dense root system of the forest plants collects the released nutrients almost completely.
Recycling nutrients in organic farms

Organic nutrient management is based on biodegradable material, i.e. plant and animal
residues which can be decomposed. Nutrient cycles are closed with the help of composting,
mulching, green manuring, crop rotation etc. Farm animals can play an important role in the
-3-
nutrient cycle: their dung is of high value and its use allows to recycle nutrients provided with
the fodder. If carefully managed, losses of nutrients due to leaching, soil erosion and
gasification can be reduced to the minimum. This reduces the dependency on external inputs
and helps to save costs. However, nutrients exported from the farm with the sold produce
need to be replaced in some way.
Soil fertility in forests

Soil and its fertility both together constitute the centre of the natural ecosystem. A more or
less permanent soil cover prevents soil erosion and it helps to build up soil fertility. The
continuous supply of organic material feeds a huge number of soil organisms and provides an
ideal environment for them. As a result the soil becomes soft and capable of taking up and
storing large quantities of water.
Soil protection in organic farms

Organic farmers give central importance to the maintenance and improvement of soil fertility.
They stimulate the activity of soil organisms with organic manures and avoid harming them
with chemical pesticides. Mulching and cover crops are used among other methods to prevent
soil erosion.
Diversity in forests
Forests host a high diversity of plant varieties of different size, root systems and
requirements. Animals are also part of the system. If one organism drops out, it is
immediately replaced by another one that fills the gap. Thus space, light, water and nutrients
are used to the optimum. The result is a very stable system.
Crop diversity in organic farms

Organic farms grow several crops including, trees, either as mixed cropping or in rotation.
Animals are an integrated part of the farm system. The diversity not only allows optimum use
of the resources but also serves as an economic security in case of pest or disease attack or
low market prices for certain crops.
Eco-balance in forests
Pests and diseases do occur in natural ecosystems, but they rarely cause a big damage. Due to
the diversity it is difficult for them to spread. Plants usually can recover from an infestation
on their own. And many pests are controlled by other organisms such as insects or birds.
Bio-control in organic farms

Organic farmers try to keep pests and diseases at a level which does not cause economical
damage. The main focus is on supporting the health and resistance of the crop. Beneficial
insects are promoted by offering them a habitat and food. If pests reach critical levels, natural
enemies and herbal preparations are used.
-4-
Objectives of organic farming:
From the norms of IFOAM, the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
On the farm: Social aspects:

 Preserving and improving soil fertility  Promoting diversified production,
 Promoting beneficial cooperation processing and distribution, which are
between all living organisms on the both socially fair and ecologically sound
farm, from micro-organisms to plants  Ensuring a good quality of life for
and livestock everyone involved in the production
 Creating a balance between crop and further processing of organic food
production and livestock husbandry
 Providing livestock with conditions that
Credibility:
 Producing foods with a high quality
comply with their natural behaviour
and needs  Producing and using biodegradable
products and packaging
Interaction with the environment:  Avoiding any pollution that could arise
 Maintaining and increasing genetic from farming activities

diversity in the farm ecosystem and its  Promoting the conversion of all
natural surroundings, including the farming to organic production methods

protection of wild plant and animal .
habitats These goals shall be achieved by:
 Close cooperation between farmers and
 Developing farming methods that take
the natural environment into consumers.
consideration as much as possible  Mutual exchange of methods and
 Utilising closed nutrient cycles and

experiences between organic producers
making use of local resources and the support services, including the
 Reducing agriculture’s and the
relevant educational and research
processing industry’s consumption of institutions
non-renewable resources including
fossil fuels, to a minimum Organic farming methods do not allow:
 Synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, etc.
 Improving the quality of industrial and
 Forced plant and animal growth
urban organic wastes, so that these can
 Industrialised livestock husbandry
be recycled to agricultural land
 Genetically modified crops
1.5. Principles of Organic Agriculture

Conserving the farm ecology
As explained in Section 1.3, the use of agrochemicals in farming is creating serious damage to
the environment and the farm ecology, causing problems such as nutrient poor soil, high soil
salinity, soil compact, erosion, decreased ecological diversity in the fields, depletion of the
water table, etc. These environmental problems are now at such a level that they threaten the
sustainability of communities and agricultural production. Conserving farm ecology by
stopping the use of agrochemicals, especially pesticides and chemical fertilizers, can reverse
some of these negative impacts. Conserving local vegetation within and surrounding the farm
will add benefits to improved biodiversity as well.
Enriching the agricultural ecology
-5-
Apart from conservation, the organic agriculture principles require farmers to put efforts in
improving the ecological balance and soil fertility. This principle makes for a marked
difference between organic agriculture and chemical-free or "safe" agriculture. The main
methods for improving the farm ecology are improving the soil with organic material and
increasing the biological diversity.
In the organic system, the soil is the key to farming. Enriching the soil allows plants to obtain
nutrients in a complete and balanced manner. This makes for healthy plants that have
resistance to diseases and insect pests and removes the need for the farmer to depend upon
pesticides. Besides, organic produce tastes good, keeps well, and organic production can raise
one's yield in a more sustainable manner than through use of chemical farming methods.
Apart from improving soil fertility, increasing the biological diversity in the field is another
key to sustainable farm ecology. This is because having a diversity of organisms living besides
each other creates the conditions for developing ecological balances. There are many ways to
increase biological diversity such as intercropping, crop rotation, planting trees, or providing
natural areas within or around the farms.
Working with natural cycles and mechanisms

The principles of organic agriculture are founded on the basis that sustainable farming is a
way of farming in accordance with the laws of nature, e.g. climatic conditions, nutrient cycles,
and the dynamics of insect populations. Sustainable agriculture does not try to control nature
for the purpose of production, but to learn from nature and adjust the agricultural system to
fit with nature's methods.
Important natural processes for organic agriculture include: the nutrient cycles (especially the
nitrogen and carbon cycles), the hydrologic cycle, climatic and sunlight conditions, and
ecological relationships and balances. (In the field and the food chain)
In different places throughout the world the natural conditions and ecology vary. Farmers
practicing organic agriculture must learn themselves from the local conditions and situations
using observation, learning, investigation, and testing as part of the learning process. Learning
through this process, the farmer may benefit from the natural processes and local ecology on
his or her farm in the fullest.
Control and Prevention of Contamination

Although organic agriculture forbids the use of synthetic chemicals on the farm, the
surrounding environment of the organic farm may already be contaminated by pollution that
could expose the organic produce to unwanted residues, either through the water, the air or
the soil itself. Therefore, organic farmers must try to prevent contamination from outside
from getting into their produce. Prevention may include making boundaries areas around the
farm or the establishment of a buffer zone. However, it is very difficult to eliminate all
contamination since chemical contaminants are found all throughout the environment. For
example, organic farms may have to share a water source with conventional farms and this
may mean that the organic produce has some level of chemical contamination. Therefore,
organic farmers should try the utmost to prevent contamination but at the same time one can
never claim that organic produce is entirely free of contaminants.
Besides working to prevent contamination from the outside, organic farming also regulates
that the farmer must limit or prevent contamination that may come from the organic farm
production process. For example, a holding system for garbage and waste water may have to
-6-
be set up before releasing it outside the farm. Also, it is prohibited to use materials for
packing produce that may have contaminants.
Self-sufficiency in production materials
In organic agriculture, farmers must use a number of materials such as organic fertilizer,
seeds, etc.. Organic agriculture has a principle that the farmer should produce these materials
as much as possible on his/her farm. However, in case the farmer is unable to produce
sufficient inputs him/herself, (for example when there is insufficient area or it requires a high
investment to produce the necessary production materials) the farmer may buy or obtain
production materials from outside the farm, but these materials should be readily available in
the local area.
1.6. Benefits of Organic Agriculture

The advantages of organic farming compared to conventional farming can be summarised as
follows:
 soil conservation and maintenance of soil fertility
 less pollution of water (groundwater, rivers, lakes)
 protection of wildlife (birds, frogs, insects etc.)
 higher biodiversity, more diverse landscape
 better treatment of farm animals
 less utilisation of non-renewable external inputs and energy
 less pesticide residues in food
 no hormones and antibiotics in animal products
 better product quality (taste, storage properties)
1.7. Is Traditional Farming Organic?

Agro-chemicals have been used in a large scale only since the 1960’s. Therefore, farming
communities, which have not been influenced by the so-called "Green Revolution"
automatically meet the most important criteria of organic agriculture, i.e. the non-use of any
chemical fertilisers, pesticides and genetically modified organisms. These agricultural systems
are referred to as "Traditional Farming".
Over the last few decades, the focus in agriculture typically shifted from mainly subsistence
agriculture (for own consumption) to market production (for gaining a financial income). In
many countries, the density of population increased tremendously and many traditional
farming systems have been unable to meet the yield expectations of the farmers. Due to
reduced fallow periods, overgrazing or exploitative cultivation, many traditionally farmed
areas face severe degradation. At the same time, higher yielding crop varieties have been
introduced which are more prone to diseases. Organic farming tries to meet the increased
needs of the growing population while not risking the long-term productivity of the farmland.
Many methods and techniques of organic agriculture have originated from various traditional
farming systems all over the world. However, not all traditional systems make use of these
methods, sometimes for the simple reason that they are not known in a specific region. In
addition, organic farming disposes of a range of rather modern technologies such as the use
of antagonistic microbes in pest management, high yielding but disease resistant varieties or
the use of highly efficient green manure plants.
-7-
The figure on the following page illustrates the various similarities and the main differences
between traditional farming and organic farming:
What traditional and organic Organic methods that can be What is specific to organic
farming have in common: found in traditional farming: farming:
 No use of chemical  Closed nutrient cycles, low  Use of microbial
fertilizers, insecticides, external inputs preparations for pest
fungicides, herbicides,  Recycling of biomass management
growth promoters etc. through mulching or  Release or efficient
 No use of genetically composting attraction of beneficial
engineered plants and  Mixed cropping and/or crop insects
animals rotations  Use of high yielding, but
 Use of animal manures  Sustainable management of disease resistant breeds of
resources: soil, energy, crops and animals
water  Introduction of efficient
 Maintenance of soil fertility, green manures, cover crops
prevention of soil erosion and nitrogen fixing trees
 Animal friendly husbandry  Use of improved tools for
Practices soil cultivation, weeding,
sawing etc.
 Application of improved
compost methods and bio
fertilizers
1.8. "Safe" Agricultural Production

"Safe" production has gained importance in the last years in Vietnam especially for the
production of vegetables where high pesticide residues are of great concern. Contrary to
organic production, "safe" production does not refrain from using agro-chemicals, but it aims
at a reduction of its application. For plant protection, a combination of bio-control methods
and chemical pesticides is used (Integrated Pest Management). If damage by pest or disease
reaches a certain level, chemical pesticides are applied. For plant nutrition, chemical fertilisers
can be used, but usually maximum amounts are defined.
Basically, "safe" production follows the same approach as conventional agriculture, but tries
to reduce the negative effects on product quality and environment. It is far away from the
holistic understanding of organic agriculture. However, it can considerably contribute to a
healthier environment, as it is easier to be followed by a large number of farmers.
Vietnam has developed a specific regulation for "safe" vegetables production but there is no
specific "safe" vegetables label. Also, the certification system is not fully developed yet.
Because of some problems in the past and some gaps in the certification system, consumer
confidence in "safe" vegetables is still low. In fact, few countries in the world have developed
labels and a control system for integrated production. The term "safe" or "clean" production
is not very popular since it gives an unjust impression of the quality of the product while
chemicals are still used in production. In some countries these production systems are
therefore more neutrally called "green" production.
-8-
2.The Living Soil
The soil is the basis for all agricultural production. Unhealthy soil can lead to many
agronomic and financial problems for an organic farmer.
A wise man once said: "Healthy soil gives healthy crops, which in turn give healthy
animals" - and people, one could also add.
Soil is not merely a mixture of mineral particles, but a dynamic system with a huge
number of living organisms. In this chapter we will take a look at what happens in the
soil and why it is so important to support the development of a living, healthy soil.
2.1 Living Soil - A Necessity

In organic farming, most nutrients are not easily
accessible, but are rather part of the soil's organic
matter. Thus, nutrients need to be released before
the plants can make use of them. This turnover of
nutrients thus requires the breakdown - or
decomposition - of organic matter.
This breakdown of organic matter is the pivot point

for organic crop production. If the process is not
optimised, the crops will grow poorly and yields will
be low. At the same time, the crops will not be able
to compete against weeds. The best way to control
weeds is to have strong and healthy crops.
Furthermore, vigorous crops are more resistant to
harmful organisms. Soil plays a major role in organic
farming. This is because soil:
 acts a nutrient reservoir (or "pool")
Figure 1
 plays a vital role in nutrient turnover. Ensuring the sufficient supply of nutrients at
the right time. This is definitely easier once you
start doing the right things at the right time.
2.2 The Soil as a Nutrient Pool
On a farm, important nutrient sources include:
 Farmyard manure, compost, straw
 Standing crops
 Soil organic matter (crop residues, manure)
 Soil mineral matter (soil particles, ions, chemical compounds, etc.)
Figure 2 on the next page gives a general overview of different nutrient sources and their
respective importance on an organic farm.
Organic matter usually contains all the nutrients required by plants. Figure 2 clearly shows
that the pool of organic matter in the soil is much greater than the amount of organic matter
stored in manure and growing crops. Soil organic matter is thus a major source of nutrients!
-9-
Figure 2 - Nutrient pools on a farm
Organic matter in the soil contains about 90 % of the soil's total N, 50-70 % of P and 50 % of S.
However, all of the three sources of organic matter are based on plant growth. Only plants
can actually synthesise organic compounds. Organic matter is produced by a process known
as photosynthesis, in which plants transform carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) to
oxygen, sugars and carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are then used as a basis for the synthesis of
all the other organic compounds found in plant cells. For this, plants require numerous
essential nutrient elements, which they obtain from the soil.
Thus, only plants can transform sunlight into chemical energy stored in sugars. This energy
can be utilised by all cells, and it can be transported throughout the plant or stored for later
use (e.g., as starch or fat).
All other living organisms have to eat plants - or animals (that eat plants) - in order to obtain
the organic matter they need for cell growth and life energy. There are no other possibilities!
Since the nutrients stored in soil organic matter are such an important resource, farmers must
make sure that the pool of organic matter in their soils is as big as possible. If there is too
little, the amount of organic matter has to be increased and later maintained, e.g., when
converting to organic farming.
There are several ways to build up and maintain the level of organic matter, such as by:
 choosing crops that produce a lot of organic matter
 choosing crops that give a lot of organic crop residues
 maintaining a crop cover on the fields for as much of the year as possible
Naturally, farmyard manure and any other purchased organic fertilizer also represent
important nutrient pools. See Chapter 4 for more details.
- 10 -
2.3 Soil Organisms
A teaspoon of active soil is the habitat of millions of soil organisms. Some of them are of
animal origin, some are of plant origin. The organisms vary greatly in size. Some are visible
with the naked eye such as earthworms, mites, springtails or termites. Most of them, however,
are so small that they can only be seen with a microscope, and are therefore called "micro-
organisms". The most important micro-organisms are bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Micro-
organisms are the key elements to the quality and fertility of soil. The greater the variety of
species and the higher their number, the greater the natural fertility of the soil is.
Some larger soil organisms Some soil micro-organisms

 earthworms  bacteria
 spiders  algae
 slugs and snails  fungus
 beetles  protozoa
 springtails  actinomycetes
 mites
 millipedes
 slaters
Soil Organisms: adversaries or friends?

Many farmers consider all micro-organisms only as pests and think: "How can we kill them"?
Actually, while few micro-organisms in the soil can harm crops, the majority is of great use
and importance for soil fertility. Soil organisms are important because they:
 help to decompose organic material and build up humus
 mingle organic matter with soil particles and thus help to build stable crumbs
 dig tunnels, which encourages deep rooting of plants and good aeration of the soil
 help to release nutrients from mineral particles
 control pest and disease organisms affecting the roots of crops
Most soil organisms are very sensitive to changes in soil moisture and temperature. As the
plant roots and the soil organisms consume air, a good air circulation within the soil is crucial
for their development. Soil organism activity is generally low when soils are dry, very wet or
too hot. Activity is highest in warm, moist soils when food (i.e. biomass) is available. See also
section .
2.4 Earthworms = Biological Activity

The number of earthworms is an indicator of soil fertility. In fertile soil, you can typically find
300-500 earthworms/m2 (about 1-2 t/ha). On a conventional cereal farm you may only find
50-100 earthworms/m2. A large earthworm population usually indicates that there are many
other decomposers in the soil as well, such as springtails, bacteria and fungi. Earthworms are
thus a kind of bio-indicator: they give you an idea of how much bioactivity there is in the soil.
- 11 -
Earthworms are very important for soil
fertility as they fulfil several crucial
functions. For example they accelerate
the decomposition of biomass by
removing dead plant material from the
soil surface. During the digestion of
organic material, they mix organic and
mineral soil particles and build stable
crumbs, which help improve the soil
structure. Their excrements ("worm
casts") contain 5x more nitrogen, 7x
more phosphate, 11x more potash and
2x more magnesia and calcium than
normal earth. Last but not the least, their Figure 3 - Plant roots use earthworm burrows...
...to easily grow throughout the soil. In the burrows air
tunnels promote infiltration and drainage exchange is excellent and there are plenty of available
of rainwater and thus prevent soil nutrients (worm casts).
erosion and water logging. Earthworm
activity results in large pores in the soil. These are called biopores, since they are made by
living organisms. These pores are vital for air exchange in the soil. They ensure rapid
infiltration of water after rainfall and rapid drainage of excess water. (See Figure 3.)
Earthworms need food

In order to survive, earthworms need organic matter as a source of energy and nutrients.
Well-fertilized crops give large amounts of crop residues, no matter what kind of fertilizer you
use. However, it is obvious that organic fertilizers give the largest earthworm numbers. The
number of earthworms is typically twice as high in fields that receive farmyard manure than in
fields that receive mineral fertilizer. It's even better if the crop rotation includes grass or green
manure and aftercrops.
Don't disturb earthworms at work!

Earthworms need sufficient supply of biomass, moderate temperature and sufficient
humidity. That's why they are very fond of mulching. Frequent tillage of the soil decreases the
number of earthworms in the soil. Pesticides and herbicides can also badly affect earthworms.
Several common pesticides are more or less toxic for earthworms. Also, herbicide use
removes a part of the worms' feed base
2.5 Mycorrhiza – A Beneficial Fungus

A major part of the soil microbial biomass is composed of fungi. Important representatives of
the soil fungi are the "mycorrhizae" that live in association (symbiosis) with plant roots. Both
the plant and the fungus profit from the association: the plant gets nutrients collected by the
fungus and the fungus receives assimilates ("food") from the plant in exchange. Mycorrhizae
are present in all types of soils, but not all crops can get into a symbiosis with the fungus.
Mycorrhizae have several functions, which are of high interest for the farmer:
 They enlarge the rooting zone of plants and can enter into small soil pores
 They dissolve nutrients such as phosphorus from mineral particles and carry them to the
plant
 They make soil aggregates more stable thus improving the soil structure
 They preserve moisture and improve the water supply to the plants
- 12 -
Mycorrhiza formation depends on the soil conditions, the crops that are grown and the
management practices:
 Soil tillage and burning of biomass drastically harm the mycorrhizae
 High nutrient levels (especially phosphorus) and chemical pesticides suppress the
symbiosis
 Mixed cropping, crop rotation and the cultivation of perennial plants encourage
mycorrhiza
 Practice mulching to stabilize soil temperature and moisture
Among the naturally occurring species of mycorrhizae, not all show the same efficiency to
take up phosphorus from the soil. That is why artificial inoculation of specific mycorrhiza
varieties can improve their use. Inoculation, however does not reduce the importance of
offering appropriate living conditions for these organisms.
2.6 A Good Environment for Soil Organisms

If you see crops obviously lacking nutrients, this could be because there is not enough energy
available in the soil. It could also be that there is a general deficiency of a certain nutrient in
the soil, even though this is rarely the case. Finally, a lack of nutrients may also indicate that
the physical environment for soil organisms is not optimal.
A good "working environment" requires optimal:

 Soil pH
 Air exchange
 Temperature
 Water balance
The three last items on the list are closely linked to soil structure. The aim is thus to achieve a
good crumb structure throughout the entire plough zone - or even deeper.
Soil pH
The farmer has to make sure that the soil isn't too acidic. Many micro-organisms (especially
bacteria) are dependent on a pH of at least 5.5. Low pH often means too little Calcium, which
plays a vital role in ensuring a good soil structure. Farmers must therefore keep an eye on the
development of soil pH, and apply lime when
necessary (remember that lime = CaCO3). Box 1 - Not all micro-organisms need oxygen
Certain species of micro-organisms can live
Air exchange under oxygen-free (also called 'anaerobic")
Most soil organisms need atmospheric oxygen conditions. This means they can survive without
for their respiration. They then expire carbon access to the oxygen in the air. However, they
dioxide and other gasses. Thus, air (containing do need oxygen for respiration like all other living
oxygen) must be able to freely enter the soil, organisms, but they are able to make use of the
and waste gasses must be removed. Good
oxygen bound in chemical compounds.
exchange of air is very important for the
activity of the soil organisms. Air exchange
Examples of such organisms are the bacteria
depends directly on good soil structure. Thus,
that convert nitrate (ions) to gaseous nitrogen
water balance and air exchange are two sides of
forms. They are called denitrification bacteria,
the same story.
and they extract the oxygen from NO3 (nitrate),
converting it to either NO or N2O.
- 13 -
Temperature
In a temperate climate, the soil rarely gets so warm that the activity of micro-organisms is
inhibited, except for the upper few centimetres. In the temperate climate zone, it is often too
cold in springtime: The turnover of organic matter and the release of nutrients begins too late
and/or takes place too slowly.
The farmer cannot influence the climate. However, the wetter the soil in springtime, the
longer it takes to warm it up. Good drainage is therefore important - for the sake of the
micro-organisms as well.
Water balance
The soil should be able to quickly absorb water, in order to avoid surface runoff. It should
also be able to hold water for use in dry periods. The soil organisms cannot function if the
soil dries out. On the other hand, excess water must drain quickly through the soil, otherwise
the exchange of air becomes poor.
In order to fulfil all of these demands, the soil must have an even distribution of small and
large pores throughout the entire soil profile.
Good soil structure

A good soil structure is important for easy penetration of plant roots, good aeration,
sufficient infiltration, active soil life and many other functions. Some soils are generally of a
poor structure because of their mineral composition (e.g. high clay content). What is most
important for improving the soil structure is to increase the content of organic matter. It
sticks soil particles together and helps to support the work of soil organisms by providing
food and shelter. See Figure 4.
Activities that improve soil structure:

 Apply organic matter as
manure, compost, mulch
etc.
 Encourage the activity of
soil organisms
 Protect the soil surface
with mulch or plant cover
Activities that harm the soil

structure:
 Cultivating the soil in wet
conditions can cause soil
compaction
 Frequent soil cultivation
reduces the content of
soil organic matter
 Intensive mechanical
cultivation like rotary Figure 4 - Soil fertility
tilling destroys the soil A living soil enables decomposition, thus releasing nutrients for good
crumbs plant growth. Good soil structure enables a high level of bioactivity - and
thus good plant growth. A lot of activity enables aggregate formation. It's
a never-ending circle!
- 14 -
2.7 The Importance of Soil Organic Matter
The content of organic matter in the soil is one of the most important factors for soil fertility.
It has many functions, which are crucial for the farmer's success. Understanding the different
functions of organic matter can help to make the right decisions in soil management.
The formation of soil organic matter

Plants are built up from water, air and nutrients. When plant material is decomposed with the
help of animals, soil organisms and microbes, the components are released again as nutrients
or gases, and are available for new plant growth. In the process of decomposition, a part of
the material gets decomposed only to a certain extend. These half rotten components join
together to build up dark brown or black "soil organic matter". A part of this organic matter
contains still visible structures of leaves, fibres, wood etc., but most of it is shapeless and
intimately mingled with the soil.
The breakdown of organic matter is a long process. The larger organisms in the soil (such as
earthworms, springtails, millipedes, beetles and grubs) start by breaking up plant residues into
small pieces, whereas the micro-organisms take care of the final turnover of nutrients. The
final step of organic matter breakdown is also called mineralization. In this step, the
organically bound nutrients are converted to inorganic/mineral substances.
Not all material of plant or animal origin will decompose in the same speed:
 The more nutritious the material is, the faster and the more completely will it be eaten up
by soil organisms and microbes. Such fast decaying materials are for example fresh young
leaves, animal dung or nitrogen fixing plants.
 The hardier the material is and the fewer nutrients it contains, the longer will it take to
decompose. Old plants and plant materials that are fibrous or rich in woody components
need more time to decompose.
 The speed of decomposition also depends on the soil humidity and on the temperature.
Soil life is most active under warm and moist conditions, thus conducive to decomposing
organic material very fast.
 When decomposition is fast and complete, a lot of nutrients are released but less humus is
built up. Slow decomposition due to hardy material or cold climate will cause more
humus to accumulate in the soil.
Figure 5 - The importance of organic matter

Good aeration and good
A loose and soft soil structure infiltration of rain and irrigation
with a lot of cavities water
Visible parts of organic matter

act like tiny sponges
Non-visible parts of organic
matter act like a clue, sticking
soil particles together
Many beneficial soil organisms Soil organic matter provides a

such as earthworms are feeding suitable environment for soil
on organic material organisms
- 15 -
Why organic matter is so important? (See Figure 5.)
 Soil organic matter helps to build up a loose and soft soil structure with a lot of cavities
(pores). This leads to better aeration, better infiltration of rain or irrigation water and an
easier penetration of roots.
 The visible parts of organic matter act like tiny sponges, which can hold water up to five
times, their own weight. Therefore in dry periods more water is available for the plants
for a longer time. This is especially important in sandy soils.
 The non-visible parts of organic matter act like a glue, sticking soil particles together thus
forming stable crumbs. Such aggregates improve the soil structure, especially in clay and
sandy soils.
 Beneficial micro-organisms and other soil organisms such as earthworms also feed on
organic material thus decomposing it. As these organisms require sufficient humidity and
aeration, soil organic matter provides a suitable environment for them.
 Organic matter has a great capacity to retain nutrients and release them continuously. It
thereby increases the capacity of the soil to supply the plants with nutrients and reduces
nutrient losses by leaching. This is especially important in sandy soils as they naturally
retain very few nutrients.
 Organic matter also prevents soils from becoming too acidic.
Organic matter retains and releases nutrients

As organic matter consists of decomposing biomass, it provides a well balanced mixture of all
nutrients which plants require for their growth. While decomposing, it acts as a slow-release
source of nutrients to the crops.
Organic matter acts as an exchanger or absorption agent for nutrients added to the soil. In
acidic, highly weathered soils organic matter is responsible for almost the entire nutrient
exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil. Nutrients are bound reversibly to the humus and can be
constantly released by the activity of plant roots and micro-organisms. This helps to reduce
nutrient losses through leaching.
2.8 Humus
The basis of the soil's structure is the clay, silt, sand and humus particles in the soil. Humus
particles are a group of organic substances with specific properties. They are very small and
have a negative surface charge, just like clay particles. A farmer cannot change the clay, silt
and sand contents of a soil. However, the contents of humus can be influenced by farming
practice, for better or worse. Humus particles are especially important for the formation of
soil aggregates in clay and sandy soils.
Humus in clay soils

Without humus, a clay soil becomes much too compact, and the exchange of air is poor.
Adhesion between humus particles is much weaker than between clay particles. Humus thus
loosens the structure of clay soil, giving a greater share of large pores and a soil that is easier
to cultivate.
Humus in sandy soils

Without humus, sandy soils become much too loose. Pores are too big, and the soil has a very
poor water-holding capacity. Adhesion between humus particles is much stronger than
between sand particles. Humus can therefore include sand particles in the formation of soil
aggregates. This leads to the formation of smaller pores, which can retain water.
- 16 -
Humus particles themselves also have a large water-holding capacity. They can absorb an
amount of water nearly equal to their own weight. Finally, because of its negative charge,
humus can bind nutrients just like clay particles - a valuable benefit for sandy soils.
Humus formation and decomposition

Humus is continuously decomposed (broken down), but slowly. The speed of decomposition
increases with increasing air supply and rising temperatures. It is therefore important to try to
avoid intensive soil tillage when the soil is warm.
How can we support the formation of humus? Unfortunately, it is difficult to give a precise
answer to this question. Humus formation is a complex and very slow process. Humus is not
the same as organic matter "leftovers"; the creation of humus also includes a formation
process. We still know very little about actual humus formation, but we do know that it
cannot take place in wet or acidic soils.
Since humus is formed from organic matter, the soil must obviously contain a certain amount
of organic substance. However, some crops remove more organic matter than they add. It is
therefore important that a crop rotation generates a surplus of organic matter.
Some studies show that old or partially decomposed plant residues support humus formation.
For example, crop rotations including long-duration leys are favourable for humus formation.
It also seems as if composted farmyard manure also promotes the formation of humus.
Certain beneficial biological processes obviously result from the relatively high temperatures
obtained in a compost heap.
2.9 How to Increase the Amount of Organic Matter in the Soil?

Organic matter permanently undergoes a process of decomposition. In order to maintain or
increase the content of soil organic matter, organic material must be applied again and again.
The speed of decomposition depends on the climate (in warm and damp conditions, the
organic matter is broken down much faster than in cold or dry conditions) and on how green
the material is (C/N-ratio).
Activities that increase the level of soil organic matter:

 Leaving crop residues on the field, instead of burning or wasting them, as they are the
major source of biomass
 Applying compost: this is very effective, as part of the organic matter in compost is
already stabilised and will remain in the soil for a longer time than fresh plant material
 Applying organic manures: as they contain organic material, they help to increase the
content of organic matter; at the same time, they can speed up decomposition as they are
rich in nitrogen and thus stimulate soil organisms
 Mulching with plant materials or agro-wastes: especially applying hardy material (rich in
fibres or wood) will increase the organic matter content, as it will remain in the soil for a
long time; in addition, it helps to reduce erosion
 Using green manures or cover crops: green manures grown on the same field will
contribute biomass both from the leaves and roots; material grown on another site
contributes only the leaves; the younger the plant material is, the faster will it decompose,
thus releasing the nutrients faster but adding less to the built up of soil organic matter
- 17 -
 Suitable crop rotation: including crops in the rotation which build up soil organic matter
(e.g. pastures); especially perennials and crops with a dense root system (e.g. pastures) are
very beneficial
 Reducing soil tillage: each tillage will speed up the decomposition of organic material, as it
aerates the soil and stimulates soil organisms
 Avoiding soil erosion: all methods listed before will be in vain unless soils are prevented
from erosion; it carries away those parts of the soil which contain most humus and are
most fertile
Details for all these approaches can be found in the respective chapters.
The amount of organic matter in the soil is largely determined by the amount of biomass
added in the form of plant residues from crops, cover crops and weeds and, if available,
animal manure. It is though rather the quality of the biomass than the quantity, which leads to
an increase of the level of soil organic matter. Green organic matter, which can easily be
decomposed by soil-organisms, encourages the build-up of a large population of organisms
and thus improves availability of nutrients in the soil, but also leads to an accumulation of
stable organic matter.
Shortage of decomposable material

Organic farming frequently is short of organic material, as one almost can't get enough of this
valuable input. The production of biomass which can be used for applying to the soil
sometimes competes with the production of crops for food or sale. Therefore, it is very
important to find ways of combining the production of biomass with the production of
crops. Use of cover crops or green manures, crop rotation with green manures in the off-
season or growing hedges on unproductive sites may be suitable options. It is very important
to recycle the crop residues and processing wastes.
How to produce more biomass on the farm?

 Integrate green fallow periods with green manures in the crop rotation
 Aim at having the soil covered with plants the whole year round, wherever possible
 Integrate fodder cultivation in the farm where possible (grass, fodder hedges)
 Use unproductive space (e.g. along paths, field borders, steep slopes etc.) for planting
trees or hedge rows
 Establish agro-forestry systems, where appropriate
 Leave single trees standing in the field (e.g. nitrogen fixing trees), manage them with
intense pruning
 Let cattle graze or spend some nights on harvested fields (it can also be the neighbour's
cattle) in order to profit from their droppings
Still, in some areas vegetation is very scarce and the soil is too poor to produce even a green
manure crop. In such conditions, it might be necessary to first increase the fertility of the soil
by bringing in organic manures from outside
2.10 Becoming Familiar with Your Soil

You have to learn to evaluate your own soil, and to get a feeling for its biological activity.
There are no complete or inexpensive analysis methods. There are no tables showing you
exactly how your soil is supposed to look. However, you must learn to observe your soil, the
- 18 -
development of plant roots, etc. The most important task is to constantly observe the
development of your soil: Is it improving, or getting poorer?
Soil shall have a good crumb structure, resembling something like grated rye bread. This
structure should be visible deep down. The soil should not be compact, and be without
compressed soil layers. Preferably, there should be no clods, since no micro-organisms or
roots can live in these. The water and nutrients in the clods are resources that cannot be
utilised. One way to evaluate your soil is using the so-called spade diagnosis. This is
explained in Annex 1.
What to look for

 At first sight: does the soil block clearly split along a specific line? If so, this is an
indication of a plough or tillage sole. The soil underneath the pan is compressed.
 Carefully break apart the soil block, e.g., with a weeding claw. Note the position of single
grains, aggregates, compact clods and stones. Crush some of the clods. Usually, you will
hardly find any roots in them.
 Do you see earthworms and other animals? Look for earthworm burrows (most worms
fled while you were digging the soil block).
 Assess the soil's moisture. Pressure pans hinder the vertical movement of water.
 Observe the roots. Does the amount of roots change with increasing depth? Straight
roots indicate good growing conditions. Crooked and deformed roots have met
resistance.
A dark coating on the roots is a good sign. The coating is soil sticking to the slime
secreted by roots and micro-organisms. It is a sign of biological activity in the root zone.
Thick, white roots with few branching roots are roots searching for water.
 Examine legumes for root nodules. The better the soil's structure, the deeper the bacteria
living in the nodules can survive. If root nodules can only be found in the uppermost
layer, it is a sign of poor air exchange.
 Examine crop residues that have been ploughed under. It is a good sign if these are dark
and easily crumbled. Yellow, fibrous straw is a sign of poor decomposition. Black residues
indicate a lack of oxygen.
 Smell the soil and crop residues. A slightly rotten smell is a sign of poor decomposition.
Conclusion
After completing the spade diagnosis, draw a conclusion from your observations:
 Are there structural problems?
 Is there enough air in the soil, also deeper down?
 Is the decomposition of organic matter satisfactory?
 Are there active earthworms?
If you do discover problems, you have to consider what to do about them:

 Loosen the soil in another depth?
 Increase the supply of organic matter?
 Gentler traffic and soil tillage methods?
 Plough under organic residues at another depth?
- 19 -
3.Soil and Water Management
Soil cultivation includes all mechanical measures to loosen, turn or mix the soil, such
as ploughing, tilling, digging, hoeing, harrowing etc. Careful soil cultivation can
improve the soil's capacity to retain water, its aeration, capacity of infiltration,
warming up, evaporation etc. But soil cultivation can also harm the soil fertility as it
accelerates erosion and the decomposition of humus.
There is not one right way to cultivate the soil, but a range of options. Depending on
the cropping system and the soil type, appropriate soil cultivation patterns must be
developed.
3.1 Aims of Soil Cultivation

Creating good growing conditions for plants
There are many reasons for cultivating the soil. The most important ones are to:
 Loosen the soil to facilitate the penetration of plant roots
 Improve the aeration (nitrogen and oxygen from the air)
 Encourage the activity of the soil organisms
 Increase infiltration of water
 Reduce evaporation
 Destroy or control weeds and soil pests
 Incorporate crop residues and manures into the soil
 Prepare the site for seeds and seedlings
 Repair soil compaction caused by previous activities
Minimum disturbance
Any soil cultivation activity has a more or less destructive impact on soil structure. In tropical
soils, regular tillage accelerates the decomposition of organic matter, which can lead to
nutrient losses. The mixing of soil layers can severely harm certain soil organisms. Soil after
tillage is very prone to soil erosion if left uncovered before the onset of heavy rains.
Zero-tillage systems on the other side help to build up a natural soil structure with a crumbly
top-soil rich in organic matter and full of soil organisms. Nutrient losses are reduced to a
minimum as there is no sudden decomposition of organic matter and nutrients are caught by
a dense network of plant roots. Soil erosion won't be a problem as long as there is a
permanent plant cover or sufficient input of organic material. Last but not least, farmers can
save a lot of labour.
Thus, each organic farmer will have to assess the soil cultivation practice that is most suitable
for his conditions. Zero-tillage can be used only in few crops, mainly perennials. To minimize
the negative impacts of soil cultivation while benefiting from its advantages, the organic
farmer should aim on reducing the number of interventions to the minimum and choose
methods that conserve the natural qualities of the soil.
Soil compaction
If soils are cultivated in wet conditions or burdened with heavy machinery, there is a risk of
soil compaction, which results in suppressed root growth, reduced aeration and water logging.
- 21 -
Where soil compaction is a potential problem, farmers should be aware of the following
aspects:
 The risk of soil compaction is highest when the soil structure is disturbed in wet
conditions
 Do not drive vehicles on your land soon after rains
 Ploughing of wet soils can lead to a smearing of the plough sole
 Soils rich in sand are less prone to soil compaction than soils rich in clay
 High content of soil organic matter reduce the risk of soil compaction
 It is very difficult to restore a good soil structure once soil compaction took place
 Deep tillage in dry conditions and the cultivation of deep rooted plants can help to repair
soil compaction
3.2 Methods to cultivate the soil

Types of soil cultivation
Depending on the aim of the soil cultivation, different cultivation practices are implemented
during different stages of the cropping cycle: after harvesting, before sowing or planting or
while the crop stands.
Post-harvest
In order to accelerate decomposition, the residues of the previous crop are incorporated into
the soil before preparing the seedbed for the next crop. Crop residues, green manure crops
and farmyard manure should be worked only into the topsoil layer (15 to 20 cm), as
decomposition in deeper soil layers is incomplete, producing growth inhibiting substances
which can harm the next crop.
Primary tillage
In annual crops or new plantations, primary tillage is usually done with a plough or a similar
instrument. As a principle, soil cultivation should achieve a flat turning of the top soil and a
loosening of the medium deep soil. Deep turning soil cultivation mixes the soil layers, harms
soil organisms and disturbs the natural structure of the soil.
Seedbed preparation
Before sowing or planting, secondary soil cultivation is done to crush and smoothen the
ploughed surface. Seedbed preparation has the purpose to provide enough loose soil of
appropriate clod size. If weed pressure is high, seedbeds can be prepared early thus allowing
weed seeds to germinate before the crop is sown. Shallow soil cultivation after some days is
sufficient to eliminate the young weed seedlings. Where water logging is a problem, seedbeds
can be established as mounds or ridges.
In-between the crop

Once the crop is established, shallow soil cultivation e.g. by hoeing helps to suppress weeds.
It also enhances the aeration of the soil and at the same time reduces the evaporation of soil
moisture from the deeper soil layers. When crops are temporarily lacking nutrients, shallow
soil cultivation can stimulate the decomposition of organic matter thus making nutrients
available.
- 22 -
3.3 Soil Erosion: A Major Threat
Soil erosion is one of the most serious and irreversible threats to soil fertility. It carries away
the most fertile parts of the soil: the top soil and the finer clay fractions which are rich in
humus and nutrients. Even low erosion rates that are almost invisible can over the years have
a severe impact on soils. It is therefore of vital importance to protect the soil from erosion.
Especially organic farming fully depends on the maintenance of the natural fertility of the soil.
Therefore, this manual allots a full chapter to this topic. In areas, where soil erosion does not
occur, or farmers are already familiar with how to prevent soil erosion, this topic may be
dropped in training courses.
Most parts of Vietnam have distinctly dry and wet seasons. During the dry season, ground
vegetation usually gets scarce and thin, leaving the soil uncovered. As a result, when the rains
arrive, large amount of valuable topsoil can be washed away, leaving the land uneven with
gullies and with soil of low fertility. Not only steep slopes but plain fields are also prone to
soil erosion, and can be severely affected. Besides rain, excessive irrigation can also cause soil
erosion.
How to prevent soil erosion?

There are three general strategies for preventing soil erosion:
 Reducing the erosive power of the rain drops by keeping the soil covered (with vegetation
or mulch)
 Improving the infiltration of the rain water into the soil
 Reducing the speed of the water flowing down the slopes with the help of constructions
On sites that are highly prone to erosion, these three strategies ideally should be combined.
Plant Covers and Mulch

In natural forests, several mechanisms ensure that no erosion of the scarce and valuable top
soil occurs. Several layers of dense canopy break the speed of the rain drops falling on the
ground. Large drops formed on leaves of the tree-tops are caught by the canopy of shrubs
and ground vegetation. The water drops reach the soil at less speed and thus have a lesser
smashing effect on soil crumbles. The ground is directly covered with living plants like ferns,
mosses or seedlings, and with a mixture of rotten plant materials (leaves, bark, twigs, branches
etc.). The top soil is intensively penetrated by roots, fungus and algae and is rich in humus. A
large number of soil organisms such as earthworms maintain a loose and stable structure
where rainwater can infiltrate easily.
In perennial plantations such as orchards, dense vegetation can be achieved by growing

legumes, grass or creepers between the trees. In new tree plantations, fodder grass and arable
crops (such as tubers, pineapple, beans etc.) can be grown until the trees develop a dense
canopy. Not only crops but also grass and weeds can provide the protecting cover. If
possible, weeding should be avoided before and during the rainy season, as weeds help to
protect the soil. If it is necessary to cut the weeds because the competition with the crops is
too strong, the cut weeds should be kept on the spot as a protecting mulch layer.
More details on cover crops can be found in the section on Green Manures ( ).
Mulching means covering the soil with cut plant material of any kind (details are described in
chapter 3.6.). Owing to its multiple functions, mulch is very effective in protecting the soil
from erosion. Even a few leaves or stalks will reduce the erosive power of rain drastically.
- 23 -
Constructions against Soil Erosion
Cultivated slopes are extremely prone to soil erosion. In order to reduce the speed of water
flowing down during heavy rains, constructions along contour lines are useful. Some
constructions against soil erosion are pictured in Figure 6.
Wooden barriers Stone walls
Bunds and trenches Bench terraces

Figure 6 - Some constructions against soil erosion
However, constructions alone will not be sufficient to prevent soil erosion unless they are
combined with plants ("hedgerows"). Plant roots help to enforce the walls, dikes and
trenches, thus preserving them from destruction by heavy rains.
 If constructions are planted with fodder grass, legumes, pineapple or other suitable crops,
they are no longer a loss of space for the farmer and therefore they provide double use.
 When hedges are grown very densely along contour lines, they themselves can become a
living barrier without any construction work. On light slopes, they can contribute to
terracing and levelling the site over the years, as eroded soil gets accumulated at the
hedges.
3.4 Water Conservation

Scarcity of water for agriculture is a common phenomenon in tropical countries. In some
regions it is almost impossible to grow crops without irrigation. Even in areas with large
amounts of rainfall in the rainy season, crops may get short of water during dry periods.
Organic farming aims at optimising the use of on-farm resources and at a sustainable use of
natural resources. Active water retention, water harvesting and storing of water, therefore, are
important topics especially for organic farmers.
Keeping the Water in the Soil

In conventional agriculture, the first idea to overcome shortage of water usually is to install
irrigation facilities. Organic farmers know that it is more important to first improve the water
retention and the infiltration of water into the soil.
- 24 -
How to keep the water in the soil?
During dry periods, some soils are more and some are less in a position to supply crops with
water. The ability of a soil to absorb and store water largely depends on the soil composition
and on the content of organic matter. Soils rich in clay can store up to three times more water
than sandy soils.
Soil organic matter acts as a storage of water, just like a sponge. Therefore, soils rich in
organic matter will preserve their moisture for a longer time. For increasing the content of
organic matter, the application of organic manures, compost, mulch or green manure can be
used as described in chapter 4.
A thin layer of mulch can considerably reduce the evaporation of water from the soil. It
shades the soil from direct sunlight and prevents the soil from getting too warm.
Shallow digging of the dry top soil can help to reduce the drying up of the soil layers beneath
(it breaks the capillary vessels). A better retention of water within the soil saves costs on
irrigation.
Attention: A green manure or cover crop is not always a suitable way of reducing evaporation
from the soil. While a plant cover provides shade and thus reduces sunshine directly reaching
the soil, they are themselves evaporating water through their leaves even more efficiently than
mere soil. When soil moisture gets scarce, plants competing for water with the main crop can
be pruned or cut down, thus serving as mulch.
Increasing the infiltration

During strong rains, only a part of the water infiltrates into the soil. A considerable part flows
away as surface runoff, thus being lost for the crop. In order to get as much of the available
rainwater into the soil, the infiltration of rainwater needs to be increased. Most important for
achieving a high infiltration is to maintain a topsoil with a good soil structure containing many
cavities and pores, e.g. from earthworms. Cover crops and mulch application are suitable to
create such a favourable top soil structure (see chapter 3.4 and 3.6). Further, they help to slow
down the flow of water, thus allowing more time for the infiltration.
On slopes, the infiltration of rainwater can additionally be encouraged through trenches dug
along contour lines. Surface runoff is caught in the trench where it can slowly infiltrate into
the soil. Semi-circular bunds, e.g. around tree crops, have a similar effect. They collect water,
which is flowing down the slope and encourage its infiltration near the root zone of the crop.
On level fields, plant pits can be used. The effect of these "water traps" can be increased if a
layer of mulch is also integrated.
Water Storage
Excess water in the rainy season may be made use of during dry periods. There are many
possibilities of storing rainwater for irrigation, but most of them are labour intensive or costly.
Storing water in ponds has the advantage that fish may be grown, but water is likely to be lost
through infiltration and evaporation. The construction of water tanks may avoid these losses,
but needs appropriate construction materials. To decide whether or not to build water storage
infrastructure, the benefits should be weighed against the costs, including the loss of arable
land.
- 25 -
Irrigation
While the opportunity for irrigation may help farmers to improve their income and livelihood,
there are also some potential negative impacts of irrigated agriculture, which should be
considered:
 When the amount of water extracted from a lake, river or groundwater table exceeds its
replenishment, depletion of the water resource can be the result, with its well known
impact on the eco-system.
 Excessive irrigation in dry or semi-arid areas can cause salinity of the soil, which in the
worst case can make the soil unsuitable for agriculture.
 Intense irrigation can cause soil erosion (for impacts see chapter 3.4).
 Irrigation by sprinkling or flooding can harm the structure of the topsoil. The crumb
structure of the soil may get destroyed and soil particles may accumulate in the pores,
resulting in the formation of a hard crust. This will reduce the aeration of the soil and
harm the soil organisms.
 Improper irrigation may cause stress to the crops, making them more vulnerable to pests
and diseases. Most dry land crops are affected by water logging even if it is of short
duration. Application of irrigation water during the hot period of the day can cause a
shock to plants.
Crop Selection
The major factors that determine the necessity of irrigation are the selection of crops and an
appropriate cropping system. Obviously, not all crops (and not even all varieties of the same
crop) require the same amount of water, and not all need water over the same period of time.
Some crops are very resistant to drought while others are highly susceptible. Deep rooting
crops can extract water from deeper layers of soil and hence they are less sensitive to
temporary droughts.
With the help of irrigation, many crops can nowadays be grown outside their typical agro-
climatic region. This may cause not only the above mentioned negative impacts, but also
some advantages. It may make it possible to cultivate land which would otherwise be
unsuitable for agriculture without irrigation. Or the cultivation of sensitive crops can be
shifted into areas with less pest or disease pressure.
3.5 Mulching
Mulching is the process of covering the topsoil with plant material such as leaves, grass, twigs,
crop residues, straw etc. A mulch cover enhances the activity of soil organisms such as
earthworms. They help to create a soil structure with plenty of smaller and larger pores
through which rainwater can easily infiltrate into the soil, thus reducing surface runoff. As the
mulch material decomposes, it increases the content of organic matter in the soil. Soil organic
matter helps to create a good soil with stable crumb structure. Thus the soil particles will not
be easily carried away by water. Therefore, mulching plays a crucial role in preventing soil
erosion (see chapter 3.4).
In some places, materials such as plastic sheets or even stones are used for covering the soil.
Here, the term ‘mulching’ refers only to the use of organic, degradable plant materials.
What is the use of mulching?

 Protecting the soil from wind and water erosion: soil particles cannot be washed or blown
away.
- 26 -
 Improving the infiltration of rain and irrigation water by maintaining a good soil structure:
no crust is formed, the pores are kept open
 Keeping the soil moist by reducing evaporation: plants need less irrigation or can use the
available rain more efficiently in dry areas or seasons
 Feeding and protecting soil organisms: organic mulch material is an excellent food for soil
organisms and provides suitable conditions for their growth
 Suppressing weed growth: with a sufficient mulch layer, weeds will find it difficult to grow
through it
 Preventing the soil from heating up too much: mulch provides shade to the soil and the
retained moisture keeps it cool
 Providing nutrients to the crops: while decomposing, organic mulch material continuously
releases its nutrients, thus fertilizing the soil
 Increasing the content of soil organic matter: part of the mulch material will be
transformed to humus
Selection of mulch materials

The kind of material used for mulching will greatly influence its effect. Material which easily
decomposes will protect the soil only for a rather short time but will provide nutrients to the
crops while decomposing. Hardy materials will decompose more slowly and therefore cover
the soil for a longer time (see also chapters 4.4 (Green Manures) and 4.5 (Compost)). If the
decomposition of the mulch material should be accelerated, organic manures such as animal
dung may be spread on top of the mulch, thus increasing the nitrogen content.
Where soil erosion is a problem, slowly decomposing mulch material (low nitrogen content,
high C/N) will provide a long-term protection compared to quickly decomposing material.
Sources of mulching material can be the following:

 Weeds or cover crops
 Crop residues
 Grass
 Pruning material from trees
 Cuttings from hedges
 Wastes from agricultural processing or from forestry
A list of different mulching materials, their nitrogen content and their C/N ration is given in
chapter 4.4 (Composting).
Constraints of Mulching
While mulching has a lot of advantages, it can also cause problems in specific situations:
 Some organisms can proliferate too much in the moist and protected conditions of the
mulch layer. Slugs and snails can multiply very quickly under a mulch layer. Ants or
termites which may cause damage to the crops also may find ideal conditions for living.
 When crop residues are used for mulching, in some cases there is an increased risk of
sustaining pests and diseases. Damaging organisms such as stem borers may survive in the
stalks of crops like cotton, corn or sugar cane. Plant material infected with viral or fungal
diseases should not be used if there is a risk that the disease might spread to the next
crop. Crop rotation is very important to overcome these risks.
 When carbon rich materials such as straw or stalks are used for mulching, nitrogen from
the soil may be used by micro-organisms for decomposing the material. Thus, nitrogen
- 27 -
may be temporary not available for plant growth. See for more details on this process the
description of "nitrogen immobilisation" below.
 The major constraint for mulching usually is the availability of organic material. Its
production or collection usually involves labour and may compete with the production of
crops. Recommendations of how to overcome shortage of organic matter are given in
chapter 3.2.
Nitrogen Immobilisation
When organic material is applied to the soil, the decomposing microbes multiply quickly. For
growth, they need nutrients, especially nitrogen, as plants do. If the applied plant material
does not contain sufficient nitrogen (i.e. it has a high C to N ratio, see chapter 4.4), the micro
organisms take it from the soil. This process is called nitrogen immobilisation, as the nitrogen
is fixed temporarily in the microbes and released only after some time. During this time, the
microbes compete with the plants for nitrogen and the crop may suffer from malnutrition.
Nitrogen immobilisation can especially occur when the following materials are applied: straw
or grain husks, material containing wood (e.g. twigs, saw dust), half rotten compost To reduce
this problem, old or rough plant materials should be applied to the soil at least two months
before planting or sowing the main crop.
Application of mulch
If possible, the mulch should be applied before or at the onset of the rainy season, as then the
soil is most vulnerable.
If the layer of mulch is not too thick, seeds or seedlings can be directly sown or planted in
between the mulching material. On vegetable plots it is best to apply mulch only after the
young plants have become somewhat hardier, as they may be harmed by the products of
decomposition from fresh mulch material.
If mulch is applied prior to sowing or planting, the mulch layer should not be too thick in
order to allow seedlings to penetrate it. Mulch can also be applied in established crops, best
directly after digging the soil. It can be applied between the rows, directly around single plants
(especially for tree crops) or evenly spread on the field.
- 28 -
4.Farm Nutrient Balance
Careful nutrient management is an essential part of organic farming. Nutrient losses
should be minimal, and nitrogen losses should not exceed the nitrogen input from
biological N-fixation. The envisioned goal may be an ideal. But an organic farmer
must make a big effort to limit nutrient losses and to effectively distribute the farm's
nutrients within the crop rotation.
4.1 The Farm's Nutrient Resources

One of the main challenges for an organic farmer is securing the crops' nutrient supply. If
there is a lack of nutrients in the fertilizer management plan or if crops show signs of nutrient
deficiency, you can't just go and buy nutrients at the local store. Long-term planning and
measures are needed. Shortages must be prevented, since there are few remedies once a
problem has occurred. All of the farm's nutrient resources must be seen as a whole. Naturally,
the individual parts of the entire farm should be optimised, but nevertheless, all elements are
linked together. This is illustrated in Figure 7. Here, nitrogen is used as an example of how an
important nutrient enters and leaves a farm.
Nutrient resources that can be utilised by organic farmers include:

 Soil (soil nutrient pool)
 Atmosphere
 Purchased fertilizer, feed, straw, minerals, etc.
 Standing crops, including green manure
 Farmyard manure
Figure 7 - Nutrient cycling

Example of a nutrient (N) entering and leaving a farm. The figures are typical for organic farms in Denmark,
but vary a lot between different types of production. The amount of organic matter is shown as t/ha, figures for
nitrogen show kg N/ha.
- 29 -
4.2 Nutrient Cycles – Optimising Nutrient Management in the Farm
This section presents an overview of what farmers can do to influence the cycling of nutrients
on a farm. The objective is to get an understanding of how to regulate the various elements of
a nutrient cycle in order to obtain strong crops that can withstand weeds and pests. The
bottom line is naturally ensuring high yields.
Nutrient recycling in nature

In nature, nutrient recycling results from the close link of above ground and underground life.
Plants generally build more biomass in the roots than in the plant parts above ground. Roots
are rapidly and constantly decomposed and are an important source of food for the soil
organisms. Through their work and the nutrient release that follows their death, the soil
organisms are recycled into food for new plant growth. When the plants die, the recycled
plant matter is again recycled and feeds the soil organisms, thus closing the cycle and slowly
improving soil fertility.
Nutrient recycling on the farm

In contrast to nature, in agriculture, the farmer fertilises the fields to harvest more products.
If a farmer does not want to depend on external inputs to a great extent, he must achieve a
more efficient use of nutrients, i.e. practice a better nutrient management in the farm. This
results in the idea that nutrients should be made available from within the farm organism.
This idea leads to the concept of closed nutrient cycles.
How to optimise nutrient management in the farm

There are three principles of how to optimise nutrient management in the farm.
Principle 1: Minimise losses

 High losses of nutrients result from leaching which is due to a low exchange capacity of
the soil. Leaching of nutrients can be reduced by raising the content of soil organic
matter.
 If dung or compost is kept in water-logged conditions or is exposed to the sun, high
losses of nitrogen may occur. Washout of soluble nutrients from stored dung and
compost can be prevented by proper sheltering and storage. Dung or compost are often
stored in pits where water collects during the rainy season. Nitrogen gets lost through
leaching (if the bottom of the pit is permeable) or through volatilisation (if the water gets
logged in the pit).
 Soil erosion robs the soil of its most fertile part: the top soil, which contains the majority
of nutrients and organic material. This can be prevented by maintaining a dense plant
cover (see chapter 3.4) and with constructions such as terracing.
 Avoid burning of biomass.
 To prevent losses of nitrogen fixed by leguminous plants, practice mixed cropping or
crop rotation with species of high nitrogen demand.
 Nutrient release from soil organic matter when there are no plants present or able to take
it up, leads to considerable nutrient losses.
- 30 -
 Nitrogen is easily lost by Burning plant materials – why is it so disadvantageous?
volatilisation (in the form of
Burning is common in shifting cultivation or for getting rid of
ammonium). The highest losses
occur during the first two hours agricultural wastes as it saves labour. The ash contains
after manure is applied to the nutrients, which are directly available to the plants.
field. Therefore, manure should
be applied in the evening as cool However, burning has many disadvantages:
night temperatures and the  Large amounts of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur are
higher humidity reduce the released as gas and therefore are lost.
losses. Farmyard manure and  The nutrients in the ash are easily washed out with the
slurry should be brought out in first rain.
quantities which the plants can  Plant materials are a much too valuable source of soil
take up in a short time. It should organic matter to be burned.
be worked into the top soil soon  The burning harms beneficial insects and soil
after application. organisms.
However, export of nutrients with
market goods and losses through In organic agriculture, plant materials shall only be burned
leaching and volatilisation and as an exception (e.g. crops effected by diseases or hardy
erosion cannot be avoided perennial weeds). Instead, they should be used for mulching
completely. or composting.
Principle 2: Closed nutrient cycles
 Maximise recycling of plant residues, by-products, dung and farm wastes. Every leaf,
every twig, every husk, every peel, every root, every excrement are valuable sources of
various nutrients and should be returned to the crops.
 Deep-rooting trees and shrubs planted in spare corners collect leached nutrients and can
supply a great deal of mulch material, if intense pruning is done.
 Compost can be made out of almost any organic material from the farm. It is not only a
means of recycling nutrients but also increases the "exchange capacity" (that is, the
capacity to store nutrients) of the soil.
 Mulching is a simple way of recycling nutrients. It helps to keep moisture in the soil and
feeds soil organisms.
 Ashes of stoves are a highly concentrated mixture of nutrients like potassium, calcium,
and magnesium and may be applied to fields or mixed into the compost.
 Different plants have different requirements for nutrients; mixed cropping and crop
rotations help to optimise the use of nutrients in the soil.
Recycled or saved nutrients also mean saved money!
Principle 3: Optimise inputs

 Introduce external organic "wastes", if available. Several cheap organic wastes like coffee
husks, sugarcane trash, rice husks, cotton stalks etc. may be available in the region and
could be used to prepare compost.
 Minerals like rock phosphate or dolomite help to supply scarce nutrients, and are less
prone to leaching and less harmful to the soil than concentrates.
 Nitrogen fixing plants provide free-of-cost nitrogen. They can be planted as cover crops,
food grains, hedges or trees, and also provide firewood, mulch and fodder.
- 31 -
4.3 Farm Nutrient Balance
Before looking at the individual crops or fields of a farm, an important first step is to get an
overview of the total nutrient balance of a farm.
Imagine that you are standing at the farm gate, and are recording all nutrients entering and
leaving the farm in the course of a year. Then you can evaluate if the farm as a whole is
reasonably in balance in relation to the surrounding natural environment and society.
Comparisons with results from other farms will give you an idea of how to make adjustments
on your farm. Finally, you can analyse the distribution of nutrients within the farm itself. In
practical terms, one calculates a farm's net nutrient balance. This is usually done for the
nutrients N, P and K. Please note that a farm's nutrient balance can be negative as well!
In order to calculate a whole-farm nutrient balance, certain data are needed, such as the
amount of products sold and farm inputs purchased (in kg or tons) during one year, as well as
the acreage of nitrogen fixing crops. The various items that are included in the calculation are
presented below.
4.4 Purchased farm inputs

The amount and type of farmer inputs purchased depends a lot on the size and production
type of the farm and on the financial resources of the farmers. The following inputs are
commonly purchased:
Seed, seedlings, etc.

Purchased seed stock is hardly visible in a nutrient balance. However, purchased seed
potatoes and similar inputs do have a certain effect.
Livestock
Purchased livestock usually don't affect a nutrient balance very much. There are exceptions,
e.g., when buying weaner pigs or calves for fattening.
Feedstuffs
Most livestock farmers purchase some feed. One reason may be that they do not have enough
land to ensure feed self-sufficiency; another could be that the crops that can be grown on the
farm aren't good enough when it comes to optimising feeding plans. For example, the amino
acid composition in pig and chicken feed can be insufficient without purchased feed. Feed
rations for dairy cows often lack fat. Purchased feedstuffs often represent a major item in a
nutrient balance.
Minerals (for animal feed)

Phosphorus is usually the major mineral input. Even a daily consumption of only about 100 g
of minerals per animal results in an annual import of 5-6 kg P/ha.
Straw
Purchasing straw as bedding or feed represents a substantial input of N and K. First of all,
straw has a high content of N and K. Secondly, organic livestock farms generally have a
greater need for bedding material. Regulations require all animals to have access to bedded
stalls, and deep litter houses are widespread.
- 32 -
Fertilizers
The amount of fertilizers purchased by organic farms varies considerably. The purchase of
farmyard manure is the most common practice. It is also a good fertilizer, since it contains
many different micronutrients. However, it should be hot composted before used in organic
production. Inorganic fertilizers include substances found in nature, such as rock phosphate.
The regulations for organic production specifically define which products an organic farmer
can buy. The regulations also define the products' sources and amounts that can be used.
A large share of the nutrients in farm products ends up in household wastes or sewage sludge.
These nutrients should naturally be recycled to the land as fertilizers. However, this is only
done to a limited extent, since one is concerned about the waste's contents of heavy metals,
pharmaceutical residues and numerous other chemical substances.
4.5 Farm outputs

It makes a big difference if a farm mainly sells livestock or plant products. Much less nutrients
are exported per ha in milk and meat products than in plant products, e.g., grains or cabbage.
The reason is that most of the nutrients in livestock feed remain and are re-used on the farm
as manure.
In other words, you can already now see that organic crop farms face a substantial challenge.
Farms selling vegetables or fodder crops have even bigger problems than organic cereal farms
or seed growers. Per hectare, such farms export a greater biomass, and thus more nutrients,
than farms that merely sell cereal grains, oilseeds, pulse crops or grass seeds.
In crop husbandry, the export of nutrients can be reduced in several ways:

 Grow crops that minimise the export of nutrients. This applies mainly to seed and grain
crops.
 Introduce some form of livestock husbandry.
 Process plant products on the farm. In this way, rejects and wastes remain on the farm.
 Introduce whole-season green manure in the crop rotation. This reduces the acreage from
which nutrients are sold. (A field of whole-season green manure has numerous other
effects, which will be described later).
4.6 Inputs from the environment

Atmospheric deposits
Atmospheric deposits contribute to steady input of nutrients to the soil. Many of these are
dissolved or suspended in rain. The majority of these nutrients originate as pollution from
industry, power plants, domestic heating and transportation. However, some nutrients
evaporate from the soil, plant residues and animal manure. This mainly applies to nitrogen.
Biological nitrogen fixation

Nitrogen fixation by legumes is by far the most important source of nitrogen for an organic
farm. Organic farmers thus have to make sure that their crop rotations include enough
leguminous plants.
Many different crops can be grown to increase a farm's nitrogen supply through N-fixation:
 Growing a leguminous crops to maturity (e.g., peanut or soybean)
 Growing perennial legumes under fruit tress (e.g. Arachis pintoi)
- 33 -
 Whole-season leguminous green manure ("fallow")
 Leguminous plants in hedgerows (e.g., Tephrosia), possibly combined with a "cut-and-
carry" system
Table 1 on page ___ shows how much nitrogen various crops can fix per year. However,
many different factors affect nitrogen fixation (see figure on page 32), and for the same crop
there can be considerable variations between years or fields. It is important to note that the
more nitrogen is available in the soil, the less atmospheric nitrogen will be fixed by legumes.
The figures for annual nitrogen
fixation are thus difficult to estimate
and somewhat unreliable.
One also has to be aware of how much

nitrogen leaves the farm in sold
products. On organic farms growing
crops, a natural choice is to grow and
sell pulse crops. However, this does
not result in any significant net input of
nitrogen to the farm. The amount of
nitrogen fixed from the atmosphere is
roughly equivalent to the amount of
nitrogen in the pulse crop, see figure
below. The remaining nitrogen, now
bound in the crop residues, may
possibly be easier available to following Figure 8 - Nitrogen balance in a pea field, kg N/ha/year
crops than before (as soil N), but the The pulse crop removes nearly the same amount of nitrogen
total amount has hardly increased. as is fixed from the atmosphere. The yield is 4 ton/ha with a
nitrogen content of about 3.5 %. (Example from Denmark.)
4.7 Nutrient balance assessment

A simplified table for calculations
Considering the different factors described in sections 4.2 - 4.4, we can make a table to assist
the farmers in making a calculation of the nutrient net supply. See the next page for this table.
The next challenge

The calculation of the net nutrient input gives you an indication of the nutrient status of the
entire farm. Even though the farm-level balance may be positive, there can nevertheless be a
nutrient surplus on one field and a deficiency on another. The next challenge is thus to make
sure that there are enough nutrients for each crop. In other words, efficiently utilising the
farm's nutrient resources. The following chapter looks in more detail into the various options
for plant nutrition.
- 34 -
Nutrient net supply
Name of Farmer: Year:
Numbers of ha
1. NUTRIENTS SOLD
IN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS Quantity, kg %N %P %K

Milk, 4% 0 0.53 0.10 0.16
Cattle, live weight 0 3.00 0.80 0.30
Pigs, live weight 0 3.00 0.50 0.30
Poultry, live weight 0 2.70 0.60 0.29
Eggs 0 1.89 0.20 0.16
Livestock products sold, in total **** 0 0 0
IN CROPS Quantity, kg %N %P %K
Rice 3.50 0.36 1.00
Soybean 3.50 0.36 1.00
Peanut 1.80 0.35 0.50
Corn
Sweet potato
Straw (rice) 0.32 0.04 0.79
Potatoes 0.35 0.05 0.50

Carrots 0.15 0.03 0.30
Cauliflower 0.48 0.05 0.32
Broccoli 0.52 0.06 0.40
White cabbage 0.18 0.04 0.25
Onion 0.22 0.04 0.17
Leeks 0.46 0.05 0.24
Lettuce 0.22 0.03 0.32
Spinach 0.51 0.03 0.45
Tomatoes
Squash 0.18 0.03 0.20
Garlic 0.99 0.2 0.53
Sold in crops, in total **** 0 0 0
Nutrients sold, in total **** 0 0 0
2. NUTRIENTS PURCHASED
FERTILIZERS Quantity, kg %N %P %K
Compost 8.5 1.9 8.4
Straw (rice) 0.32 0.04 0.79
Husk (rice) 0.49 0.06 0.52
Manure
Ash 1 12 130
Appatite 0 0.7 35
Fish meal 0 4 15
Bio-Gro
Purchased in fertilizers, in total 0 0 0 0
SEEDS, ETC. Quantity, kg %N %P %K

Seeds, various 0 1.6 0.8 0.3
Seed potato 0 0.35 0.05 0.5
Purchased in seeds etc., in total **** 0 0 0
FEEDSTUFF
- 35 -
Hay, grass 84 0 29.6 4 29
Hay, lucerne 84 0 35 3 27
Purchased in feedstuffs **** 0 0 0
Purchased nutrients, in total **** 0 0 0
Farm-gate nutrient balance Per Hectare: 0 0 0
3. NUTRIENT INPUT FROM THE Numbers of ha Kg N/ha Kg P/ha Kg K/ha

ENVIRONMENT
With rainfall 0 0 0
(15 kg N, 0 kg P, 2 kg K per ha)
N-fixation, per year Var.

Lucerne 100-300 -- --
Green manure, full-
season w. legumes 100-300 -- --
Field beans -- --
Lupin -- --
Peas -- --
Peas in cereals (50%) -- --
Clover for seeds 100-200 -- --
From the environment, in total 0 0 0
Nutrient net supply Numbers of ha Kg N Kg P Kg K
Nutrient net supply, farm in total
NUTRIENT NET SUPPLY,

in total per ha 1
- 36 -
5.Plant Nutrition - Keeping the Balance
The approach to plant nutrition in organic agriculture is fundamentally different from
the practices of conventional agriculture. While conventional agriculture aims at
providing direct nutrition to the plants by using mostly easily soluble mineral
fertilizers, organic farming feeds the plants indirectly by feeding the soil organisms
with organic matter
5.1 The Main Plant Nutrients and how to Ensure their Supply
Macro- and micro-nutrients
Plants require a number of nutrients for healthy growth. The nutrients are generally grouped
into macro-nutrients which are required in considerable amounts (such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium etc.) and micro-nutrients required only in tiny amounts, but
which are nevertheless important (such as zinc, manganese, iron etc.). Organic manures
usually contain all required nutrients in sufficient amounts and in a balanced composition.
Therefore, deficiency of single nutrients can in most cases be avoided by applying compost,
animal manure and other organic sources
Nitrogen
One of the most important nutrients limiting plant growth is the element nitrogen (chemical
sign: N). Nitrogen is needed to build chlorophyll, which gives the leaves their green colour
and enables the plants to gain energy for nutrient uptake and growth. It is also a component
of amino acids, a building block of proteins. Nitrogen can be easily lost from the soil through
leaching (washed out) or volatilisation (it "evaporates"), if not bound to organic matter.
An important source of nitrogen is the fixation of the element from the air through microbes
(rhizobia) associated with certain plant species (especially legumes) (see also chapter 4.5).
Because of their potential to supply nitrogen for other crops, legumes play an important role
in organic farming, be it in the form of pulses, cover crops, green manures, hedges or trees.
To attain its highest level of nitrogen fixing ability, the legume crop needs good growing
conditions.
How can a sufficient supply of nitrogen be ensured?

 Hoeing improves aeration of the soil and encourages the activity of the soil micro-
organisms. The result is a mobilisation of nitrogen from the organic matter.
 Irrigation restores microbial activity in dry soils.
 The incorporation of easily decomposable organic material into the soil can cause a large
amount of bound nitrogen to be released into the soil.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus plays an essential role in the metabolism of plants in all the processes where
transport of energy occurs. Phosphorus improves root growth, and encourages flowering and
ripening of the seeds. It is also essential in livestock nutrition for bone growth and for the
metabolism. Deficiency in phosphorus hinders plant growth resulting in poor root growth
and delay in flowering and ripening. Plants appear stiff, and their older leaves first take on a
dark green colour, and then a reddish one before dying
- 37 -
Most chemical soils are poor in phosphates. Phosphates available to the plant usually are
bound onto soil organic matter or are incorporated into soil micro-organisms, while the soil
solution contains only small amounts of phosphorus. Once phosphate is adsorbed onto soil
particles, only very small quantities can be dissolved, becoming available for plants. The
colonisation of plant roots with mycorrhiza, however, can improve the phosphorus uptake of
plants (see also chapter 3.1.2).
How can the availability of phosphorus be improved?

 The mobility of phosphorus is best at a soil pH of 6.0 to 6.5.
 Rock phosphate is ideally given in addition to elementary sulphur and the bacteria
Thiobacillus. It is best mixed into compost or animal manure to avoid being fixated by
mineral particles and thus becoming almost unavailable to plants.
 Encourage root growth and thus improve phosphorus uptake. Root growth is enhanced
by raising the level of soil organic matter by, for example, covering the soil with mulch (in
dry climate).
 Grow deep rooting plants
 Humidity in the soil is essential in order to make phosphorus available to plants.
 Preferably grow legumes that are adapted to the local conditions.
 Improve the growing conditions for mycorrhiza.
Potassium
Potassium is necessary for the synthesis of amino acids and is involved in the process of
photosynthesis and in the plants ability to develop resistance to diseases. Good supply of
potassium during growth also improves the storing capacity of what? Plants ideally contain
potassium and nitrogen in a 1:1 ratio. Potassium is also essential to animals. It is usually
supplied in sufficient amounts by the fodder plants.
The majority of potassium in the soil is incorporated in mineral particles and thus not readily
available. Some potassium is adsorbed onto the surface of mineral particles and is more easily
available to the plants. Clay and silt soils are rich in potassium.
As potassium is needed most in new tissues and is highly mobile in plants, deficiency results
in a premature death of older plant parts first. Soils low in nitrogen and potassium result in
stunted plants with small leaves and small and few fruits. In general, potassium supply can be
satisfied through weathering of the mineral underground. The need for potassium is strongly
linked to the type of crops being cultivated. Tuber crops are especially sensitive to insufficient
supply of potassium.
How can the supply of potassium be improved?

 By ensuring the recycling of crop residues (especially straw) and animal manure which
contain potassium.
 By avoiding leaching of the soil through the use of a permanent plant cover and by
elevating the level of humus in the soil.
 By covering the soil with mulch.
5.2 Nutrient Supply by Managing Soil Organic Matter

Plant nutrition in organic farming focuses on sound management of the soil organic matter,
which is the main nutrient pool for the plants (beside nitrogen from symbiotic fixation).
- 38 -
The organic farmer uses three main approaches to ensure a continuous nutrient supply from
soil organic matter:
 Varying the input of organic material: The amount and the quality of organic matter,
which is supplied to the soil, influence the content of organic matter in the soil. A regular
supply of organic matter provides the best conditions for a balanced plant nutrition.
 Suitable crop rotation: The crops being grown determine the amount of nutrients the
soil needs in order to maintain its fertility. The farmer arranges the rotation in such a way
that demand and supply of nutrients (e.g. nitrogen from legumes, nutrients from a green
manure crop) fit in the best possible way (see for more details section 5.3).
 Influencing nutrient mobilisation: Soil cultivation improves aeration of the soil and
enhances the activity of soil micro-organisms. The farmer can influence the nutrient
release from humus by cultivating the soil at the appropriate time, to the appropriate
depth, and with the appropriate intensity and frequency (see also chapter 3.2.2). The
activity of soil micro-organisms is very important for ensuring a sufficient nutrient supply
to the plant. If the micro-organisms find suitable conditions for their growth, they can be
very efficient in dissolving nutrients and making them available to plants. Therefore, in
organic agriculture it is important to encourage plant health through creating a biologically
active soil. Even if soil tests find low rates of available nutrient contents, organically
managed soils may still be in a position to provide sufficient nutrients to the plants.
In the rest this chapter, we will take a closer look at how a farmer can affect the cycling of
nutrients between the different parts of the farm. This includes such issues as:
 Choice of crops (associating crops, crop rotation)
 Green manure
 Composting
 Farmyard manure management
5.3 Choice of Crops

Choosing which crops to grow on your farm is a major factor when it comes to on-farm
nutrient cycling. Crops vary considerably with regard to:
 Nutrient requirements
 Length of vegetative growth phase (in which they need nutrients)
 At what time during growth the nutrient requirements are greatest
 At which depth nutrient uptake occurs
 Amount of nutrients in crop residues after harvest
 How long it takes to decompose plant residues
Different needs of different crops

Different plants require different total amounts of nutrients to produce a good yield. Nutrient
demands may also change from one stage of development to the next. Some species have an
especially high demand for specific nutrients. While some plants like full sunlight, others
prefer half-light and again others grow best in the shade. Some plants are nearly indifferent to
light conditions, though all plants need light. If light conditions are not ideal, the plant will be
stressed and will not grow properly. The plant's need for light is in many cases linked to plant
nutrition. Plants growing in poor soils prefer to be shaded more than plants growing under
ideal soil conditions.
- 39 -
Different plant species have different root systems
Some plants generally grow deep reaching taproots while others have rather flat root systems.
Besides forming their typical root systems, they also respond to the characteristics of the soil.
Depending on where water is available in the soil, where nutrients are released from organic
matter or fertilizers, whether stones or compressed soil layers hinder root growth, the roots
will show a different pattern typical of the respective condition. The farmer can also
influence, to a certain extent, the way the plant roots occupy the soil (e.g. through a specific
association of species, through cultural practices such as tilling, ridging and mounding).
To be able to decide which plants are best grown in association with each other and which
sequence of crops is the most appropriate, it is necessary to know how different crops
explore the soil with their roots.
5.4 Associating Crops

Associating crops is defined as the growing of two or more crops in the same field at the
same time. If suitable crops are combined, mixed cultivation can lead to a higher total yield
per area. This is basically due to the more efficient use of space (over and under ground) and
because of beneficial interactions between the mixed crops. See Figure 9.
Figure 9 - Better use of root space in associated crops
View from above View from the side
General conclusions for associating crops:

 Root competition should be minimal (especially during the phase with the highest
demand of nutrients).
 The roots should occupy the soil volume in the best possible way.
Specific conclusions for mixed cropping:

 Crops with strong rooting should be associated or alternated with crops with a weak root
growth.
 Plant distances should be such that nutrient competition between plants is minimized.
 Crops with deep rooting are best grown together with species with shallow root growth.
 Perennial plants can be well associated with seasonal plants.
 Leguminous crops may be grown in association with crops or before crops that have a
high demand for nitrogen.
 Species grown in association should differ in growth habits and the needs for light.
 In associated crops, the periods of most active nutrient uptake should not coincide.
- 40 -
Further benefits of associating crops:
 Diversification: a greater diversity of crops can be grown in the fields. This helps the
farmer to not become dependent on only one crop, and ideally to achieve a continuous
supply of products from the field.
 Reduction of pest and disease attack: The deterring or attracting effects of some plant
species helps to prevent pest attack on other crops. The diversity increases disease
resistance and makes it more difficult for pests and germs to find a certain species.
 Improving soil fertility management: Mixed cropping with legumes, like beans, improves
nitrogen supply of the non-legumes in a later term.
 Weed control: Ideally, associated crops cover the soil faster and grow more densely and
thus suppress weeds more efficiently.
There are different possibilities to associate crops:

 Mixed cropping: Two or more crops are sown at the same time sharing the same space, or
they are sown at the same time in neighbouring rows. One crop may also be sown as a
border crop.
 Cropping in lines: Two or more crops are sown at the same time in neighbouring lines
with wide spacing.
 Graduate cropping: A second crop is being sown before the harvest of the first one.
 Combined cultivation of trees and annual crops.
5.5 Crop Rotation

Problems of monocropping
If the same crop is grown for several consecutive years on the same land, usually yields will
decline (or more fertilizer will be needed to reach the same yield) and health problems will
arise in the crop or field. The extraction of a specific combination of nutrients leads to an
impoverishment of the soil. Soil-borne crop specific diseases and pests may develop, as well.
Weeds, which are well adapted to the conditions offered by the crop (e.g. good light
conditions, typical soil cultivation), may spread and require increased efforts to be controlled.
Benefits of crop rotation

When different crops are grown in sequence in the same field, each crop uses the soil in its
own particular way and thus reduces the risk of nutrient depletion. A well-balanced
alternation of crop species also prevents the development of soil-borne diseases. Therefore,
cultivation pauses must be respected for the same crop and among crops of the same plant
family.
To avoid the development of persistent weeds, plants with a slow youth growth should be
grown after crops with a good weed suppression. A change between deep and flat rooting
crops and between crops building high stalks and species producing a great leaf mass which
covers the soil quickly also helps to suppress the weeds.
The central role of crop rotation in organic farming is further explained in Chapter XX.
5.6 Green Manure
Principal uses of cover crops and green manures
"Green manuring" involves the soil incorporation of any field or forage crop while green or
soon after flowering, for the purpose of soil improvement. A cover crop is any crop grown to
- 41 -
provide soil cover, regardless of whether it is later incorporated. Cover crops are grown
primarily to prevent soil erosion by wind and water. Cover crops and green manures can be
annual, biennial, or perennial herbaceous plants grown in a pure or mixed stand during all or
part of the year. In addition to providing ground cover and, in the case of a legume, fixing
nitrogen, they also help suppress weeds and reduce insect pests and diseases. When cover
crops are planted to reduce nutrient leaching following a main crop, they are often termed
"catch crops."
Potential and Constraints of Green Manures

Green manures have a number of benefits: The following aspects must be considered
before growing green manures:
 They penetrate the soil with their roots,  Labour is required for tillage, sowing, cutting
make it more friable and bind nutrients, and incorporation of plants into the soil, and
which would otherwise be washed away. is most intensive where the amount of
 They suppress weeds and protect the soil helpful equipment available is small.
from erosion and direct sunlight.  If green manures are intercropped with the
 If legume plants are used, nitrogen is fixed main crops, they compete for nutrients,
from the air into the soil. water and light.
 Some green manures can be used as fodder  When old or coarse plant material is
plants or even to provide food for human incorporated into the soil, nitrogen may be
consumption (e.g. beans and peas). temporarily immobilised and therefore
 By decomposing, green manures release all unavailable for plant growth (nitrogen
kinds of nutrients in the correct mixture for immobilisation, see chapter 3.6.2).
the main crops to utilise thus improving their  If food and space are in short supply it may
yield. be more appropriate to grow a food crop
 The incorporated plant material encourages rather than a green manure and recycle the
the activity of soil organisms, and builds up crop residues, or to intercrop a green
organic matter in the soil. This improves soil manure crop with the main crop.
structure and water holding capacity.  The benefits of green manures occur over
the long term and are not always visible
immediately.
But overall, green manuring is an inexpensive way to improve soil fertility and the nutrition of
the main crops grown. Most green manures used worldwide belong to the legume family
("bean" family) since plants from this family have the capacity to fix nitrogen from the air
with their roots and then release it into the soil. In the following section we will explain how
this process of nitrogen fixation works. The sections after that describe how to cultivate the
green manure plants and how to select the most appropriate species for the local situation.
5.7 The Process of Nitrogen-Fixation

Nitrogen-fixing plants are one of the cornerstones of organic farming. Nearly all of the
nitrogen on organic farms is taken directly from the atmosphere. When producing mineral
fertilizer, nitrogen is also taken from the atmosphere, but the transformation of atmospheric
nitrogen to NH4+ or NO3- is (mostly) done with oil or coal as an energy source. About one
litre of oil is needed to produce one kg nitrogen!
- 42 -
Serious cooperation
The fixation of atmospheric nitrogen is a
perfect example of the cooperation
between bacteria and plant roots. The
bacteria are called Rhizobium and live in
the roots of legumes, where they form
characteristic nodules. Inside the nodules,
Rhizobium bacteria can absorb free
nitrogen (N2) from the soil air and
transform it into ammonium (NH4+). The Figure 7 - Rhizobium nodules on pea roots
bacteria use some of the plant's
carbohydrates as an energy source. In return, the plant makes use of some of the nitrogen
fixed by the bacteria. When the host plant dies, the root nodules are decomposed, and a
following crop can use the nitrogen in the nodules.
Some of the bacteria become dormant (inactive), and can thus survive in the soil for many
years. However, if the same host crop is not grown on the same field for a long time, one has
to inoculate the seed. Some Rhizobium species form spores that can be spread with the wind,
so that there is always enough of these in the soil. Therefore, clover, peas and field beans do
not need to be inoculated before seeding.
Growth rhythm of the crop

Legumes' nitrogen fixation is slow early
in the growing season. First, the roots
must be infected by Rhizobium bacteria,
the root nodules formed and the bacteria
have to multiply. Nitrogen fixation peaks
at about the time when the plants flower.
The rate of N-fixation then decreases
until maturity. If a crop is harvested or
grazed, a new vegetative period begins,
and nitrogen fixation increases again. (See
Figure 8)
Easily available nitrogen in the soil

If there is easily available nitrogen in the Figure 8
soil (also called mineral nitrogen, nitrogen Daily nitrogen fixation throughout the growing season
fixation is reduced. It does not matter if The broken line shows a crop that is cut or grazed.
this mineral nitrogen comes from the
breakdown of organic matter or if it has been applied as fertilizer. Legumes prefer taking up
mineral nitrogen from the soil to fixing it themselves from the air.
How much nitrogen can be fixed?

The amount of nitrogen fixed varies considerably between different legume species. Some
legumes are better at fixing nitrogen than others. For example, common beans and peas are
poor fixers and fix less than their own need for nitrogen, while cowpeas, soybeans and faba
beans (Vicia faba) are good nitrogen fixers and will fix all of their nitrogen needs other than
that absorbed from the soil.
It is difficult to estimate exactly how much nitrogen is annually fixed per hectare. But it is
important to be familiar with some of the basics regarding nitrogen fixation. The amount of
annual nitrogen fixation depends on such factors as:
- 43 -
 Crop species
 Growth rhythm of the crop
 Growing conditions in specific year and on specific field
 Amount of easily available N in the soil
5.8 How to Use Green Manures

Green manures are plants grown to accumulate nutrients for the main crop. When they have
built up maximum biomass they are worked into the surface soil. As they are usually cut
before flowering, growing a green manure is thus different from growing a legume crop in the
rotation. Once worked into the soil the fresh plant material releases nutrients quickly and will
be decomposed within a short period of time. Old or coarse material (e.g. straw, twigs) will
decompose at a slower rate than fine material and will therefore contribute more to the build
up of soil organic matter than to fertilizing the crop.
An alternative to sowing a green manure crop in the field is to collect fresh material from
elsewhere and work it into the soil. For example, trees and/or shrubs growing alongside crops
in an agro-forestry system may provide large quantities of green material that can be used as
green manure or for mulching.
Farmers often see the benefits of green manures but many do not use them because they do
not know which species to use and how to include them in their own farming system. It is
therefore important to plan in advance where and when they are to be grown.
Green manures in rotation

Growing green manures as part of a crop
rotation is an important part of an organic
farming system. They help to build soil fertility cabbage tomato
and are particularly useful when grown before
crops that need a lot of nutrients.
Green manures can be used in rotation:

 Whenever there is no crop in the ground,
rather than leaving the land bare and legume leaf
allowing weeds to grow and nutrients to vegetable
leach out of the soil.
 As "catch" crops, when there is only a short
time between main crops.
Figure 9 - Green manure (legume) in a four-
phase crop rotation
Green manures and undersowing

Undersowing involves growing a green manure at the same time as a crop, among the crop
plants. Sometimes they are sown with the crop or slightly later when the crops are already
growing. This reduces competition between the green manure and the crop.
For example, undersowing is sometimes used with maize crops where a green manure is sown
under the young maize plants. The green manure seeds are broadcast sown when the second
weeding of the maize is carried out. In this way when the maize is harvested the green manure
- 44 -
is already established and ready to grow quickly. This method means that no extra time is
spent preparing the land and sowing the green manure.
Before choosing a suitable green manure, you should know a bit about the cover crop's
competitiveness, which depends on both the type of crop and its growth conditions (soil type,
nutrient supply, etc.). The choice of undersown green manure must ensure that it develops
well under the cover crop, but doesn't seriously compete with it. This balance is controlled by
choice of species, seed rate and possibly seeding date. The competitiveness of the green
manure crop can also be controlled by sowing it a few weeks later than the main crop. This
also enables weed harrowing in the main crop. The disadvantage is a more unreliable
establishment of the green manure crop (loose and dry seedbed).
Living Mulch
A living mulch is a cover crop that is interplanted with an annual or perennial cash crop.
Living mulches suppress weeds, reduce soil erosion, enhance soil fertility, and improve water
infiltration. Examples of living mulches in annual cropping systems include overseeding hairy
vetch into corn at the last cultivation, no-till planting of vegetables into subclover,
sweetclover drilled into small grains, and annual ryegrass broadcast into vegetables. Living
mulches in perennial cropping systems are simply the grasses or legumes planted in the
alleyways between rows in orchards, vineyards, Christmas trees, berries, windbreaks, and field
nursery trees to control erosion and provide traction.
Catch Crop
A catch crop is a cover crop established after harvesting the main crop and is used primarily
to reduce nutrient leaching from the soil profile. For example, planting cereal rye following
corn harvest helps to scavenge residual nitrogen, thus reducing the possibility of groundwater
contamination. In this instance, the rye catch crop also functions as a winter cover crop.
Short-term cover crops that fill a niche within a crop rotation are also commonly known as
catch crops.
Forage Crop
Short-rotation forage crops function both as cover crops when they occupy land for
pasturage or haying, and as green manures when they are eventually incorporated or killed for
a no-till mulch. Examples include legume sods of alfalfa, sweet clover, trefoil, red clover, and
white clover, as well as grass-legume sods like fescue-clover pastures. For maximum soil-
improving benefits, the forage should not be grazed or cut for hay during its last growth
period, to allow time for biomass to accumulate prior to killing.
Long term green manures

Green manures can be grown for more than one season and used in the following ways:
 Long-term green manures restore poor soil. Using them over a long time has a greater
benefit on soil fertility and structure of poor soil.
 Long-term green manures can be used when new land is being prepared for use, especially
to help control difficult perennial weeds.
 Long-term green manures are used where land is to have a long fallow period. They can
be sown at the beginning of the fallow of bush-fallow systems. They help to quickly build
up the fertility of the soil and reduce the length of time before the land can be used to
grow crops again.
- 45 -
 Long-term green manures provide green material which can be cut and carried to other
fields. Green material can be harvested from perennial species such as alfalfa (Medicago
sativa), for digging in, mulching, composting or feeding to livestock.
Green manures for mulching

Green manure plants can be cut and left on the soil surface as a mulch. Mulching releases
nutrients slowly but has some advantages:
 Mulching helps to prevent weed growth
 Mulching protects the soil from erosion
 Mulching keeps the soil moist by reducing evaporation
Green manures in agroforestry

Agroforestry is the practice of growing trees and/or shrubs together, with crops and/or
animals. The trees/shrubs act as long term green manures and the leaves can be used for
digging in or as a mulch.
The regular pruning of agroforestry trees such as Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala), Mother
of cocoa (Gliricidia sepium) and Calliandra (Calliandra calothyrsus) during the crop growing
period provides large amounts of green material for digging into the soil and reduces
competition with the main crop. The material can also be used as a mulch. It is spread on the
top soil, usually between crop rows or before a crop has been planted.
As well as improving the soil in the ways described above, trees and shrubs also provide food,
fodder, fuelwood, erosion control and other benefits.
Sowing the green manure:

 If grown within a crop rotation, the time of sowing must be chosen such that the green
manure can be cut down and worked into the soil before the next crop is sown. Timing of
sowing is important. The green manure must be ready to dig in before the crop next is
sown. There should not be a long gap between digging-in the green manure and planting
the next crop. This is to prevent nutrients from the green manure leaching out of the soil,
before being taken up by the next crop.
 Green manures need water for germination and growth, too!
 The ideal seed density must be tested for each individual situation. It depends on the
species chosen.
 In general no additional fertilization is necessary. If legumes are grown in a field for the
first time, inoculation of the seeds with the specific rhizobia may be necessary to profit
from nitrogen fixation of the legume.
 If undersown, the green manure is sown at the same time as the main crop. If it grows
faster than the main crop and competition is too high, it can also be sown later when the
crop has established. Later sowing may be combined with a weeding passage.
Working the green manure into the soil:
- 46 -
 Timing: The time gap between digging in the green manure and planting the next crop
should not be longer than 2 to 3 weeks so as to prevent nutrient losses from the
decomposing green manure.
 Crushing: Green manures are worked in most easily when the plants are still young and
fresh. If the green manure plants are tall or contain bulky and hard plant parts, it is
preferable to chop the plants into pieces to allow easier decomposition. The older the
plants, the longer decomposition will take. The best time to dig in green manure plants is
just before flowering.
 Depth of incorporation: Green manures should not be ploughed deeply into the soil.
Instead they should only be worked in to the surface soil (in heavy soils only 5 to 15 cm
deep, in light soils 10 to maximum 20 cm deep). In warm and humid climates the material
can also be left on the soil surface as a mulch layer.
How to choose the right species?

There is a large variety of plants, especially legumes that can be used as green manure crops.
It is important that appropriate species are chosen. Most importantly they should be adapted
to the local growing conditions, especially rainfall and soil, fit into the crop rotation and not
pose a risk of transmitting diseases and pests to other crops.
Annex 1 gives details on common green manure species and their recommended application.
Further aspects that may be helpful for planning green manuring:

 Can the green manure be undersown into the main crop?
 Is there a period in the year when the green manure does not compete with a crop?
 Is there sufficient water for growing both green manure and main crops?
 Are there suitable species, which are fast growing and deep rooting without spreading too
quickly and thus becoming a weed?
 Can they be grown without too much labour? (sowing with minimum tillage, possibility of
leaving it as a mulch)?
5.9 Composting
Composting is the process of transforming organic material of plant or animal origin into
humus in heaps or pits. Compared with uncontrolled decomposition of organic material,
decomposition in the composting process occurs at a faster rate, reaches higher temperatures
and results in a product of higher quality.
Advantages of Compost
During the composting process, some organic material is transformed into humic substances,
which are relatively resistant to microbial decomposition. Composting thus helps to maintain
or increase soil organic matter content. The other components of compost provide nutrients
and micro-nutrients in the right proportion (as compost is built from plant materials) for
plants to utilise. Compost has both a long and short term effect on plant nutrition as nutrients
are permanently released. Due to its neutral pH, compost improves the availability of
nutrients in acid soils. When mixed with soil, compost can suppress soil borne disease
pathogens. Mature compost is good for plants and does not impede plant roots and micro-
organisms in the soil as do substances released during a rotting process.
Composting certainly has many advantages. However, there are some aspects farmers should
take into consideration before starting compost production. During the decomposition
- 47 -
process some organic matter and nutrients will be lost. Also compost production is labour
intensive and demands regular attention.
The Phases of the Composting Process

Within the process of composting 3 main phases can be distinguished: the heating phase, the
cooling phase and the maturing phase. However, these phases cannot be clearly separated
from one another. See the Figure 11 below.
Figure 11 - The process of composting – how wastes become humus
The heating phase:

 Within 3 days of setting up the compost heap, the temperature in the heap rises to 60 to
70 °C and usually stays at this level for 2–3 weeks. Most of the decomposition occurs
during the heating phase.
 In this phase, it is mainly bacteria which are active. The high temperature is a result of
energy released during conversion of easily decomposable material by the bacteria. The
warm temperature is a typical and important part of the composting process. The heat
destroys diseases pests, weed roots and seeds.
 During this first phase of the composting process the bacteria have a very high oxygen
demand due to the rapid development of their population. High temperatures in the heap
signal that there is an adequate supply of oxygen for the bacteria. If there is not enough
air in the heap, bacterial development will be hindered and the compost will develop an
unpleasant odour.
 Humidity is also essential to the composting process as bacteria require humid conditions
for their work. The need for water is greatest during the heating phase because of high
biological activity and strong evaporation occurring during this phase.
 As the heat increases, the pH of the compost heap rises (i.e. acidity decreases).
The cooling phase:

 Once the material which is easily digested by the bacteria, has been converted, the
temperature in the compost heap declines slowly and will remain at 25–45 °C.
 With the decline in temperature, fungi settle and start the decomposition of straw, fibres
and wooden material. As this decomposition process is slower, the temperature of the
heap does not rise.
- 48 -
 As the temperature drops, the pH of the composting material declines (i.e. acidity
increases).
The maturing phase:

 During the maturing phase nutrients are mineralised and humic acids and antibiotics are
built up.
 Red compost worms and other soil organisms start to inhabit the heap during this phase.
 At the end of this phase the compost has lost about half of its original volume, has the
colour of dark, fertile soil and is ready to use.
 The longer it is stored from now on, the more it looses its quality as a fertilizer, while its
capacity to improve soil structure increases.
 In the maturing phase, the compost needs much less water than in the heating phase.
What to consider when planning a compost heap?

 Location: The compost is ideally located near the source of the composting material and
the fields to which the compost will be applied. The site should be shady and near a water
source. Water logged sites should be avoided. The compost heap should not be placed
too close to houses as the heap may attract rats, snakes and termites etc., and sometimes a
bad odour can not be avoided.
 Composting materials: A compost heap should be set up when a lot of plant material is
available. If the farm does not supply enough plant material, it may be collected from
outside sources.
 Timing: It is easier to produce a good compost during the wet season as the rain saves on
labour for watering.
 Size: The compost heap should reach a size of at least 1 m3 to allow for the correct
composting process and so as to allow sufficient aeration should not be more than 2.5 m
wide and 1.5 m high.
 Method: The chosen method should be appropriate to the climatic conditions.
Add something on collection heaps.
Selecting the primary materials

The composition of the composting material is of major importance. The C/N-ratio and the
structure of the material have a major influence on the composting process. Material which is
rich in nitrogen (low C/N-ratio) does not usually contribute to a good structure and thus does
not allow for good aeration if composted separately. Material which has a good structure
usually has a low nitrogen content (high C/N-ratio) and does not offer enough nitrogen for
the bacteria to feed on. Mixing different materials thus helps to achieve a balanced nutrient
composition and a structure which allows for good aeration.
Material suitable for composting:

 Plant material: a balanced mixture of N-rich and C-rich material.
 Animal dung: cow, pig (rich in K and P), poultry (very rich in P), goat, horse etc.
 Wood ash: contains K, Na, Ca, Mg etc.
 Rock phosphate: the phosphorus binds to the organic material and is thus less fixed to
soil minerals. It is therefore better applied to the compost heap than directly to the soil.
 Small quantities of soil, especially soil rich in clay, or ground rock improve the
composting process and the quality of the compost. They are mixed with the other
material or used to cover the heap to reduce nutrient losses.
- 49 -
Material not suitable for composting:
 Plant material affected by diseases like rust or virus.
 Persistent perennial weeds unless first dried in the sun.
 Materials of unnatural origin such as metal or plastic.
 Material with hard prickles or thorns.
The finer the material, the greater its surface and the easier it can be digested by bacteria. An
ideal length of the material is 2 to 5 cm. If some of the material is smaller (e.g. short grass,
kitchen waste, ash), it must be mixed with more bulky material to ensure a good aeration of
the heap.
To allow an ideal composting process, the mixture should consist of approximately:

 One third bulky material with a rich structure (chopped branches and tree bark, bulky
material separated from previous composts)
 One third medium to fine material with a high C/N-ratio (straw, leaves, crop residues
etc.)
 One third fine material with a low C/N-ratio (household wastes, animal manure etc.)
 Up to 10 % of soil.
Annex 2 gives general information on C/N ratios for many composting materials.
Setting up a compost heap

 Prepare the composting material properly: Chop coarse woody material to increase its
surface area and encourage decomposition by fungi and bacteria.
 If dry, soak the composting material before mixing it.
 At the bottom of the heap, put twigs and branches to allow for good drainage of excess
water.
 Pile up coarse carbon rich and nitrogen rich material in alternating layers.
 Manure or old compost applied to each layer enhances the composting process.
 Thin earth layers between the compost help to prevent nitrogen loss.
 A 10 cm thick cover of straw or leaves in the initial stage, and an impermeable cover
(sacks, plastic sheet etc.) in the final stage prevent potassium and nitrogen being washed
out of the heap. In dry climates, cover the heap with a 15 cm thick layer of mud.
 If the heap is not moist enough, from time to time pour water or liquid manure over the
compost.
Turning the compost

Two to three weeks after building up the compost heap, it will have decreased to about half
its original size. This is the right time to turn it. Turning the compost helps to accelerate the
process, but it is not essential.
Turning has a number of advantages:

 It improves aeration and encourages the process of composting.
 It ensures that material from the outside of the heap can decompose properly by being
put into the centre.
 It allows the quality of the composting process to be checked and for any non ideal
conditions to be improved.
Application of compost
- 50 -
There is no one definite stage of maturity. Compost ripens in an endless process. Compost
can be used as soon as the original composting material is not recognisable anymore. The
compost has then turned into a dark brown or blackish colour and has a pleasant smell.
Compost is a scarce and valuable manure for most organic farmers. Usually it is not possible
to produce sufficient amounts for fertilising all fields. Therefore, farmers should think
carefully about where compost application would be most beneficial. High efficiency is
achieved in nurseries and when planting seedlings or saplings.
For more details, see the project's brochure "Compost Making - Made Easy"
5.10 Vermicomposting
Add.
5.11 Manure
Appropriate Treatment of Farmyard Manure
Depending on whether animals are kept in stables or not (part or full time), farmyard manure
consists of animal excreta and bedding material (usually straw or grass). In many places,
farmyard manure is dried and burned for cooking or is just not recognised as a source of
nutrients and organic matter. By drying or burning farmyard manure, large quantities of
organic matter and nutrients are lost from agricultural systems.
Farmyard manure is an extremely valuable organic manure.
Some characteristics and effects of farmyard manure:

• It contains large amounts of nutrients.
• Only part of the nitrogen content of manure is directly available to plants, while the
remaining
• part is released as the manure decomposes. The nitrogen in animal urine is available in
the short term.
• When dung and urine are mixed, they form a well-balanced source of nutrients for plants.
• The availability of phosphorus and potassium from farmyard manure is similar to that
from chemical fertilizers. Chicken manure is rich in phosphorus.
• Organic manures contribute to the build up of soil organic matter and thus improve soil
fertility.
How to store farmyard manure

Farmyard manure should ideally be collected and stored for a while so as to obtain a manure
of high quality. The best result is achieved if the farmyard manure is composted. Manure
stored under anaerobic conditions (e.g. in water logged pits) is of inferior quality.
Collection of farmyard manure is easiest if the animals are kept in stables. For storage, the
manure should be mixed with dry plant material (straw, grass, crop residues, leaves etc.) to
absorb the liquid. Straw that has been cut or mashed by spreading it out on a roadside can
absorb more water than long straw.
- 51 -
Usually, the manure is stored next to the stable, either in heaps or in pits. It can also be stored
within the stable as a bedding, provided it is covered with fresh bedding material.
In any case, the farmyard manure should be protected from sun, wind and rain. Water logging
as well as drying out should be avoided, so as to avoid nutrient losses. The storage site should
be impermeable and have a slight slope. Ideally, a trench collects the liquid from the manure
heap and the urine from the stable. A dam around the heap prevents uncontrolled in- and
outflow of urine and water.
Storing manure in pits is particularly suitable for dry areas and dry seasons. Storage in pits
reduces the risk of drying out and the need to water the pile. However, there is greater risk of
waterlogging and more effort is required as the pit needs to be dug out. For this method a 90
cm deep pit is dug with a slight slope at the bottom. The bottom is compressed and then first
covered with straw. The pit is filled with layers about 30 cm thick and each layer compressed
and covered with a thin layer of earth. The pit is filled up until it stands about 30 cm above
ground and then covered with 10 cm of soil.
Humidity in the manure heap must be controlled. To avoid nutrient losses, it should neither
be too wet nor too dry.
• If white fungus appears (threads and white spots), the manure is too dry and should be
dampened with water or urine.
• A yellow-green colour and/or bad smell are signs that the manure is too wet and not
sufficiently aerated.
• If the manure shows a brown to black colour throughout the heap, the conditions are
ideal.
Box: Biogas Slurry

Biogas production makes use of the potential of farmyard slurry to produce methane gas which is a cheap
and environmentally sound source of energy. Biogas production is carried out in methane digesters, which
exclude oxygen and allow aerobic fermentation. The liquid waste can then be added to the compost or
applied directly to the crops.
Through the process part of the carbon is transformed to biogas and therefore lost as organic matter.
However, the installation of a biogas system can be costly and management can be rather labour intensive.
5.12 Other available organic fertilisers

Liquid Organic Manures
The plant can absorb nutrients about 20 times faster through the leaves than if they are
applied through the soil. Therefore, liquid manures are helpful to overcome temporary
nutrient shortages. In organic farming they are mainly used to stimulate growth during the
growing season, nutrient uptake through the roots is hindered.
Liquid manure is made from farmyard manure or plant material (plant teas or slurries).
Nutrient rich material is soaked in water for several days or weeks to undergo fermentation.
Frequent stirring encourages microbial activity. The resulting liquid can either be used as a
foliar fertilizer or be applied to the soil.
Mineral Fertilizers
- 52 -
The mineral fertilizers, which are allowed in organic agriculture, are based on ground natural
rock. As mentioned in chapter 4.1, they may only be used as a supplement to organic
manures. If they contain easily soluble nutrients, they can disturb soil life and result in an
unbalanced plant nutrition. In some cases, mineral fertilizers are ecologically questionable as
their collection and transport is energy consuming and in some cases natural habitats are
being destroyed.
Mineral Fertilizers allowed in organic farming – a basic overview
Microbial Fertilizers
Some people and companies recommend the application of microorganisms to the soil to
enhance decomposition processes and control diseases. The microorganisms are usually sold
as ready-to-use products for fertilization and plant protection.
These microbial fertilizers mostly consist of organic material and some source of sugar or
starch, which are fermented together with specific species of microorganisms. The products
are living organisms and need to be applied cautiously. They should not be used when
expired, since the organisms may be dead.
Although some research has been done on the use of microorganisms and positive effects
may be proven, there is still little experience with such products.
To find out the effect of a certain product, it is recommended to test them in small scale and
compare with an untreated plot. Remember though: microbial fertilizers cannot substitute an
appropriate humus management in the farm. Most of the bacteria and fungi present in the
purchased products are generally present in soil. Microbial inocula, therefore, enhance the
presence of the specified organisms.
Some farmers make their own microbial fertilizers to save on costs (see the experience from
Bolivia below).
- 53 -
Some microbes add nutrients to the soil through mineralisation. Others add nitrogen by fixing
it from the atmosphere. These include Rhizobium and Azotobacter. Other microbes, such as
Mycorrhizal fungi, help to supply plants with phosphorus. Azospirillum and Azotobacter are
bacteria that can fix nitrogen. Pseudomonas species are a diverse group of bacteria that can
use a wide range of compounds that plants give off when their roots leak or die. They are able
to solubilize phosphorus and may help to suppress soil borne plant diseases.
- 54 -
6.Weed Management
Weeds are plants that grow in places where they are not wanted. In fact, "weed" is a
functional definition and plants are not weeds all the time. Plants are only considered
weeds when they interfere with human activity, for example farming. The same plant
growing in nature would not be a weed and could even be considered as a useful
plant. In conventional production, farmers often try to clean out the field from all
weeds and his is more and more than by using herbicides. Organic farmers
understand the disadvantages of having weeds but they also see that they have
advantages. Weeds are part of the natural system, which strives to maintain a balance.
All the positive elements of green manures can, in fact, also be attributed to weeds.
The difference, however, is that the weeds are much more difficult to get rid of if they
are not wanted anymore.
6.1 The Nature of Weeds

Weeds grow in unwanted places and often win the growth competition with the crop. There
are several reasons why this happens, but an important one is definitely their good adaptation
to the prevailing conditions. This is why they are often useful indicators of soil fertility and
structure. When soil conditions favour the growth of weeds over the crop it signifies that
there is a problem, which should be tackled. Weeds can take advantage of high salinity for
example, whereas crop plants would encounter stress. Or they can survive well in soil that has
low nutrient availability, such as Imperata cylindrica. These weeds are therefore useful indicators
for infertile soil. The presence of other types of weeds indicates soil compaction, water
logging, acidity, low soil organic matter content etc.
Besides their important function as indicators for soil conditions, weeds have other benefits:
 They can serve as host plants for certain beneficial organisms (see chapter 5.2). This can
make them a valuable instrument in controlling the spread of pests.
 Several weeds are edible for farm animals or even suitable for human consumption.
 Some weeds have a medicinal use.
 Weeds have taken up nutrients from the soil and these can be returned to the soil by
using weeds as mulch or as green manure.
 Weeds can help to prevent soil erosion.
However, weeds may also alter the environment of the crop in a negative way. Light and air
circulation, for example, are reduced between the crop plants. In this darker and more humid
environment, diseases find ideal conditions in which to spread and infect plants.
6.2 Types of weeds

Weeds are usually divided into two main groups, annual weeds that mainly spread through
seeds and perennial weeds that mainly spread through rootstock.
All types of weeds can disperse seeds, but for the perennial weeds, reproduction with seeds is
not very important. The mass of seeds produced by annual weeds, however, can be
enormous. Some species produce as much as 700,000 seeds per plant! Seeds of annual weeds
often spread through the wind, but some weeds spread by their seeds sticking to animals or
- 55 -
people. Other ways for spreading seeds are through water, birds, insects, machinery, and
animal feet. Contaminated seed of crops is, however, also a very common dispersal method.
Seeds of annual weeds can rest in the soil waiting for favourable conditions for periods of up
to 50 - 60 years. Fortunately, the seeds of most species are very small and thus highly
sensitive, and easily die under unfavourable conditions, while in the soil or when germinating.
Other weeds have different strategies, such as having fewer, but stronger seeds, which survive
being turned deep into the soil. Typical species are those with relatively large seeds, such as
cruciferous species.
The small-seeded weeds can thus rapidly multiply, becoming more or less a catastrophe from
just a few mature plants. In extremely weed-sensitive crops, e.g., carrots, the weed pressure
from such small- seeded species may be so heavy that the crop is not profitable - simply too
many hours are needed for hand-weeding.
Other weeds spread through their roots or rhizomes (underground parts of stem) in the soil.
Such weeds are often called perennial weeds. These are normally the most difficult weeds to
deal with since they cannot be pulled out as easily as the annual weeds.
barnyard grass, Echinochloa crus-galli and red sprangletop, Leptochloa chinensis in rice in
Vietnam.
6.3 Managing Weeds
As we have seen many times up to this point, a basic working principle in organic farming is
to prevent problems, rather than to cure them. This applies equally to weed management.
Good weed management in organic farming includes creating conditions, which hinder weeds
from growing at the wrong time and in the wrong place and then become a serious problem
for the crop cultivation. Competition by weeds doesn't harm the crop throughout the whole
cultivation period in the same way. The most sensitive phase of a crop to weed competition is
in its early growth stage. A young plant is vulnerable and depends highly on an ideal nutrient,
light, and water supply for a good development. If it has to compete with weeds at this stage,
the crop may grow weak, which also makes it more vulnerable to pest and disease infections.
Weed competition later in the cultivation period is less harmful. However, some weeds may
cause harvesting problems and reduce the crop yield in that way. Therefore, weeds should not
be completely ignored after the most critical growth period of the crop, but in general, they
become less important.
Planning ahead
As an organic farmer you must be prepared to control weeds in a completely different way
than in conventional farming. Growing a weed-sensitive crop must be planned well in
advance. This implies reducing the amount of viable weed seeds in the soil and reducing the
amount of perennial weeds. This can be achieved with a good crop rotation plan enabling
weed control in the period before weed-sensitive crops are grown. This can also be achieved
by planning the choice of crops for each individual field in advance, but still in accordance
with the same crop rotation principles.
These considerations should influence the selection and timing of weed management
measures. In general, such measures aim at keeping the weed population at a level, which
doesn’t result in economic loss of the crop cultivation or harm its quality.
- 56 -
Crop rotation is the most important weed management tool
Crop rotations are not only extremely important with regard to nutrient supply, diseases and
pests, but also for weed management. Most weeds are adapted to either annual or perennial
crops. It is thus always an advantage to alternate between different types of crops: annuals
with perennials, crops with a short growing season with crops with a long growing season,
strong weed competitors with crops vulnerable to weed competition, etc.. This in itself will
have an extremely regulating effect on weed populations, so that the weeds never get the
chance to become a really big problem.
Crops that compete well with weeds are crops that grow fast and completely cover the soil so
that the weeds do not develop well because of a lack of light. A good example of such a crop
is pumpkin. Crops that allow for easy weed control between their rows, such as potato and
cabbage, can also be considered as crops belonging to this group. At the other hand, crops
that do not have these characteristics are considered vulnerable to weed competition.
Examples are carrots, onions and peas.
When planning a crop rotation, one should base the weed management strategy on the
placement of the most weed-sensitive crops. If you have a vulnerable crop, e.g., carrots, it is
important to plan the rotation so that the amount of both annual and perennial weeds can be
reduced in the preceding years.
Good crop establishment is vital

Strong crops compete much better against weeds than weak ones. The growth rate during the
first few weeks of crop development is especially important for the crop's ability to compete.
Thus, establishing an optimal seedbed or transplanting bed is of major importance. The soil
structure should be homogenous, there should be enough moisture and no plough soles to
hinder root growth.
Seed and plant quality

Healthy, viable seed is necessary in order to ensure good crop establishment. Large seeds
have a bigger "energy lunch box" than small ones. Seed size thus also affects the extent of
weed problems one may encounter. For transplants, it is important that the plants have their
maximum growth rate right after planting. Transplants must not stand too long or under poor
conditions, which can reduce their growth rate. A transplant planted too late (in which root
growth has slowed down) will start growing much slower in the field than one planted with
correct timing. In addition to giving a poorer yield, late transplants are also weaker
competitors against weeds.
Fertilizer placement
It is important to place the fertilizer where it is needed, in other words, not spreading it evenly
in the soil's upper layer. Our cultivated plants generally have larger seeds and a greater growth
potential than most weed species. They can therefore quickly utilise nitrogen, which has been
placed at 8-10 cm depth. In row crops, the fertilizer should be placed at the correct depth and
distance from the row. This allows the crop to utilise the fertilizer optimally, while the weeds
between the rows lack nitrogen. Of course, this is more difficult to achieve with compost or
manure than with mineral fertilisers, but it can be done..
Preventive measures and suppression of weeds

Several preventive measures may be applied at the same time. The importance and
effectiveness of the different methods depend to a large extent on the weed species and the
- 57 -
environmental conditions. However, some methods are very effective for a wide range of
weeds and are therefore regularly used:
1. Mulching (see also chapter 3.6): the weeds find it difficult to receive enough light to grow
and may not be able to pass through the mulch layer. Dry, hardy material, that
decomposes slowly, keeps its effect longer than fresh mulch material.
2. Living green cover: The cover competes successfully against the weeds for light,
nutrients, and water and therefore helps to prevent weed growth by winning the
competition for resources.
3. Sowing time and density:
 Weed pressure during the critical period (youth stage of the crop) can be reduced by
choosing an optimal sowing time.
 One can increase sowing density when high weed pressure is expected.
4. Soil cultivation methods can influence the total weed pressure as well as the composition
of weeds:
 For example, minimum-tillage systems can increase the weed pressure.
 Because weed seeds can germinate between soil cultivation and sowing of the crop, weed
cures before sowing can be effective at reducing weed pressure.
 Use of superficial stubble treatment works against persisting weeds. It should be done
under dry weather conditions to allow the weed roots that have been brought to the
surface to dry out.
5. Prevent dissemination of weeds by eliminating them before seed dispersal.
6. Prevent infestation of crops by weeds by
 Avoiding the introduction of weed seeds into the fields through tools or animals.
 Using only weed free seed material.
Mechanical control
With the necessary preventive measures, weed density can be reduced, but it will hardly be
enough during the critical periods of the crop at the beginning of cultivation. Therefore,
mechanical methods remain an important part of weed management.
Manual weeding is probably the most important one. However, as it's very labour intensive,
reducing weed density as much as possible in the field through crop rotation and other
preventive measures will bring less work later on and should therefore be aimed at. Using the
right tool can increase work efficiency significantly.
- 58 -
7. Pest and Disease Management
In organic farming there is more or less no way to directly control crop diseases and
pests. The challenge is thus to ensure that harmful organisms do not become a
problem - PREVENTION is the key word and MANAGEMENT rather than control
the strategy.
Most management practices are long-term activities that aim at preventing pests and
diseases from affecting a crop. Management focuses on keeping existing pest
populations and diseases low. Control on the other hand is a short-term activity and
focuses on killing pest and disease. The general approach in organic agriculture to
deal with the causes of a problem rather than treating the symptoms also applies for
pest and diseases. Therefore, management is of a much higher priority than control.
7.1 Plant Health

Factors influencing plant health
A healthy plant is less vulnerable to pest and disease infestation. Therefore, a major aim for
the organic farmer is to create conditions, which keep a plant healthy. The interaction
between living organisms and their environment is crucial for a plant's health. In favourable
conditions, the plants own protection mechanisms to fight infections are sufficient. This is
why a well-managed ecosystem can be a successful way of reducing the level of pest or
disease population. Certain crop varieties have more effective mechanisms than others and
therefore have a lower infection risk.
The health condition of a plant depends to a large extend on the fertility of the soil (see
chapters 3.1 and 4.1). When nutrition is well balanced, the plant becomes stronger and is
therefore less vulnerable to infection. Climatic conditions, such as suitable temperatures and
sufficient water supply, are further factors, which are crucial for a healthy plant. If one of
these conditions is not suitable, the plant can become stressed. Stress weakens the defence
mechanisms of plants and makes them easy targets for pests and diseases. One of the most
important points for an organic farmer is therefore to grow healthy plants. This avoids many
pest and disease problems.
The immune system of plants

Plants have their own mechanisms to protect themselves against pests and diseases, which
can be seen as their immune system. Pests and diseases do not randomly attack plants, but
only those, which are not able to fight them. Some plants have the ability to prevent or
restrict infection by one or several disease or pests. This is called resistance. The cultivation
of resistant varieties is an important preventive measure in organic farming to reduce the
damages caused by pests and diseases.
Example: Rice blast management in Vietnam

Farmers in Central Vietnam participated in an Farmer Field School training. Field studies were set up to study
rice blast disease (Pyricularia grisea) and its management strategies. Farmer groups and the National Institute
for Plant Protection conducted variety selection tests over several years, and as a result two blast-resistant
varieties were released. Variety MT6, selected by farmers in Ha Lam, is now planted on 10,000 ha in Quang
Nam Province, having replaced the susceptible variety IR17494.
The farmers found that in their area, rice blast could be managed through the use of resistant varieties in
combination with reduced nitrogen application and reduced seeding rate.
- 59 -
Many factors are influencing the resistance mechanisms of a plant. Some of them have
genetic origins; others are supported by environmental factors. Some plants are resistant
against a wide range of pest and disease, others can only fight one specific insect or pathogen.
Some plants are resistant over their whole vegetation period, others only in certain life stages.
Defence mechanisms
The different defence mechanisms of plants, which make them resistant against certain pest
and disease, can be classified as followed:
1) Non-preference: These are factors, which either deter pests or lack the stimulation to
attract them. Such mechanisms include:
 a colour which doesn't attract a certain pest,
 lack of certain nutritional factors essential for the pest or disease, an unattractive growth
form which doesn’t offer shelter, etc.,
 long or sticky hairs on the leaves which hinder insects' ability to walk or feed on a plant,
 a strong smell of aromatic oils which keeps pests away,
 leaves covered with wax which can not be penetrated easily.
2) Active Defence: The plant is resistant by preventing, harming, or even destroying the
attacking pest. It requires that the plant has contact with the pest or disease. Such
mechanisms include:
 substances in the leaves which inhibit essential steps in the pest's or disease’s metabolism,
 toxic substances in the leaves which harm the pest or disease feeding on it,
 hairs excreting sticky substances which hinder pests' movements.
3) Tolerance: Instead of fighting pests in either of the previously mentioned ways, tolerant
plants reproduce leaves fast enough to recover from the attack without being much
affected in their growth and yield production.
Example: Compensatory growth

An experiment to simulate defoliation to
cabbage plants by leaf feeders (which
includes the notorious diamondback moth)
was done as part of a IPM FFS programme
in Hanoi, Vietnam. Defoliation treatments of 0
(control), 10, 20 and 50% were conducted 1
and 3 weeks after planting.
Within 2 weeks, observations on the number

of leaves and plant height showed that the
defoliation had no obvious effects. Trainees
learned that crops could compensate up to
50 % foliage loss in 2 weeks time and
became convinced that one doesn't
necessarily need to panic when caterpillars
appear on crops.
- 60 -
7.2 Ecology of Pests and Diseases
Ecology is the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. The
environment of an insect or disease consists of physical factors like temperature, wind,
humidity, light, and biological factors such as other members of the species, food sources,
natural enemies and competitors (organisms using the same food source). In agro-ecosystems,
insects are considered as populations rather than individuals. One single insect that eats a leaf
will not cause yield loss in a large field but a population of ten thousand leaf-eating caterpillars
might.
Other members of
the species
Temperature
Wind Competitors
INSECT
Population
Humidity Food sources
Light Natural enemies
Figure 12 - Factors influencing insect ecology
These interrelationships are a reason why insect or pathogen species cannot in all
circumstances grow to large populations and damage crops. The weather conditions may be
unfavourable for a quick life cycle. The plant variety may not be attractive for the insects to
eat or for the pathogen to develop. Or there may be a sufficient number of predators, which
eat the insects. So, the ecological environment determines the growth of the insect population
and has an influence on whether it really becomes a pest or not.
Life cycles of pests

As not all the life stages of a pest are able to attack a plant, it is important to understand their
life cycle. Knowing which life stages of insects or pathogens are damaging the plant, and
when and where they occur, is crucial for implementing effective preventive measures (see
5.1.2). An insect zoo can help to acquire more knowledge about the life cycle of potential
pests.
Furthermore, most insects or pathogens preferably infest the plant in a specific growth stage.
Therefore, the interaction of pest and disease life cycle with the growing periods of the crop is
equally important.
Insect zoo: studying life cycles and predators of insects

To study different stages of a life cycle of insects, try rearing the insects in an insect zoo.
Although it may not be easy to study a full life cycle, it is possible to study some stages, for
example the stages that cause plant damage. Collect some insects or eggs, pupae or
larvae/nymphs from the field and put them in a glass or plastic jar with some fresh leaves
from an unsprayed field. When studying life cycles of predators, feed them with the
- 61 -
appropriate prey. Put some tissue paper in the jar to avoid condensation. Close the jars with
fine netting that permits air circulation and keep them in the shade.
Insect zoos are also suitable to find out which insects (larvae/nymphs to adults) are emerging
from egg masses. They are also suitable for rearing larvae or pupae that you find in the field
and would like to know what species they are. Similarly, one can find out if an insect is a
predator by placing it in an insect zoo together with some prey (e.g. aphids, small caterpillars)
and monitor for a few days. You can also see how effective a predator is by counting the
number of prey eaten per day and compare it with the reproduction speed of the prey insect.
Population dynamics of pest and predators

As previously stated, insects, mites, fungi, bacteria and others develop according to the
environmental conditions. Whenever these are favourable, their population density will grow,
and when they are unfavourable, it will decrease again. This interaction becomes very
important for the population dynamics of pests and their predators. Whenever the pest finds
suitable conditions to grow, it increases its population. As a consequence, the predators that
feed on the pest find more food and therefore increase in number as well. As a consequence
of an increased predator population, however, the pest population will be reduced, as they
serve as food for the predator. A reduced pest population will then limit the food sources for
the predator and its own population will shrink again. That's when the pest population can
increase anew and the whole cycle restarts. This is a general principle of population dynamics,
which applies whenever the food resources are the limiting factor for the predator population
density.
Population maxima Population maxima
Number
of pests
Number of predators Time
Figure 13 - Population dynamics of pests and predators
Impact of pesticides
The overuse (and misuse) of pesticides has led to very serious problems for agriculture in
both temperate and tropical parts of the world. Smallholder rice farmers in Asia have had to
rethink their pest control strategy because over-reliance on pesticides has led to new pest
outbreaks, human health problems, and high input costs.
Two main negative impacts of pesticide use on pest and disease populations are:
1. The resurgence of pest populations after elimination of natural enemies: In some cases,
pesticides can be the cause of pest problems, rather than the cure. As many pesticides also
- 62 -
kill beneficial organisms, pests may reproduce quicker after spraying, since no natural
enemies are there to control their population growth. For the same reason, minor pests
can become major pests. An example is red spider mite, which has many natural enemies
but can cause severe problems in heavily sprayed fields. This phenomenon is known as
resurgence.
2. Development of insecticide-resistant populations: When pesticides are used continuously,
the target pests can adapt themselves to the chemical and become resistant to it.
Resistance means that an insect can tolerate a pesticide without being killed. Many of the
major agricultural pest species now show resistance to some or several pesticides and
hardly any chemical control options remain for these pests. Examples of resistant pests
are: the aphid Myzus persicae, the colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, and
the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella.
Example: The rice brown planthopper

The rice brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) is probably the most serious pest of wetland rice in Asia.
Its feeding causes plants to wilt and become dry. This symptom is called "hopperburn". Brown planthopper
has many natural enemies that occur naturally in most Asian conditions. Excessive use of pesticides
however («pesticide shocks») killed the natural enemies. At the same time, the pest became resistant
against those same pesticides. This led to dramatic outbreaks of brown planthopper infestations. Through
the introduction of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), many farmers learned to recognize the excellent
work of natural enemies and as a consequence, pesticide usage dropped dramatically.
7.3 Preventive Measures

Knowledge about plant health and pest and disease ecology helps the farmer to choose
effective preventive crop protection measures. As many factors influence the development of
pest and disease, it's crucial to intervene at the most sensitive points. This can be
accomplished through the right timing of management practises, a suitable combination of
different methods, or the choice of a selective method.
Some important preventive crop protection measures are the following ones:
1) Selection of adapted and resistant varieties (see chapter 5.1.1)

 Choose varieties which are well adapted to the local environmental conditions
(temperature, nutrient supply, pests and disease pressure), as it allows them to grow
healthy and makes them stronger against infections of pests and diseases.
2) Selection of clean seed and planting material (see section below):

 Use safe seeds which have been inspected for pathogens and weeds at all stages of
production.
 Use planting material from safe sources.
3) Use of suitable cropping systems (see also chapters 4.2 and 4.5):
 Mixed cropping systems: can limit pest and disease pressure as the pest has less host
plants to feed on and more beneficial insect life in a diverse system.
 Crop rotation: reduces the chances of soil born diseases and increases soil fertility.
 Green manuring and cover crops: increases the biological activity in the soil and can
enhance the presence of beneficial organisms (but also of pests; therefore a careful
selection of the proper species is needed!).
- 63 -
4) Use of balanced nutrient management (see also chapter 4.1):
 Moderate fertilization: steady growth makes a plant less vulnerable to infection. Too
much fertilization may result in salt damage to roots, opening the way for secondary
infections.
 Balanced Potassium supply contributes to the prevention of fungi and bacterial infections
5) Input of organic matter:

 Increases micro-organism density and activity in the soil, thus decreasing population
densities of pathogenic and soil borne fungi.
 Stabilises soil structure and thus improves aeration and infiltration of water.
 Supplies substances which strengthen the plant's own protection mechanisms.
6) Application of suitable soil cultivation methods (see also chapter 3.3):

 Facilitates the decomposition of infected plant parts.
 Regulates weeds which serve as hosts for pests and diseases.
 Protects the micro-organisms which regulate soil borne diseases.
7) Use of good water management:

 No water logging: causes stress to the plant, which encourages pathogens infections.
 Avoid water on the foliage, as water borne disease spread with droplets and fungal disease
germinate in water.
8) Conservation and promotion of natural enemies (see chapter 5.2)

 Provide an ideal habitat for natural enemies to grow and reproduce.
 Avoid using products which harm natural enemies.
9) Selection of optimum planting time and spacing:

 Most pests or diseases attack the plant only in a certain life stage; therefore it’s crucial that
this vulnerable life stage doesn’t correspond with the period of high pest density and thus
that the optimal planting time is chosen.
 Sufficient distance between the plants reduces the spread of a disease
 Good aeration of the plants allows leaves to dry off faster, which hinders pathogen
development and infection.
10) Use of proper sanitation measures:

 Remove infected plant parts (leaves, fruits) from the ground to prevent the disease from
spreading.
 Eliminate residues of infected plants after harvesting.
Example: How the use of compost can reduce disease problems

In addition to improving the soil nutrient levels, compost can also reduce disease problems. This is due to
the presence of many different micro-organisms in the compost that either compete with pathogens for
nutrients, produce certain substances (called antibiotics) that reduce pathogen survival and growth, or
parasite on the pathogens. There is also an indirect effect on crop health.
In Hai Phong, North Vietnam, farmers applied compost to a bacterial wilt infected soil. Compared to the
"farmers practice" plot (usual practice in that area) the farmers found that tomato plants developed better
and faster with compost than without, due to the improved soil condition which reduced disease incidence.
- 64 -
Treatment of Seeds
Seeds can be treated to control germs attached to the seed (seed-borne diseases), and/or to
protect against pests and diseases in the soil that can attack seeds, emerging roots or young
seedlings (soil-borne diseases). There are three main methods for seed treatment in organic
farming:
1. Physical: sterilizing by soaking seed in hot water (typically 50–60 ºC),
2. Botanical: by coating seeds with a layer of plant extract, such as crushed garlic.
3. Biological: by coating seeds with a layer of antagonistic fungi.
When seeds are bought from seed companies, attention should be paid to the type of
treatment they underwent, as chemical treatment is not permitted in organic farming.
Example: Seed treatment with biological agents

Seeds can be coated with a layer of biological agents. These agents are usually antagonistic fungi or
bacteria that work against soil-borne pathogens. An example is the bacterium Bacillus subtilis, used as a
seed treatment for the control of a range of seedling pathogens such as Fusarium spp., Pythium spp. and
Rhizoctonia spp. that cause damping-off and root rot. It is effective in a wide range of crops including
soybeans, peanuts, wheat, cotton and leguminous food crops. The antagonistic organisms grow and multiply
in the area around the seedling's roots. They compete with pathogens that attack the new emerging roots
and thus reduce the risk of infestation.
7.4 Promoting Natural Enemies

Natural enemies and their use
There are many different kinds of organisms in a field and not all of them are "pests"; in fact,
many insects can have a beneficial function in the crop ecosystem. Others may be crop
visitors, passing by and resting on the plants or soil, or they may be neutrals that live in the
crop but do not feed on the plants nor influence pest populations as natural enemies. Even
insects that feed on the crop are not necessarily “pests”. Their population may not be large
enough to cause damage to the crop because plants are able to compensate for some damage
without an effect on yields. In addition, the insects can serve as food or as a host for natural
enemies.
Natural enemies are the "friends of the farmer" because

they help farmers to control pests or diseases in crops.
Natural enemies of pests and diseases do not damage
plants and they are harmless to people. They can be
divided into four groups: predators (eating pest
organisms), parasitoids (parasitising pest organisms),
pathogens (causing a disease in pest organisms) and
nematodes.
Characteristics of natural enemies

Predators
 Common predators are spiders, lady beetles, ground
beetles, and syrphid flies.
 Predators usually hunt or set traps to catch a prey to
feed on.
 Predators can feed on many different species of
insects.
- 65 -
Parasitoids
 Parasitoids of pests are commonly wasps or flies.
 Only the larvae are parasitic and they develop on or inside a single insect host.
 Parasitoids are usually smaller than their host.
Pathogens
 Insect-pathogens are fungi, bacteria, or viruses that can infect and kill insects.
 Pathogens require specific conditions (e.g. high humidity, low sunlight) to infect insects
and to multiply.
 Commonly used insect-pathogens are Bacillus thuringiensis (BT), and NPV virus.
Nematodes
 Nematodes are a kind of tiny worm.
 Some nematodes attack plants (e.g. rootknot nematode). Others, called
entomopathogenic nematodes, attack and kill insects.
 Entomopathogenic nematodes are usually only effective against pests in the soil, or in
humid conditions.
Promoting and Managing Natural Enemies

Active populations of natural enemies can effectively control pest and disease organisms and
thus prevent their mass multiplication. Therefore, the organic farmer should try to conserve
natural enemies already present in the crop environment and enhance their impact.
This can be achieved with the following methods:

 Minimize the application of natural pesticides (chemical pesticides anyway are not
permitted in organic farming).
 Allow some pests to live in the field which will serve as food or host for natural enemies.
 Establish a diverse cropping system (e.g. mixed cropping).
 Include host plants providing food or shelter for natural enemies (e.g. flowers which adult
beneficial insects feed on).
- 66 -
7.5 Curative Crop Protection Methods
If all preventive crop protection practices fail to sufficiently prevent economic losses to the
farmer, it may be necessary to take curative action. Curative action means controlling the pest
or disease once it has already infested the crop. Several options exist in organic agriculture:
1) Biological control with natural predators and parasites or antagonistic microbes.

2) Natural pesticides based on herbal preparations or other natural products (covered in
chapter 5.3).
3) Mechanical control with traps or hand picking.
7.5.1 Biological control with natural predators/parasites or antagonistic microbes

Biological control is the use of natural enemies to manage populations of pests and diseases.
This implies that we are dealing with living systems, which are complex and vary from place
to place and from time to time. The basic principles of biological control systems are
explained below in brief..
If populations of natural enemies present in the field are too small to sufficiently control
pests, they can be reared in a laboratory or rearing unit. The reared natural enemies are
released in the crop to boost field populations and keep pest populations down. There are
two approaches to biological control through the release of natural enemies:
 Preventive release of the natural enemies at the beginning of each season. This is used
when the natural enemies could not persist from one cropping season to another due to
unfavourable climate or the absence of the pest. Populations of the natural enemy then
establish and grow during the season.
 Releasing natural enemies when pest populations start to cause damage to crops.
Pathogens are usually used in that way, because they can not persist and spread in the
crop environment without the presence of a host ("pest"). They are also often inexpensive
to produce.
Natural enemies that kill or suppress pests or diseases are often fungi or bacteria. They are
called antagonists or referred to as microbial insecticides or bio-pesticides.
Some commonly used antagonistic microbes are:

 Bacteria such as Bacillus thuringiensis (BT). BT has been available as a commercial microbial
insecticide since the 1960s. Different types of BT are available for the control of
caterpillars and beetles in vegetables and other agricultural crops.
 Viruses such as NPV (nuclearpolyhedrosis virus), effective for control of several
caterpillar pest species. Every insect species, however, requires a specific NPV-species. An
example: The armyworm Spodoptera exigua is a major problem in shallot production in
Indonesia. Since experiments showed that SeNPV (NPV specific for S. exigua) provided
better control than insecticides, farmers have adopted this control method. Many farmers
in West-Sumatra are now producing NPV on-farm.
 Fungi that kill insects, such as Beauveria bassiana. Different strains of this fungus are
commercially available. Several species of fungi can occur naturally in ecosystems. For
example, aphids can be killed by a green or white coloured fungus during humid weather.
 Fungi that work against plant-pathogens. For example Trichoderma sp., widely used in Asia
for prevention of soil-borne diseases such as damping-off and root rots in vegetables.
 Nematodes such as Steinernema carpocapsae control soil insects like cutworms (Agrotis spp.)
in vegetables.
- 67 -
7.5.2 Natural Pesticides
As explained in chapter 5.1, strengthening the plant is the best protection against pests and
disease. Through adapted cultivation methods and with good management of the ecosystem
(beneficial organisms), infestations can be prevented or reduced. In some cases, however,
preventive measures are not sufficient and the damage by a pest or a disease may reach a level
of considerable economic loss. That is when direct control measures with natural pesticides
may become appropriate. Contrary to conventional farming practises, where it has become a
widely held view that pesticides are the best and fastest means to reduce pest damage, organic
farmers know that preventive methods are superior and that only if prevention is not
sufficient, natural pesticides should be applied.
Botanical Pesticides
Some plants contain components that are toxic to insects. When extracted from the plants
and applied on infested crops, these components are called botanical pesticides or botanicals. The
use of plant extracts to control pests is not new. Rotenone (Derris sp.), nicotine (tobacco), and
pyrethrins (Chrysanthemum sp.) have been used widely both in small-scale subsistence farming
as well as in commercial agriculture. Most botanical pesticides are contact, respiratory, or
stomach poisons. Therefore, they are not very selective, but target a broad range of insects.
This means that even beneficial organisms can be affected. Yet the toxicity of botanical
pesticides is usually not very high and their negative effects on beneficial organisms can be
significantly reduced by selective application. Furthermore, botanical pesticides are generally
highly bio-degradable, so that they become inactive within hours or a few days. This reduces
again the negative impact on beneficial organisms and they are relatively environmentally safe.
 However, despite being "natural" and widely used in agricultural systems, some botanicals
may be dangerous for humans and they can be very toxic to natural enemies. Nicotine for
example, derived from the tobacco plant, is one of the most toxic organic poisons for
humans and other warm-blooded animals! Before a new botanical pesticide is applied in a
large scale, its effect on the ecosystem should be tested in a small field experiment. Do not
just use botanical pesticides as a default option! First understand the ecosystem and how
botanicals influence it!
Preparation and Use of Botanical Pesticides

The preparation and use of botanicals requires some know-how, but not much material and
infrastructures. It's a common practice under many traditional agricultural systems. Some
commonly used botanicals are:
 Neem
 Pyrethrum
 Rotenon
 Ginger
 Chilli pepper
 Mexican marigold
 Garlic
Other natural pesticides

Besides extractions of plants, there are some other natural pesticides, which are allowed in
organic farming. Although some of these products have limited selectivity and are not fully
biodegradable, there are situations, when their use is justified. However, in most cases, the
- 68 -
desired effect is best reached in combination with preventive crop protection methods.
Below, some examples:
Disease control:
 Sulphur; against fungal disease,
 Copper; against fungal disease (gets accumulated in the soil and harms soil organisms!),
 Sulphuric acidic argillaceous earth; against fungal disease,
 Ashes; against soil-borne disease,
 Slaked lime; against soil-borne diseases,
 Clay; against fungal diseases,
 Baking soda; against fungal diseases.
Pest control:
 Soft soap solutions; against aphids and other sucking insects,
 Light mineral oil; against various insect pests (harms natural enemies!),
 Sulphur; against spider mites (harms natural enemies!),
 Plant ashes; against ants, leaf miners, stem borers etc.
7.5.3 Traps
Traps can help to reduce the population of certain pests. If used at an early stage, their use
can prevent mass multiplication. There are several types of traps:
 Light traps attract night active flying pest insects.
 Pitfalls catch creeping insects and slugs.
 Sticky traps, e.g. of a colour attracting a certain pest insect.
 Pheromone traps release a sex hormone of the female insect, thus attracting the males,
which get stuck in the trap.
If a large number of small pheromone containers is distributed in an area, the male insects get
confused and will not manage to find the females to reproduce.
Pheromone trap
Light trap Pitfall trap
- 69 -
8. Crop Rotation: Putting it All Together
Crop rotation is the key to organic farming. Rotating crops is not only an issue of
avoiding diseases, but just as much a question of successful nutrient and weed
management.
Crop rotation mirrors the entire farm, reflecting the farmer's ability to utilise his/her
ecological know-how and the farm's biological potential.
8.1 The importance of crop rotation - a review

We will start this chapter with a review of the different aspects of crop rotation that were
already discussed in the previous chapters.
What is crop rotation? Crop rotation is a planned order of specific crops planted on the same
field. Crop rotation also means that succeeding crops are of a different genus, species or
variety than the previous crop. Examples would be barley after wheat, grain crops after
legumes, tomatoes after cabbage, etc. The planned rotation sequence may be for a few years
only or be continuous, such as in organic vegetables production.
Sound rotations are essential components in any organic system. The rotation has to fulfill
several very important roles, including the minimisation of weed, disease and pest problems,
the maintenance of soil organic matter levels and soil structure, the provision of sufficient
nitrogen' and the minimization of nutrient losses. At the same time it has to produce
sufficient feed for livestock and maintain the output of livestock and cash crops so that the
farmer can obtain a satisfactory income. Without sound rotations, the farmer is unlikely
to be able to farm organically successfully, at least in a manner that is sustainable.
Crop rotations have fallen much into disfavour because they require additional planning and
management skills, increasing the complexity of farming. As in other areas of agricultural
production, labour and farming skills has been replaced by the use of chemicals. In the last
several decades, the widespread availability of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer in many nations has
resulted in a major decrease in the cultivation of legumes, with the only exception being
soybean. Mechanisation and the specialisation of farms into livestock is also reducing the
need for pasture and hay crops and is eliminating some fodder crops often used in rotations.
Soil fertility and productivity depend closely on the rotation. Various aspects of this, including
the formation of soil structure, nutrient cycling and organic matter, are discussed in the
previous chapters of this manual.
If the soil is in good condition, with good structure, availability of organic matter and
biological activity, then the natural biological control of soil-borne pests and diseases will be
more effective.
Monocultures and poorly designed rotations lead to soil "tiredness" or exhaustion" - a

situation where growth and development is hindered, causing yield reductions and the
occurrence of plant diseases and pests as a result of reduced resistance on the part of the
crop.
- 70 -
Soil tiredness has several components. The most obvious are nutrient deficiencies or
imbalanced nutrition. Less obvious are the effects of crop residues, which if continuously of
the same type may block the activities of some soil organisms, and toxic root exudates which
are specific to the crop species and which create an allelopathic effect. All these effects serve
to increase the susceptibility of crops to disease.
8.2 Crop rotation is the basis for farm management

After having thought through and planned the farm's crop rotation, you have an excellent
starting point for working out a cropping plan, fertilizer plan and work schedule.
The selection of crops is not only based on which crops can be grown, fed to livestock or
sold. Other considerations include the crops' role in the nutrient cycle, their utilisation of
manure resources, the field ecosystem, their role in weed management and the required field
operations.
Meeting many requirements

There are numerous biological objectives one would like to achieve on an organic farm. Many
of these are linked to choice of crop and crop rotation. However, in real life, many other
considerations than biological ones must be taken into account, as can be seen in Figure 15
below. You may often experience that, due to these other considerations, compromises have
to be made.
For any specific farm, some of the objectives are more important than others. Thus, before
choosing the crops, one has to decide on the most important biological goals for the farm.
What do I need to maintain or improve?
- 71 -
To simplify matters, here are in general five major considerations when selecting crops for
your crop rotation:
1. Value as cash crop or livestock feed.
2. Soil building
3. Conserving nutrients
4. Weed and pest control
5. Labour and equipment demands
These considerations are discussed below in more detail.
Crop value
Although organic crops can usually command a premium price over conventionally grown
crops, this does not mean that any one crop will receive a premium. Because the organic
marketplace is still very small, the supply and demand balance is still very tenuous and can
widely fluctuate from month to month. Some organic farmers recommend contacting
distributors and retailers to learn from them what crops are in high demand. In this way, field
crops can be contracted for in advance which means that the farmer shares the risk with the
distributor on what volume is eventually taken off the field.
The choice of crop and crop rotation are naturally closely linked to the farm type in question.
Does the farm have livestock or not? If so, which species and how many? What is grown and
raised on the farm, what is bought and what is sold? On a mixed farm (animal husbandry
combined with crop production) feed requirements will to a large extent determine which
crops are grown in the rotation. However, it is worth considering changes to feed rations to
allow more flexibility.
Soil building
Green manures play a valuable role in the crop rotation for their ability to rebuild the soil's
structure, conserve moisture, control erosion, and reduce the leaching of nutrients off the
farm (see section 5.6.).
Techniques that help to build up the soil:

 Ensure a balance of cash crops (e.g., corn and soybeans) and soil-conserving cover crops
(green manures).
 Deep-rooted crops (squash, tomato, carrot) should alternate with shallow-rooting crops
(cereals, onions, lettuce) to help keep the soil structure open and assist in drainage.
 Alternate between crops with high-root biomass and low-root biomass. Pasture grasses
with their high root biomass provide soil organisms, particularly earthworms, with food.
 Alternate crops that are high moisture users with plants that require lesser amounts of
moisture.
 Allelopathic crops (rye and sunflowers) should be alternated to prevent a build up of their
natural chemical toxins.
 Alternate nitrogen fixers (legumes) with high nitrogen consumers (corn, cabbage, squash)
Conserving nutrients
Nitrogen is a major nutrient and the key regulator of ecological processes. A considerable
percentage of nitrogen fertilizer never reaches the crop; it is lost to the atmosphere as
nitrogen gas, nitrous oxide, or ammonia, or to the groundwater as nitrate. Most of this loss
occurs where and when there is no crop on the field. The soil is most exposed during two
periods. First, from the time of seeding until the plant has grown big enough to create a
- 72 -
canopy over the soil, and secondly, after the crop is harvested. An organic farmer's priority is
to prevent loss of nutrients from the farm, and to improve the native soil fertility.
Techniques that help conserve nutrients:

 Avoid leaving the soil bare by planting cover crops and practising undersowing.
 Plant green manure crops
 In order to meet all of the farm's requirements from within the system nitrogen-fixing
crops, should alternate with high nitrogen demanding crops.
 Legumes should feature often in the crop rotation. They are an essential part of the crop
rotation because of their ability to fix nitrogen.
 Crops with heavy nutrient demands should be followed by medium or light feeders.
 If possible, include pasture in the crop rotation for its valuable role in recycling nutrients
and in soil conservation. To be nutritious and palatable to livestock, a pasture should
contain a wide variety of grasses and legume.
 Store manure to prevent nutrient runoff and use composted manure.
Weed and pest control

Organic farmers do not usually have major problems with insects and plant diseases in field
crops. The plant and insect diversity on organic farms creates a balance in the agro-ecosystem.
Certain weed and pest problems that do arise are usually traceable to inappropriate crop
rotations.
Techniques that help control weeds:

 Slow-growing crops that are more susceptible to weed invasions should follow weed-
suppressing crops.
 Include plants that have natural weed germination inhibitors (like rye and sunflowers) in
the rotation.
 Include forage legumes in the rotation. They compete well with weeds and choke them
out.
 Grow pure stands of alfalfa, rye and buckwheat to choke out persistent annual weeds.
Specific techniques for pest control:

 Where risks of disease or soil-borne pest problems exist, potential host crops should only
occur in the rotation at appropriate time intervals. Have a four year gap between growing
brassicas or cruciferae or potatoes in the same field, and grow a break crop in the
intervening years.
 Avoid excessive use of cruciferous green manures that encourage certain insect pests.
Labour and equipment demands

One of the advantages to the farmer of growing different crops is that when there is diversity
of activity, the workload is distributed over the year. When large acreages are planted to one
crop, pressure at harvest time is intense. A diversity of crops on the farm will help spread the
workload during the cropping season.
When going through the conversion years, a farmer should consider the labour and
equipment requirements for the different crops in the crop rotation, and ensure that there will
not be a "time crunch". Composting for the first time also needs to be incorporated in the
farmer's schedule and the needed equipment may have to be adapted from existing
equipment.
- 73 -
8.3 Farm types
Selection of the appropriate crop rotation also depends to a large extend on the farm type.
There are significant differences between livestock and crop farms, as well as between farms
with ruminants (cows) and those with monogastric animals (pigs, poultry). These differences
are clearly reflected in the choice of crops and crop rotation. As a result, each of the three
farm types focus on completely different biological objectives.
Crop rotation with animals

When planning a crop rotation for a farm with animal production, one starts by calculating
the roughage requirements and choosing suitable roughage crops. This also includes
determining how much land is needed for free-range enclosures and perhaps grazing land.
The stocking rate (i.e., the number of animals per unit land) has a significant effect on crop
rotation design. In this phase, many different practical and economical considerations need to
be made. These include roughage storage and feeding facilities, access to grazing land, cost
analysis of home-grown versus bought-in feed, etc.
Crop rotation without animals

A successful crop rotation for a farm without any animals cannot be planned step by step, but
is often rather done in a kind of 'trial and error' process. Many different aspects have to be
taken into consideration at the same time.
On crop farms without any livestock, one really has to work hard to achieve the biological
objectives in a crop rotation. Maintaining a nutrient balance is critical, since crop farms export
(sell) much more nutrients than livestock farms. Long-term green manures and other
roughage crops, which can supply lots of nitrogen to the farm, don't fit in very well. Bought-
in manure is an important nutrient source for crop farms, but the amounts thereof are limited
by the rules for organic production. In many areas, the availability of manure is also limited.
A major issue is finding competitive crops, which can effectively suppress weeds and which
can withstand pest attack or disease infestation. Another important aspect is nutrient supply,
which is why having good green manure strategies is so vital for crop farms.
Mixed farms have most advantages

As we have seen, it is easier to run a farm organically if it has a lot of livestock, especially
ruminants, than if it only grows crops. On the other hand, there is currently in Vietnam a
larger demand for organically grown plant products than for animal products.
Economically, it would also be an advantage for a farm to diversify its production. However,
this requires a lot of agronomic know-how, management skills and investments. One way to
achieve greater diversity would be to develop cooperation between neighbouring livestock
and crop farms.
8.4 Important aspects of rotation design - a summary

In general, the following ground rules should be observed:
 Deep rooting crops should follow shallow rooting crops, helping to keep the soil
structure open and assisting drainage.
 Alternate between crops with high and low root biomass. High root biomass provides soil
organisms, particularly earthworms, with material to live on.
- 74 -
 Nitrogen fixing crops should alternate with high N-demand crops; ideally it should be
possible to meet all the farms nitrogen requirements from within the system.
 Crops that develop slowly and are therefore susceptible to weeds should follow weed-
suppressing crops.
 Where a risk of disease or soil-borne pest exists, potential host crops should only occur in
the rotation at appropriate time intervals.
 Wherever possible, catch crops, green manures and under-sowing techniques should be
used as much as possible to keep the soil covered, thereby protecting it from erosion risks
and reducing nutrient leaching.
In addition, the following factors should also be considered:

 Suitability of individual crops with respect to climate and soil.
 Balance between cash and forage crops; seasonal labour requirements and availability;
cultivations and tillage operations.
The next chapter on Organic Vegetables Production will also provide more details on
designing a crop rotation system for organic vegetables.
- 75 -
9. Vegetables Production
Ideally, organic vegetable production should be part of a mixed farm. A balanced crop
rotation ensures a sufficient amount of nutrients and orgaic matter in the soil, and
helps to control troublesome weeds, diseases and pests.
Vegetable production can give high yields and very high gross margins compared to
other farm enterprises. However, this requires optimal growing conditions and
excellent farm management.
9.1 Introduction
For a vegetable grower the minimum conversion period required to obtain organic status is
12 months but many certifiers require a longer conversion. Soil tests for heavy metals should
be conducted on soils where intensive farming has been practiced before an organic
programme begins.
9.2 Soil and water management

Forward planning is critical for the successful production of organic vegetables. The release
of nutrients for plants results from the activity of the microorganisms which process the
organic material in the soil. Therefore, in order to get the best output from compost or other
organic materials there needs to be a time allowance between the application of the compost
etc and planting the crop. In the tight rotations of 4 crops per year (Vinh Phuc and Bac Ninh)
there is no time to rest the soil as the crops are grown in a continuous rotation. In order to
sustain soil fertility in an organic system a green manure crop is required in the rotation.
Green manures1 are essential for building the organic matter levels in the soil, improving soil
structure and fixing nutrients. To include a green manure crop in the rotation is a challenge
as the farmers have expectations and requirements for sustaining their income levels and
balancing their labour input into their crops. A solution could be to work with the farmers to
identify and select higher profit crops that yield for longer periods (tomatoes, beans,
cucumbers, egg plants etc) versus the fresh cut vegetables such as cabbage which have quick
turnaround for cash flow but the unit profit per item is low unless grown in a seasonal
window for a high price.
9.3 Cultivation techniques

The farmers in Sapa appeared less skilled in soil preparation compared to the vegetable
farmers in Vinh Phuc and Bac Ninh. They use the same basic techniques as the lowland
farmers but appear to be spending less time on the preparation of the soil tilth. The basic soil
preparation technique involves ploughing, then leaving the soil open for a short while, then
breaking the clods and shaping the raised beds with hand hoes. The key getting a friable tilth
is to avoid working the soil when it is too wet. Certainly the farmers in Bac Ninh know this as
they explained that their soil preparation had been delayed planting a new crop of tomatoes
due too water logging.
1 Green manures are crops that are specifically planted to build soil fertility and include legumes
- 76 -
The methodologies and rationale for growing various vegetables is well understood and needs
no further discussion at this stage. However, some basic horticultural skills such as planting
bed preparation and planting out seedlings should be included in a Training of Trainers (ToT)
programme especially for Sapa.
There are various measures that can be employed to conserve soil moisture. High levels of
organic matter and a crumbly soil structure helps. Mulching with rice straw or similar is also
an option. For the farmers in Sapa this will be an essential aspect of their production routine
if water shortages are acute as they described.
Plant spacing is largely determined by experience and the types of vegetables being grown.
The farmers in the Sapa trial group were planting their tomatoes too close together suggesting
that they need training in basic horticultural skills whereas the farmers in the other areas
appeared to have the knowledge required to space plants appropriately for the best yields.
In Bac Ninh and Vinh Phuc the farmers had areas with permanent structures that were
covered with protective netting for vegetable growing. The farmers believe that from their
own experience that covered cropping gives the best return. A discussion on the merits of
cover cropping is outside the scope of this assignment. Dr Hung was adamant that covered
cropping provided for the best returns.
9.4 Plant nutrition and nutrient flow

Plant nutrition is based around plants being able to take up both macro and micronutrients
through their feeding roots and through their leaves. The capacity of a soil to provide these
nutrients should be assessed through regular soil testing and also through leaf analysis of
plants, if deficiencies are detected. Soil temperature, moisture content, structure, friability and
drainage also play an important role in the ability of a plant to take up nutrients.
For intensive vegetable growing raised beds are essential as they facilitate free drainage and
through the bed preparation process of working the soil they provide a suitable planting and
seed sowing medium. The width of a raised bed is usually determined by the farmer and how
far they can reach across the bed from the walking path. Ideally a raised bed is never walked
on, so the bed has to be of such a width that the middle of the bed can be easily reached for
weeding and planting from the walking path. Walking on the beds is discouraged as it will
compact the soil, reduce nutrient flow to the plants and impede drainage.
Compost is the core component for providing the soil with plant nutrients. Thus, hot
compost making must be a fundamental process that takes place on-farm.
In well made compost the nutrient content is on average N 2% P 1% and K 2.5%. (See
Appendix 1 for Application rates of compost for selected vegetable crops)
Table 1 Removal on nutrients by selected crops

Yield N P K Mg S
Tonnes/Ha kgs kgs kgs kgs kgs
Cabbage 70 370 85 180 60 80
Spinach 25 120 45 200 35
Tomato 50 140 65 190 25 30
Onion/garlic 35 120 50 160 15 20
- 77 -
Input 150 100 150
Recommendation
Sourced from www.ipni.net/ppiweb/eindia.nsf
An onion crop which extracts Nitrogen 120 kgs, phosphate 50 kgs and K potassium 160 kgs
per hectare from a yield of 35 tonnes/ha has a compost replacement requirement of at least
10 tonnes/ha. This would provide approximately N 200kgs P 100 kgs and K 250 kgs. This
application would cover the nutrient losses from this crop (as shown in above chart).
Compost at 10 tonnes per ha is a generally recommended as a base dressing but soil tests
should also be used to fine tune a soil fertility management programme. Other nutrient
sources will be required for high nitrogen using crops such as cabbage.
Legumes are recommended for building field nitrogen prior to planting high N users such as
cabbage.
A legume crop grown specifically as a green manure can fix up to 180 kgs of N per ha
depending on the season and soil moisture levels. Soybean harvested after 64 days can yield
around 106 kg N/ha in dry season and 140 kgs N/ha in the wet season, cow peas (Vigna
unguicalata) can yield 50-100 kg N/ha 60 days after harvest, cow peas also have the advantage
of being a nutritious stock feed yielding around 3-10 t/ha of dry matter. However, if a short
rotation crop is taken off as stock feed then very little benefit is returned to the soil.
Legumes that could be tested as part of the TOT could include ground nuts, clover
undersown with corn, wing beans’, pigeon pea and sesbania.
See nutrient profiles and compost input recommendations Appendix 1 (Koen den Braber).
As vegetables are a quick return crop with high immediate nutrient requirements it is possible
to identify many of the soil nutrient deficiencies at an early stage. These can be addressed in
several ways and can include a side dressing of compost, mineral inputs or foliar feeds that are
produced on farm. Trace elements in particular can be delivered through the leaves by foliar
feeding. The specific symptoms of various vegetable nutritional disorders are well
documented.
A number of different foliar feeds can be produced on-farm using different plants to provide
the nutrients. These foliar feeds can be applied weekly through the key growing phases of a
plant, once a plant single cut plant such as lettuce has begun to head then the applications
should stop but for fruiting vegetables such as tomato that fruit over a longer period
applications of foliar feeds can extend throughout the growing season. (Method for
producing foliar feeds on farm is described Appendix 4).
9.5 Pest and disease management

The basic principle of organic pest and disease management is that healthy plants have more
resistance to pest and disease attack.
The growing environment should through rotations and cover cropping and general habitat
diversification foster the presence of natural enemies. Good husbandry practices using
pruning, hygiene, mechanical controls such as traps, good soil preparation along with various
- 78 -
botanical control sprays provide the basis for a balanced pest and disease management
programme.
For vegetable production crop rotations and well formed, free draining planting bed
preparation are essential. Rotations reduce the risk of carry over diseases from one crop to
another.
Mixed cropping also helps reduce the risk of pest and disease impacts as these systems
distribute the risk. One crop may be affected and another not. This system also optimizes the
return from small plots. The inclusion of a green manure crop in the rotation may also
provide a habitat for natural enemies (predator strips) and thereby reducing the impact of
pests on other crops and there is the added benefit of different crops providing a beneficial
environment for other crops by providing shade, nitrogen or wind protection. Plant
combinations such as onions and carrots and squash and corn, basil and tomatoes are well
known companion plants.
The removal of diseased and damaged crops from the field before and after harvesting helps
to reduce pest and disease infection levels. Usually the removed plant material can be
composted but severely diseased material should be burned.
The use of various biological controls is permitted under most organic standards but care
should be taken to avoid the use of routine control measures that can become a substitute for
conventional inputs and poor farm management.
Specific plants or crops may be cultivated specifically to serve as predator strips or havens in
which natural predators and beneficial insects can shelter. For example plants of the Apiaceae
family make excellent host plants for various insects as does buck wheat (lace wings). These
strips are planted and cultivated as required, small shrubs can remain as part of the gardening
system.
Pests and Diseases (see IBS Appendix 3 for allowable and restricted inputs)
Some common pests

Leaf miner – generally leaf miner is a minor pest which affects the outer leaves of a plant.
Conventional (non-organic) control methods utilize systemic pesticides which penetrate the
leaf of the plant and can therefore target the leaf miner inside the leaf. Organic controls work
by contact and ingestion are therefore less effective against leaf minor however in favourable
growing conditions leaf minor can generally be ignored as the plant will grow quickly enough
to produce new leaves unaffected by leaf miner also in most situations parasites largely
control leaf miner.
Knowledge of the life cycle should be used to target the pest when it is outside the leaf (egg,
pupae, fly). Neem could be trialed to test it effectiveness as leaf miner control. Traps might
also be effective in trapping the fly before it lays its eggs.
Caterpillars of various kinds - predators are the first line of defense, light traps are also
helpful. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) can be used at planting time for cutworms and sprayed on to
plants during plant growth cycle for control of all caterpillars. Bt is readily available in
Vietnam and trials that were undertaken as part of the ADDA-VNFU Project indicate that
the farmers were pleased with the levels of control gained.
- 79 -
Aphids (various) usually affect soft growth of plants by sucking the sap from stems and
depositing honey dew (host for sooty mould). Aphids are susceptible to a number of parasites
and predators (lady birds, hover fly and lacewings and birds). Controls can include sprays of
soapy water or clean fresh water, garlic and chilli sprays and mineral oil at .5% (5 mls to litre
of water) and sprayed in early morning or when it is cloudy.
Stink bugs (Nezara viridula or green vegetable bug) can become a significant pest particularly
during periods when the soil is dry. Good soil moisture sustained by frequent irrigation can
reduce their impact as does a having clean weed free areas around headlands. Spraying with
clean water can reduce the impact but for serious infestations try crushing the bugs and
mixing the paste with water and spraying back on to the plants and or use an organic pesticide
(from the IBS Standards).
White flies (Aleyrodidea family) can become a problem in areas where air movement is
reduced. There are many controls the most effective is parasitic wasps (Encarsia formasa and
others). These can be encouraged by growing flowering plants near by. Sticky yellow boards,
mineral oil (in selected situations) garlic and chilli sprays are also options.
Meally bugs (Pseudococcus spp) are usually found tucked away within a plant and around the
base. They are predated by ladybirds and the chalcid parasitic wasp. Burn badly infected plant
material. Mineral oil sprays can also be used as a control.
Some common diseases

Phytothera (generally blight) in tomatoes – soil hygiene, good water and air drainage and the
removal of leaves touching the ground as well as selecting hardy varieties can be supported by
the strategic use of copper as a fungicide but there are restrictions on the use of copper and
they must be followed as per the IBS. Also of benefit is liquid compost (a liquid made by
soaking a bag of compost in water overnight and applied weekly at rate of around 20 litres of
fresh clean water to 1 litre of compost tea. See Appendix 4.
Mildew on cucurbits - mildew on plant leaves usually affect the crop late in the growing cycle
and can be usually be ignored as the crop has already matured, however, if mildew infects a
crop early in the growing cycle commonly sulphur is used as a control agent, also lactic acid
(from milk) or bicarbonate of soda can give some control. Liquid compost can also be used.
A solution can be prepared by placing 5 kgs of compost in sack and suspending it in a 100
litre drum of water. After 2 days the liquid can be sprayed onto plants at a ratio of 20:1. These
techniques require trial and error and their effectiveness varies according to the weather at the
timing of the applications.
9.6 Mixed cropping and crop rotation

The principle of a rotation is that the crops that follow on from each other place different
nutritional demands on the soil. The crop requiring the most nutrient follows the green
manure crop and subsequent crops have less nutrient demand. Into this mix there are the
different plants types – roots and tubers such as sweet potato and carrots; leaf vegetables such
as cabbage and fruiting vegetables such as corn, tomatoes.
A typical 4 stage rotation is based around the idea that 25% of the land area is rested at some
stage in the cropping cycle. The duration of this resting phase should be of sufficient time to
enable the soil to build up its fertility to sustain subsequent crops. Thus when rotations are
short the benefit of a green manure crop is lessened and so too are the options for how the
- 80 -
green manure can be used. In longer rotations (12 months or more) green manure may be
harvested for compost making and also as a stock feed, however, the requirements for short
rotation options in Vietnam limit these options.
A 4 stage rotation would be as follows:
• Green manures (sesbania/soybean/peanuts) → leafy crops (eg: cabbage) → fruiting

crops (eg: tomatoes, cucurbits, beans) → root crops (sweet potato). NB: chilli should
be grown in first rotation phase as they place a high nutrient demand on a soil. These
are then followed by less demanding crops.
For Sapa where the rotation always has rice the rotation:
• Year 1 rice → green crop (oats and legume) → rice

• Year 2 rice → vegetable (tomato or cabbage or onion etc) → rice.
Rice could be under-sown with legume such as white clover this would provide for a longer
vegetable growing season. Particularly relevant to tomato production which has a longer
growing season compared to leaf crops. The clover will also help with the N requirements of
the rice. White clover can fix around 120kgs N/ha.
A mixed cropping approach is recommended with several different vegetables grown at the
same time (but given the water shortages during the dry season there will be constraints).
Dr Phu suggested that taro could be grown as a cash crop in Sapa. This is considered to be a
valuable cash crop that is grown using traditional techniques occupying small fields adjacent
to the cattle and pig housing that are nutrient rich and flooded for most of the growing
season. To expand taro production to other fields would require a feasibility study to assess
the availability of resources (fertility and water).
Bac Ninh and Vinh Phuc
A 4 stage rotation would be as follows:
• Green manure crop (12 weeks) → leafy crops (cabbage etc) or corn → tomatoes,
cucurbits, beans → sweet potatoes → green manure crop.
The green crop such as peanuts Arachis hypogea cultivar L 14 will provide 10t/ha of biomass
and 30 kgs N/ha. The green crop would be grown through the wet season when vegetable
prices are low and the returns per crop are proportionally low.
9.7 Maintaining the organic integrity of the production areas

People are the key to maintaining the organic integrity of an organic zone. Well organized
groups of farmers who understand their roles and responsibilities as organic farmers as well as
having confidence in the production techniques are the basis of any organic programme.
Where inputs are sourced from off the farm the suppliers should be informed of their
responsibilities as suppliers of ‘acceptable’ inputs and where possible encouraged to produce
certified organic inputs.
- 81 -
Physical arrangements such as buffer zones and water management are also important as is
the controls inputs sourced off farm such as animal manure. Ideally all manures are generated
on-farm but in many circumstances there are insufficient animals on farm to do this so it is
possible to source manure off farm with provisos. In the case of Bac Ninh where there is
access to large amount of ‘industrial’ animal manure great care must be taken to ensure that if
this product is used it is considered ‘acceptable’. This means that the product is checked for
contaminants (GE feed, heavy metals, other toxins) and if it is accepted as ‘clean’ by the
certifier or the ADDA-VNFU Project a process must be put in place to check the product
regularly.
In all such cases this manure must be hot composted following the recommended (by the
ADDA-VNFU Project) hot composting process.
9.8 Available resources for organic production

Ideally the nutrients required to sustain the fertility are produced on-farm. However, this is
not always practical and some inputs may need to be sourced from outside the farm but this
practice should be discouraged. Before any external input is introduced to an organic farm the
appropriate standards should be checked.
Traditionally plant material for composting has been gathered in nearby wild areas along with
various mulching materials. The survey showed that gathering these materials has limitations
around the time, distance and the quantity available and these materials also they are derived
from unknown sources and therefore cannot be guaranteed organic. For the most part this
practice should be actively discouraged. To sustain an organic vegetable production base most
farmers should aim to increase their compost output from around 2 tonnes to around 10
tonnes. This poses challenges as increasing the amount of compost made will increase in the
amount of plant material to be gathered or produced on farm.
The farmers need to:
• Grow more fertility on farm such as legumes and grasses that can build soil fertility
directly without being composted and where possible use some of the green manure
for composting.
• Become more systematic about how they collect plant material for composting from
their farms. The current practice of gathering materials the day before they are needed
severely limits the amount of material that can be gathered.
• Utilize as wide a range as possible of the organic materials available.
• Build ‘holding pens’ for organic materials and sequentially add to them as materials
come available until there is sufficient for compost making instead of trying to gather
all the materials together in 1 day just prior to compost making.
The ToT should describe a process for identifying the various materials available that are
specific to each project location and set up systems to demonstrate the gathering and storage
process. New options should be trailed particularly different grass species as these can also be
used as stock feed.
Where farmers have sufficient space a green manure crop (legume and grasses) can be grown
and harvested for composting. The green manure crop selected should be able to sustain a
harvest and then regenerate, the major constraint on this process is time.
- 82 -
Overall the survey team was of the view that there are sufficient resources available to the
farmers on or nearby to their farms for them to be able to sustain an organic production
system.
Animal manures
There are various animals kept on site or at least owned by the farmers. Typically the farmers
have a buffalo, pigs, chickens, ducks etc. To be able to use the manure for composting and
fertility building it must be able to be captured and stored.
In Sapa the buffalo roam free for much of the year and this limits the amount of manure that
can be easily captured also the system for housing animals results in most of the manure
being lost into waterways. Pollution of waterways is not acceptable to organic production
principles. The manure must be captured and utilized on-farm ideally through a hot
composting system.
1 buffalo is estimated to produce 4-6 tonnes per year of manure and also urine which can be
captured and or piped to ponds or fields. If 50% of this manure is captured on farm then
there is animal manure on site to produce up to 10 tonnes of compost each year. If the
compost was applied in one application at rate of 10 tonnes/ha there is sufficient base
nutrient for around 10000 sq m of rice and vegetable production.
1 pig should provide at least 200kgs of manure per year which is enough manure for about
800 kgs of compost (25% animal manure and the remainder plant material).
Chickens and other animals usually roam free so are not included in the compost making
input assessment.
In Sapa the uncontrolled free roaming of cattle is a major constraint for organic agriculture as
this makes growing green manure crops impossible unless the areas are fenced off. If grasses
can be grown and managed in protected areas there is the potential to produce a large
percentage of the animals green feed for cut and carry. Guatemala grass Tripsacum fasciculatum
can produce up to 150 t/ha of green feed, 1 cow requires 30 kgs of green feed per day. This
equates to 1 ha of green feed grass supporting up to 10-13 cows. In areas where the growing
season might be exceptionally cool or dry these figures would fluctuate but the concept
remains. For lowland farmers where there are more green feed options there is the potential
for 1000 sq m to produce sufficient green feed (grasses and legumes) to feed 1 cow for 1 year
and provide around 3500 kgs of green material for composting and mulching. There is the
added benefit that grasses grown as perennials will greatly improve the soil they are growing
as they have dense root masses which add organic matter to the soil.
The IBS lists various mineral inputs that can be used either as permitted or restricted inputs
(restricted status requires that the products are approved as acceptable by a certifier or other
appropriate body).
Phosphate (apertite) – a local mineral phosphate is available in Lao Cai but the supplier is
reluctant to sell the product to outside sources when only small amounts are requested. (pers.
comm. Koen.den Braber)
Potassium –can be obtained from wood and plant ash (8% K and 50% C). Traditional
practice involves the burning of rice straw and rice husk to produce a potassium source.
- 83 -
There are other techniques which may also be considered including soil smouldering. This
technique for releasing soil nutrients needs further discussion with a potential certifier.
Soil conditioners made from worm casts can provide a wide range of soil nutrients. A trial to
test the feasibility of each farmer setting up a worm farm is recommended.
9.9 A qualitative and quantitative description of the nutrition

circulation on the farm
With appropriate planning most farmers should be able to generate a large percentage of their
fertility on-farm. Inputs sourced off the farm must be either organic or free of contaminants
that could compromise the organic integrity of a farm.
Balancing soil nutrition using organic techniques takes time as described above (2.3 and 3.3)
and the process is incremental. As the soil improves so does the ability of the plants to utilize
nutrients that are being made available in the soil.
The process should be underpinned by regular:
• soil testing
• leaf analysis
• field observations to check plants for deficiencies
• yield assessments for volume and quality.
Assessments for the nutrients a crop removes and the amount of input required to replace
these nutrients is outlined in Annex 2.
9.9.1
- 84 -
10 Litchi Production
10.1 Introduction
There are two main varieties of Litchi grown in Bac Giang they are Vai Tau (ripens in May)
and Vai Ta (ripens July-August). Vai Ta is the most commonly grown variety in Bac Giang, as
it is sweeter and more popular.
In the intensive mono cultural environment of Bac Giang traditional and organic farming
practices are a distant memory. The farmer’s mindset is geared to follow a number of
management practices that are focused around maximizing production that includes the use
of excessive amounts of pesticide. The rationale for these practices is aimed at maximizing
profits and has led to tree damage, soil compaction and yield loss as well as environmental
damage. In this context developing a model for the conversion of a conventional litchi
orchard to organic production may seem daunting but it is has been done with other crops in
similar circumstances.
The description below is for the conversion of an established litchi orchard to an organic
management programme. Over laying organic best practice onto this complex situation will
be a major challenge and is likely to stumble upon unforeseen problems particularly around
pest management where it will take time to build up the insect predator populations and
farmer confidence in organic management techniques. The alternative of starting an organic
orchard from scratch has not been considered as part of this report nor is it considered the
most appropriate way of promoting organic production in litchi.
The minimum conversion time for a conventional orchard to organic status is 18 months
(IBS).

To improve the release of nutrients to plants the soil must be able to ‘breathe’. Soil
compaction caused by the ongoing use of chemical fertilizers and herbicides contributes to
the uneven release of nutrients to plants. In an organic system compost should be applied to
build organic matter levels in the soil and encourage microorganisms to work the soil. Deep
rooting plants grown around the drip line or the inter row areas can also be used to open up
the soil and to provide organic matter (also host beneficial insects).
Where drainage is impeded and the water table is high (as in old padi fields) water logging
problems can lead to root diseases such as phytothera. The common cure for infected plants
is a treatment with phosphoric acid but this practice not generally accepted by organic
certifiers. To reduce the potential incidence of phytothera every effort should be made to
improve on-farm drainage. This can be done by planting new trees on mounds, improving
internal drainage. Ideally the sites selected for organic production would be located on
sloping land or land where there is free draining soil.
Generally the soil is a silt loam and appears low in organic matter. It is easy to work and
requires minimal tillage to get a good planting bed established. Vegetables can be grown
- 85 -
within the farms and established on small raised beds that are prepared by hand. Care should
be taken around the drip line of trees to avoid damaging young feeding roots.
Where litchi is irrigated the water is usually drawn from shallow wells on farm. The well water
should be checked for heavy metals before being used on an organic farm.

One of the major factors limiting fruit production in litchi is lack of a suitable nutrition
programme. Yields may be low for many reasons but a common cause appears to be flushes
of new growth around flowering. The late flush new wood does not fruit and usually grows in
response to weather changes and or poorly timed applications of nitrogen. Deficiencies of N
and K, and to a lesser extent of B, Zn and Cu, may also limit yield by restricting the set and
subsequent development of fruit.
The conventional strategy for nutrient management is focused around understanding the
growth pattern and the NPK nutrient requirements to match these stages in the growth cycle.
The annual growth of litchi is divided into 3 phases:

1. Last harvest to autumn shoot maturation stage (ASMS)
2. From ASMS to flowering stage (FS)
3. FS to next harvest
The nutritional state of each phase is characterized by its physiological demands by the tree.
Conventional practice advocates that during the first stage the nutrient supply should match
the recovery of the body of the tree and developing shoots. The development of flower buds
and flowering as well as fruit setting will be the main physiological change in the second phase
and in the last phase the focus is fruit enlargement and maturation.
The nutrient demand for each of these phases varies according to the growth phase of the
tree. The requirement for N is higher in Phase 1 and a higher requirement of K for Phase 3.
The recommended chemical input is a dressing for mature trees (8-15 years) is around 3
kgs/tree of NPK for each of these phases. Phase 1 - 20:10:12, Phase 2 - 13:12:21 and Phase -
10:20:20. Input schedules vary a great deal but generally aim to keep the nutrient levels
flowing to the plant for most of the year, particularly the fruiting season.
The Bac Giang farmers appear to be applying around 5 kgs of NPK per tree per year in 3
applications. This is less than generally recommended guidelines from other countries but the
farmers appear happy with their current input programme.
To overlay an organic programme that will trigger the growth responses in the trees in the
same way as a conventional NPK fertilizer input programme is difficult. Organic nutrients are
for the most part not water soluble and therefore the release of nutrients requires the
biological conditions in the soil to be favourable and this process takes time to activate. The
focus of an organic programme must be to develop the soil environment and work to
establish a tree growth pattern that provides for a stable fruiting pattern.
An organic programme will include compost, mineral inputs and nitrogen from leguminous
plants and foliar feeding. Liquid manure from pigs has been used in the past but there are
now no pigs so other sources of liquid manure will need to be found. Rabbits and chickens
have been substituted for pigs. In general standards allow for the use of liquid animal manure
provided that the animals were raised on-farm by the farmer and there is no risk of
- 86 -
contamination from heavy metals (from the feed or health treatments such as copper) or
antibiotics. If there is doubt about the suitability of an animal manure it should be tested
appropriately.
Compost input – the current NPK application is 5 kgs/tree in 2-3 dressings. This equates to a
compost equivalent of 50 kgs/tree, 300 trees equates to 15 tonnes (2 buffalos plus green
material).
Nitrogen from legumes – the opportunity to produce nitrogen on site is constrained by the
extent to which the trees shade the ground. Growing legumes will require open areas (strips
between the rows) into which legumes can be sown and managed. Older trees will need to be
pruned back to provide open areas and younger trees pruned regularly to keep the growing
strips open. Provided that about 10% of the orchard floor can be used for growing legumes
and there is an even distribution of legume strips throughout the orchard the equivalent of 20
kgs of N/ha might be available to the trees plus the added input of organic matter.
Trace elements from foliar feeding – boron appears to be an important trace element. To
determine whether this is required a leaf analysis should be carried out at fruit set. Boron can
be added as a trace element if required. Various foliar feeds can be made on farm from
different plants and animal manures (rabbits, deep rooting plants, legumes etc).
Use of limestone – used regularly for ph management but the rationale was not explained
by the farmers. Litchi is known to grow in soils with a ph of 5.0 to 5.5 but also benefit from
the use of limestone to lift the ph to around 6.0.
A few farmers occasionally use pond mud to provide nutrients – a thin layer every 3 years
(approx) to every tree. While there may be some nutrient addition to the farm from pond
mud the practice is limited to a few farms with ponds. Organic standards do not prohibit the
use of pond mud provided that the water flowing in to the pond is not enriched by NPK
from conventional farming systems or contaminants such as heavy metals. Recommend
samples be taken and tested to evaluate the status of pond mud on farms converting to
organic.
Traditional knowledge to cut and bury weeds around tree drip zone is still practiced and
should be further developed in an organic programme. Inter-row strips of legume or mixed
species plantings of more than 2 meters in width are ideal but strips of any width should be
encouraged.

The farmers described a whole range of what they think are difficult pests and diseases. The
actual threat of these pests and diseases to production should not be over emphasized but it is
understandable the farmers are conservative and fearful of their potential impacts on plant
growth and fruit quality. These pests and diseases are all manageable in an organic system
would need different management mechanisms and a market prepared to appreciate the value
of fruit that may taste great but have slightly blemished skins.
The pest and disease controls will require the use a wide variety of mechanical, botanical and
biological control measures. These techniques will need to be tested within the context of a
converting orchard before a definitive programme can be presented to organic litchi growers.
Note that pyrethroids are often used in IPM and sustainable agriculture programmes but they
- 87 -
should be avoided in organic agriculture as they are indiscriminant in the way they kill both
pests and their natural enemies
Pest problems
• Tessaratoma papillosa (Drury) litche stink bug – there are reports that work has been
done with bacterial control using beauvaria virus as a control mechanism (more
information is required to know how to get the virus for use in litchi in Vietnam and
the potential wider impacts assessed).
• Litchi Barking miner conopomorpha sinensis is considered a major pest. An application of
lime sulphur or a bourdeau mixture to the woody areas affected (not the foliage)
should reduce the impact. Control is likely to be important as the damaged bark may
host other pests. Manually scrubbing the bark may also work followed by a wipe
down with old engine oil on the infected areas but the oil must not touch the leaves
or young bark). Girdling may also compound the barking minor problem, by cutting
back on girdling the incidence of barking minor may be reduced as the plants will be
less stressed and open to attack.
• Stem borer (Cramella smellem) – prune out by hand. The control of stem borer
requires vigilance and early detection is essential in order to minimize the affect on a
tree.
• Erinose mite (Eriophyes litchi) is a major problem which is likely to be compounded by the
lack of predators due to over spraying. If sprays are withdrawn completely the initial response
could be of plague proportions. The recommended organic control is the application of
wetable sulphur sprays. The mite lives in the trees throughout the year so hygiene also
plays a role in its control. Fresh water sprayed at pressure on to trees can also disturb
mites and reduce their ability to breed and infect plants.
There are many predators particularly predatory mites are known and some used in biological
control programs around the world including China. Leaf infestations of mites are often less
damaging to older plants but care should be taken with younger trees. Infected parts of the
trees can be pruned off and burned. If treatments are required only those trees that are
infected should be treated. Insecticidal soaps and oils can provide an effective backup if
required.
Fungal problems for Diseases:

• Phytothera – the conventional treatment uses Phosphoric acid, this is discouraged in
organic farming. High levels of organic matter applied as mulch around a tree is
considered to be the natural best inhibitor of phytothera in the soil.
• (Do nam) Collectrotrichum (discolouring of the fruits) wetable sulphur (sprayed to
trees), post harvest washing of fruits.
Note: there are other pests and diseases but the above were identified by the farmers as the
main problems.
Note: with reference to M. Alterie and Andre Leu. ‘Cover crops can also provide a harbor for
beneficial insects by providing them with food and shelter. Reductions in mite and grape leafhopper populations
have been observed in cover-cropped systems (Alterie et al. 2005). Insectary blends have been planted as cover
crops to encourage the presence of beneficials in the field and act as corridors for beneficials to move from one
area of the vineyard to the next or from nearby ecosystems to the vineyard (Alterie et al. 2005). (If you choose
to plant an insectary, it is important to choose species of plants that attract insects that will positively impact
your orchard.)’
- 88 -
The ToT should provide descriptions of the life cycles of the different pests and diseases and
a list of insectary plants and how and when they can be sown or planted.
Insectaries provide food and shelter for predators. They include various plants and can be
developed in many ways.
• Sown in to the orchard sward (vegetation growing amongst trees) and left to grow –
for tea, litchi etc.
• In the headlands of tree rows.
• Along shelter and buffer lines.
• As specifically sown beds amongst rows of vegetables.
Once established insectaries should be maintained regularly through over sowing and in some
cases mowing or cutting to keep them vigourous.
Animal health issue around pigs
The pigs in this area had died or killed due to disease swine fever/ foot and mouth. There are
no solutions to this problem apart from diversifying into other animals such as rabbits but
small numbers of these animals are not going to provide the nutrient required to sustain a
crop.
10.5 Orchard management

Litchi is a perennial tree crop, with some inter planting of household vegetables, taro and
other fruit trees such as mango, citrus (lime) and persimmon.
The farmers describe the fruiting habit as biennial (fruits heavily every second year). This
habit is reported to be compounded by the farmer’s habit of girdling the tree to regulate
nutrients to the growing points. Once a biennial fruiting pattern has been established it is hard
to change. In an organic system girdling should be discouraged and for new plantings not
practiced at all but it will take time (longer than the project cycle) to evaluate the benefits of
not girdling as most trees are already extensively girdled.
There is no universal pruning regime recommended for litchi but regular trimming of side
branches, opening the centre of the tree to allow for air movement and removing taller
branches are all good practice. Where trees have become too big to manage stump pruning
(cutting the tree back to its stump) can be used to rejuvenate the tree. Side trimming will be
required to keep the rows open and allow enough light for legumes and other plants to grow
on the orchard floor.
The weeds that grow in the orchard are important for their organic matter. Opportunity to
introduce green crops and legumes but need to be cautious about planting and cutting times
because of the specific need to reduce nutrient flow before flowering. It may also be possible
in some circumstances to harvest green crops for animal feed, however, for the most part this
will not be practicable as there is already a huge requirement for the green material to be
either returned to the soil or composted. The production of crops such as corn, specifically
for stock feed, could be self defeating as the intention of the nutrient cycling programme is to
build fertility for the fruit crop and not extract it via seed crops. Stock feeds as such need to
be produced on fields outside the orchard not within it.
- 89 -
Household vegetable production includes leaf vegetables, corn and peanuts. The level of
intercropping varies from farm to farm depending on the needs of the household. Some
farms were extensively intercropped while others were producing very few other crops. In an
organic litchi orchard a cropping plan will be required to ensure that basic food production
needs are not compromised by the introduction of a legume ground cover.
The farmers have developed Litchi management strategies which include the restriction of
nutrients particularly nitrogen to the plants before flowering in order to help reduce new
growth (which does not carry fruit) and help the existing fruiting wood to flower and set fruit.
Girdling (cutting the bark to reduce sap flow) and growth regulators are also used. Girdling
may severely shorten the trees life and also provides open wounds through which pests and
disease can enter. Girdling will not be encouraged in an organic management programme and
growth regulators are prohibited in organic farming.
Managing tree growth at flowering is complex and needs to be studied in the context of an
organic management programme to determine how the trees will respond. In the conversion
period the trees are likely to respond as they would do in a conventional programme as there
will be large amounts of residual fertilizers from which they can draw but after observations
of the way the trees perform will need to be made and discussed with the farmers to
formulate a tree management strategy that is appropriate.
Due to the perceived requirement for restricting nitrogen to the trees there was some
discussion with the farmer group on how to build a legume ground cover of short term crop
into their production system that would provide N when most required by the trees. The
consensus amongst the farmers is that nitrogen should be available to the crop post flowering
and follow through until before harvest and also be available post harvest for a short time. If
legumes are planted permanently in the orchard it may be difficult to control the release of N
unless it can be controlled by harvesting and used for composting and thereby perhaps
limiting N availability. The alternative to sow a short term crop seems feasible but would be
more costly and might not deliver adequate levels of N when it is required.
In Vietnam litchi trees were planted at spacing of 8 m x 8 m around 120 trees to ha although
this varies. Wider spacing (12m/12m) have some advantages for organic as they allow for
inter-row strips where legumes and cover crops can be grown. Such plantings can have very
high yields on a tree basis after 10 or 15 years. Also, with large trees there are problems with
harvesting and general management as they are taller and more difficult to spray. Ideally the
plants will be planted no closer than 8m/8m and managed appropriately.

Where inputs are sourced from off the farm the suppliers should be trained in the roles and
responsibilities as supplies of ‘acceptable’ inputs.
possible to source manure off farm with provisos.
- 90 -
At the present time there is not enough organic matter being produced on-farm to provide
enough material for compost making or general fertility building and resources from off the
farm also appear to be limited.
A redesign of the farm layout will need to be undertaken that will allow for green manure and
legumes to be grown on-farm.
There is also a lack of animal manure. Since the pigs died (swine fever) the usual supply of
animal manure has disappeared. There are now various attempts to develop animal activity
within the farms including rabbits and chickens but these will not be enough to produce
enough compost for a typical planting of around 300 trees.
The farmers would need to buy in buffalo manure (4 tonnes to make 15 tonnes of compost)
unless they have their own animals and abandon the habit of using only 1 type of weed for
composting.
The IBS lists various mineral inputs that can be used either as permitted or restricted inputs
(restricted status requires that the products are approved as acceptable by a certifier or other
appropriate body).
Phosphate (apertite) – a local mineral phosphate is available in Lao Cai (details)
Potassium –can be obtained from wood and plant ash. Traditional practice involves the
burning of rice straw and rice husk to produce a potassium source.

that could compromise the organic integrity of a farm. As discussed above in section 4.3.
Balancing soil nutrition using organic techniques takes time as described above and the
process is incremental. As the soil improves so does the ability of the plants to utilize
nutrients that are being made available in the soil.
• soil testing
• leaf analysis
A typical yield in Vietnam is reported to be around 6-8 tonnes per hectare. There is no data
available in Vietnam that provides details of the amount of nutrient being carried off the farm
with the crop. However, data from similar crops suggests that for a crop of around 6 tonnes
that 60 kgs N, 15 kgs P and 80 kgs K will be taken up by the crop. The nutrient replacement
programme being practiced and recommended for organic farming appears to more than
replace the out going nutrients.
- 91 -
11. Citrus Production
11.1 Introduction
The Tuyen Quang area is famous for the oranges that grow there. Clearly there is the
potential to develop organic citrus production as citrus in general is a relatively hardy plant
that lends itself to organic production but to achieve this there are some critical challenges
that will need to be addressed.
The discussion that follows is aimed to guide the conversion of an existing orange orchard
into organic production.
The minimum conversion time for a conventional orchard to organic status is 18 months
(IBS).

Generally the growing conditions for oranges in TQ are too steep but it appears that the
farmers over many years have adapted the crop management for their specific situation.
Ideally the crop would grow on gently sloping land that provides for easy access for
management and harvesting.
Although the farmers report that there can be long dry periods there is no provision for
irrigation and there is limited direct irrigation of the citrus. There are springs on the upper
slopes of most sites and these supply water for young plants (at planting) and spraying. The
water is of good quality as it is ground fed from a forest environment.
Hand cutting of the weed cover 3 times per year is regarded as traditional practice. In recent
years at least 2 of the hand cuttings have been replaced by herbicides which compound
erosion problems by exposing the bare soil to water runoff. Herbicides are not permitted in
organic farming. Hand cutting the weeds must be factored into the farmers annual work
plan.
On land cleared around the forest fringe beans and corn are sometimes planted but process
of cultivation opens the soil and exposes it to runoff. The methods for planting these crops
should be focused with conservation and soil retention in mind. Ground covers (legumes and
grasses) as well as legume trees should be incorporated into the production environment for
conservation and soil nutrition.
Natural terraces created by accumulating plant material and strategic planting across the hill
sides should be encouraged help reduce runoff. Some farmers are manually digging small
terraces but this practice is not necessary as natural plant barriers can be more effective as the
gradually accumulate more and more material over time.

The recommended practice for conventional citrus growing is to apply fertilizers to citrus at
rates of 2/3rds before flowering and 1/3rd post flowering.
- 93 -
The farmers report that their current practice is to apply NPK 10:5:5 at a rate of 3 kg per tree
with 1 kg at pre-flowering; 1 kg during fruiting and 1 kg post harvest. For conventional citrus
management this fertiliser programme would be considered light in potassium for the post
flowering application.
In general N is important for vegetative growth, flowering and overall yield while potassium is
important for fruit size and quality.
As with the discussion for vegetables and litchi it is difficult to overlay and organic fertility
building programme over an organic one as the whole rationale for the way plants feed in an
organic system is different to that in conventional agriculture.
Particularly for the conversion phase however, it is important to have some idea of the
comparative input rates. A compost equivalent to the farmer’s current NPK schedule would
be 15 kgs/tree in three applications totally around 45 kgs/tree over the year.
Extrapolating out organic equivalents to the current NPK schedule can be misleading as it
assumes the farmers have already got their application rates correct. The nutrient demands of
orange trees vary in accordance with the age of the plant, the size of the plant canopy and
crop loading. A typical input schedule for mature trees is around 2.5 kgs of NPK (11.2.15)
plus an application of 250 g per trees of urea before flowering. Thus, the Tuyen Quang
farmers seem relatively in tune with conventional thinking but are a little short on potassium.
An organic fertility programme should keep this in mind as potassium plays an important role
in extending the shelf life of a fruit. Organic potassium could be sourced from burnt rice
husks, there is about 8kgs of K per 100kg of burnt husk and around 50 kgs of calcium.
Typically the orange farmers have around 600 trees so if compost was to be the key fertility
building input the farmer would need to make around 27 tonnes of compost. Given that most
farms have only one buffalo and a few pigs there is not enough animal manure onsite to make
27 tonnes of compost, the maximum a farmer could produce seems to be around 10 tonnes.
However, inputs can be sourced from various organic sources including legumes and mineral
inputs to make up the overall fertility requirements of the crop. Also soil activators such as
EM and liquid from worm compost could be used to help stimulate soil micro-life and
thereby facilitate the release of nutrients locked up in the soil. Trials are recommended to test
out various options. EM is already available in Vietnam as are appropriate worm species for
vermi-culture.
There is also the possibility for biodynamic preparations to be used. The Biodynamic
preparation 500 is made from cow dung that is matured in a cow horn under the ground for
about 6 months it is then mixed with water and applied to the soil and functions as a soil
activator.
Plants high in various minerals can be soaked in water and the juice used as soil conditioner.
Local traditional knowledge should be drawn upon to identify key plants.
An annual soil fertility programme could include:
• 10 tonnes compost (for 600 trees this equates to 16.6 kgs per tree)
• Legume ground cover (such as Arachis pintoi) fixing around 100 kgs of N to ha
easily enough for a citrus crop provided that the cover was even and available to
each plant. N may also be sourced from mulch derived from leguminous shrubs
- 94 -
planted as hedgerows like the locally available Crotalaria spp., Casa Tora; leucaena
leucocephala and Tephrosia candida.
• Grasses such as Guinea grass Panreum maximum and Guatemala Tripsicum fasculatum
with a potential of 150 tonnes/ha of biomass can also be planted for holding soil
as conservation measure as well as providing biomass that can be returned to the
soil, composted and used a stock feed. The planting of Arachis pintoi and grasses
would follow once the hedge rows are planted.
Note also that other grasses may also be suitable such as Brachiaria
decumbens/brizanta/humidricola. Elephant grass is not recommended for this
location more suited to lowland areas.
• Phosphate rock (Apertite) – recommendations will vary but based on soil tests the
indications are that a base dressing around 200kgs/ha would be a likely bench
mark.
• Ash from burnt rice straw and husks and or other materials and soil can provide
K 12-21%.
• Liquid manures and soil activators.
Note that there are flow-on effects in the soil from the use organic inputs. These include the
stimulation of mycorrihiza fungi which help plants to utilize soil mineral fertility more
effectively. Research shows that chemical fertiliser usually depresses the effectiveness of
mycorrihiza.
On the lower slopes liquid manure from pigs (provided the feed source is compliant with
organic standards2) may be applied to plants. The farmers reported that they manure their
plants with pig manure liquid and for other crops such as cassava they do not apply any
inputs.
Killing the weeds with herbicides cuts out a valuable nutrient source for the soil and also leads
to weed monocultures where only the most resilient can survive a continuous herbicide
programme.
The loss of this biodiversity in the orchard ground cover can affect the number of host plants
available for beneficial insects.

The farmers surveyed in Tuyen Quang have received IPM training for rice so they are aware
of the basic principles of pest and predator interrelationships and functions and the need to
reduce pesticide use but they are not applying these principles to their orange production. The
oranges are sprayed routinely for minor pest and disease loadings resulting in the destruction
of natural predators and an imbalance with pests such as red spider mite which is clear
indicator of careless spray management.
Various pests and diseases were identified as problems by the farmers:

• Aphid (not usually damaging, seasonal and usually a reflection of too much
nitrogen in the growing points).
2The IBS guidelines (p 32) requires feed sourced from off the farm be able to be verified free of GE and
contaminants and not exceed more than 15% dry matter content of the overall diet of the animals.
All manure sourced outside must be hot composted.
- 95 -
• Spider mite (organic controls are available but generally if left alone predators will
bring them into balance.)
• Citrus borer (hand pruning is the only cure).The farmers can explain basic pruning
techniques but they do not widely practice pruning.
• Sooty mould (fungus that grows of the honey due of other insects, usually found
inside the tree canopy where light is restricted by the leaf cover. Opening up the
tree to let more light in can help. Generally sooty mould is on a minor scale and
can be lived with. If a control is required a light copper spray before and after
flowering might help. Citrus can be copper deficient and the copper spray may be
enough to address this.
• Leaf miner is often minor (although technical reports indicate that it can severely
impact on plant health) and a neem spray application should be trialed to test it
effectiveness.
Mineral oils at .5% to 1% are often used in citrus to control various soft bodied insects and
scale. Research is required to test the effects of oil sprays in the Tuyen Quang growing
conditions.
An organic spray programme can be devised utilizing approved and restricted inputs. This
would be developed in-conjunction with a plant husbandry management programme. The
various spray and other management options (as above) would need to be trialed over a
season to test their effectiveness.
Traditional farming methods – Survey on non-chemical pest controls on orange trees VNFU-
ADDA organic project. Traditional management methods as per the paper were discussed
with the farmers. Basically they said yes we used these methods but chemicals kill everything
faster and it is less overall work to use chemicals.
11.5 Orchard Management

Citrus are a perennial and therefore permanent in the ground. The trees are reported to have a
life cycle of more the 16 years. In the degrading soil environment the life cycle of the orange
tree is reducing. Where trees die out it is difficult to establish new trees. This could be due to
soil borne fungi which infect the plant roots, the fungi is passed on from the decomposing
roots of the tree that died prior to replanting and quickly spreads through the new plant
killing it.
The key to fixing fertility will be to grow nutrient fixing plants as an understory of legumes.
These will help fix nutrient in the soil as well as help protect the soil from erosion. During
establishment plants such as Arachis pintoi would be useful as it does not climb trees and can
fix more than 100 kgs of N/ha/year
Other options include an adaptation of alley cropping techniques where leguminous shrubs
such as sesbania and calliandra (calliandra calothyrus) are planted in hedgerows across slopes to
provide a nitrogen rich mulch and source of composting material.
From Phu - a creative approach (rather than a prescriptive one) that encourages and
empowers the farmers to redesign their orchards to include resource banks of leguminous
and other plants will be essential if an organic production programme is to be successful.
- 96 -
Plant spacing - spacings between plants vary but it seems that there are about 300 trees/ha
but this varies because there are areas not planted evenly due to the steep slopes and rock
outcrops. There is no script written for planting densities on this type of land and orange
variety but a guideline of 240 trees/ha might provide for adequate productivity and allow for
the growing of ground covers to fix fertility and reduce erosion risk.

An Orange Growers Association has been formed and it appears that most farmers are
members. The leader of the Association told us that the initial focus of the association is to
trail various fertilizers for growing oranges. This approach seems pointless as there is ample
research around that offers this information. The key task of the association should be to
develop quality standards and work with the growers to enhance their market presence.
Perhaps this is a role for the ADDA VNFU Project.
Cutting of forest land for new plantings of organic crops is prohibited in all organic
standards.
Organic farms should be grouped together to make an organic zone. The forested uplands
and general terrain provide a good buffer between organic and non-organic crops but where
the two come close together a buffer is required.
The organic farmer group should be set up so that they meet regularly for mutual support and
technical exchanges.

There are too few animals to provide the nutrients available for growing citrus. Other actions
will be required to grow enough fertility.
Overall within the farming system there appears to be ample room to grow trees and ground
covers that can provide nutrients. The main constraint is the steep slopes and transporting
materials around the farm.
The sloping land, close planting and shading effect of trees presents many challenges for
intercropping or planting an under story of legumes but there are practical ways to grow
nutrients within the farms.
The resources available from within the farming system have been discussed above. For
organic agriculture to succeed green manures (legumes and grasses) along with nitrogen fixing
trees must become an integral part of the farming system.
External inputs include mineral soil conditioners as well as pest and disease controls.

that could compromise the organic integrity of a farm. As discussed above in section 5.3.
- 97 -
Given steep contour of the orange farms most nutrients need to be produced on-farm as it is
physically too demanding to carry large amounts of material up the steep slopes.
Balancing soil nutrition using organic techniques takes time as described above and the
process is incremental. As the soil improves so does the ability of the plants to utilize
nutrients that are being made available in the soil. Also mycorrihizal fungi which are
suppressed by chemical fertilizers are enhanced in an organic system.
• soil testing
• leaf analysis
The farmers report that their yield for each mature tree is around 40 kgs per tree. There is no
data available in Vietnam that provides details of the amount of nutrient being carried off the
farm with the crop. However, data drawn from other sources suggests that for every 1000 kgs
of fruit harvested approximately 3 kgs N, .5 kgs P and 3.5 kgs K will be taken up by the crop.
The nutrient replacement programme being practiced and recommended for organic farming
appears to more than replace the out going nutrients.
There are many unknowns in this discussion particularly the extent to which water soluble
nutrients are quickly leached or washed away in this steep production environment. Nutrients
which are bound in the soil by organic matter will provide for a more sustainable nutrient
supply to the trees but the speed of growth in the trees may be slower but a spin off from this
should be harder plants with greater resistance to pest attack.
- 98 -
12. Tea Production
12.1 Introduction
Organically cultivated tea was first produced in 1986 in Sri Lanka. Since then, it has become
widespread mostly in India and Sri Lanka. Currently, around 5000 ha of tea are being
cultivated organically. Other producing countries include China, Japan, Seychelles, Tanzania,
Kenya, Malawi and Argentina. In Vietnam, organic tea is produced in Yen Bai, Thai Nguyen
and Lao Cai.
The discussion that follows is aimed to guide the conversion of an existing tea plantation into
organic production. The contents are largely based on the experience from the New Zealand-
funded organic tea project in Thai Nguyen province and guidelines prepared by the German
organisation Naturland based on organic tea production models applied internationally.
The minimum conversion time for a conventional tea plantation to organic status is 18
months (IFOAM Basic Standards).

Soil Management
The general rule is to minimise the number of times per year and depth to which the soil is
cultivated, in ideal conditions micro-organisms and earthworms should turn the soil naturally.
When cultivation is required to remove unnecessary weed growth use a hoe to cut off the
weeds above the ground and loosen only the surface of the soil.
When farmers describe the best soil conditions they talk about the soil being "soft". Soft soil
results from good aeration and good levels of organic matter in the soil. The challenge for
farmers is to reduce compaction of the soil in the rows between the plants. When the soil is
hard, there is less oxygen in the soil and as a result the soil micro-organisms stop working and
there are less nutrients available to the plants. Soils with high levels of organic matter are less
likely to become compacted. Compaction is caused by walking on the soil and by heavy
rainfall.
Best practice – Minimise the amount of time the soil surface is left bare. Protect the soil
from direct sunlight and erosion. Build the soil organic matter levels with compost, grow
cover plants and apply mulch. Careful cultivation is also important; it is better to the cut the
weeds rather than deep digging.
Mulching
Mulch cushions the soil from compaction, provides organic matter and is valuable for
maintaining soil moisture levels.
As far as possible mulch is made up from organic materials gathered on-farm. Only small
amounts of material should come from off the farm and they should not be harvested from
forests. Usually the mulch is from rice straw or other plant material.
- 99 -
It is recommended that the mulch be applied between the rows (of tea or other plants), in a
layer of about 10 - 15 cm thick. Mulching should be done after applications of organic
manure (compost or bio-fertiliser) during the months of December, January and August (for
Thai Nguyen province).
Soil Moisture
It is important to keep soil moisture levels high enough to keep the soil micro-organisms
active. When the soil dries out, the plants are not able to get their nutrients efficiently.
Moisture levels are maintained through regular rainfall and irrigation, mulching can also be
used to stop soil moisture evaporating in hot weather.
When conditions are dry Irrigate using clean water. Avoid using water that is contaminated
with substances that are not allowed in organic agriculture, such as chemical pesticides or
heavy metals.
A guideline for tea production, depending on soil type and availability of water would be to
irrigate 3 - 4 times per month until the dry season ends.

Healthy soil makes healthy plants. To create a healthy soil it is necessary to improve the soil
structure and fertility through careful management and the use of organic inputs. These
inputs include compost, green manure crops, rock minerals, bio-fertiliser, and liquid fertiliser.
Best practice begins with building up the soil organic matter content. Plant materials and
compost are essential for this process.
Nutrient requirements
A high amount of nutrients is lost through the continual plucking of tea leaves. Table 4
provides average nutrient losses for various tea cultivation regions in the world. (It should be
noted that these data are based on studies carried out in conventional tea plantations.
Therefore, the values are only an indication and cannot be used strictly for organic tea
plantations.) Table 5 shows that the plant material that is removed throughout a pruning cycle
also contains high levels of nutrients. Besides, a perennial crop such as tea requires a
considerable amount of nutrients in order to develop roots, stem and branches.
Table 4 - Average nutrient losses (in kg per ton of tea/ha/year) in different tea
cultivation regions
Region Nitrogen (N) Phosphate (P2O5) Potassium (K2O)
North India 50 10 20
South India 65 15 35
Sri Lanka 45 8 21
East Africa 42 5-8 24
Table 5 - Nutrient loss throughout a pruning cycle of 3 years

Loss Nitrogen (N) Phosphate (P2O5) Potassium (K2O)
Pruning 185 135 570
- 100 -
Organic fertilisation management
At the start of the conversion, the tea garden needs to be developed consequently and in
stages from a monoculture towards a diversified crop system. Alongside the cash crop tea,
plants should be cultivated to improve soil fertility, provide a supply of nutrients (especially
nitrogen), increase diversity (habitats for beneficial insects), supply wood (fuel and building
material) and (if practised) to provide feedstuff for on-farm animal husbandry. Main objective
is to provide a sufficient supply of organic matter for the tea bushes. For a perennial crop
such as tea, spreading the organic matter over the site should be given preference to the more
labour-intensive practise of composting. The following section provides more detail on the
different sources of nutrient supplies available in organic tea production:
Litter fall and pruning material from shade trees:

Leaf litter is provided to the tea without any additional work. However, additional working
hours need to be calculated for pruning the shade trees. Table 6 gives an example from India
on the amount of nutrients provided by a shade tree.
Table 6 - Nutrient contents of litter from Albizzia chinensis

Nutrient (kg/ha) Minimum Maximum
N 50.2 122.5
P2O5 17.6 44.0
K2O 14.2 35.5
CaO 25.5 63.5
MgO 12.4 12.4
The number of shade trees varies according to the site and the variety of shade tree. The
pruning materials should remain as mulch directly on the site or used as compost material.
Yet if the pruning material is to be used as fuel, at least the ashes should be used to provide
additional nutrient to the tea (as additional source of potassium).
Three aspects need to be paid attention to, in order to create the conditions necessary for the
soil life to continue decomposition of the materials:
 The pruning material needs to be sufficiently chopped (2-5 cm pieces).
 The material must then be evenly spread around the tea bushes
 Carbon-rich materials such as branches and other woody plant materials, need to be
mixed with some nitrogen-rich materials, such as leaves, etc. of a green manure, in order
to achieve a better carbon/nitrogen ration for successful decomposition.
Compost
Compost is mostly made from green plant material, straw and animal manure. An important
aspect of compost making is gathering the organic material together and placing it in a heap
usually covered to stop rain getting in. Once the heap is made it should heat up. This heating
process is important for killing unwanted diseases and speeding up the break down of plant
material. The heap can be turned to keep the compost process active. The finished product
should be a soil like mixture. (For more details, see section 5.9).
For good compost it is important to have a good mix of materials with a high nitrogen (N)
content and materials with a high carbon (C) content. Materials high in N include all kinds of
animal manures, fresh leaves, etc. Materials high in C include woody materials, such as stems,
twigs, etc. Annex 3 has more details on the C and N content of different plants and materials.
- 101 -
Note - As required by most organic standards around the world, animal manures must go
through a hot composting or maturing process before they can be used.
For applications of compost to the soil a guideline is (for Thai Nguyen province):
 1.5 ton/sao (360 m2).
 Timing for first application: 1 month prior to pruning (November - December) together
with thinning out old leaves and branches (50%).
 Second application: June - July (50%).
Green manure crops and nitrogen-fixing plants

Green manure crops are grown to provide ground cover and organic matter, shade out weeds
and provide soil nitrogen. Local knowledge is important for selecting the best green manure
crops. Many farmers in Vietnam have good experience with Tephrosia (cot khi) and Cassia
(muong la nhon).
The foliage from green manure plants, as well as that from the other crops, should remain as
mulch material on the site. On tea farms where animals are kept as well, care should be taken
to choose green manure plants that can also be used as fodder crops.
Returning pruning material from tea bushes

As already mentioned (see Table 5), the pruning material from the tea bushes contains a
considerable amount of nutrients (especially after deep pruning and/or rejuvenation). These
nutrients should not be removed from the tea garden (e.g. as fuel), but should either be re-
applied directly as mulch, or via composting (same as shade trees).
Additional soil input options

When the full quantity of compost and plant material from green manure crops cannot be
met, other inputs can be used such as bio-fertiliser and phosphate rock. However, for these
bought-in products, make sure to use kinds that meet the organic standards and do not
contain ingredient not allowed in organic farming, such as urban waste and chemical
fertilisers. Just the fact that a company calls the product "organic" does not mean it is allowed
in organic agriculture! Biogro bio-fertiliser is an approved product, produced by the Hanoi
University's Biofertilizer Laboratory. The recommended application rate for tea is 300 kg/sao.
Foliar fertiliser application to plants

Foliar fertilisers are useful for providing micro-nutrients to plants. Foliar plant fertilisers can
be made on the farm from various plant and animal materials. The usual method is to place
plant material, compost and a bit of sugar together in a bucket and add water, stir and leave
for at least 12 hours. From this concentrate take about 1 litre and mix it with 10-20 litres of
water. Apply with a knapsack sprayer or pour over the plants.
It is best to use fresh liquid. Put old smelly liquid in the compost heap. Apply foliar fertilisers
to the tea every 7-10 days but stop the applications 7-10 days before plucking to avoid any
residue and smell of the liquid on the tea leaf.
There are also commercial foliar fertilisers that can be purchased but care must be taken to
ensure that they comply with the organic standards (as with the bio-fertilizers).
- 102 -
Plant Health
The guiding principle for pest and disease management is that the internal balance and
stability of an organic system will be achieved by encouraging the beneficial processes and
interactions that occur in natural ecosystems, and as a result external control measures should
be minimal.
Experience has shown that the frequency of disease and pest infestations decrease during the
conversion period. Yet this requires all of the necessary requirements to be fulfilled from the
beginning of the conversion period (create good micro-climate, encourage beneficial insects,
etc.) In Vietnam there are generally few pests during the conversion period. However,
Mosquito Bug could cause problems in some areas, as was experienced by farmers in Thai
Nguyen province.
Input Options
Organic standards usually provide a list of approved inputs. Examples of the different options
include (see also sections 7.3 - 7.5):
 bio-pesticides such as Bacillus thuringiensis (BT).
 botanicals such as chilli; neem seeds or leaf; garlic.
 traps such as sticky traps or colour traps
 pheromones
The following is a list of countermeasures against infestations by diseases and pests currently
being utilised in different parts of the world:
Pest/disease Biological countermeasure

Blister blight (Exobasidium vexans) Preventive measures important (micro-climate,
hygiene precautions, etc.);
Copper preparations permitted in emergencies
Mosquito bug (Helopeltis sp.) Encourage natural enemies, introduce BT.
Frequent plucking (once a week) will remove
eggs from the field Always begin the plucking in
non-infested areas. Avoid alternative host plants
such as Mua, Sim and Co lao.
In severe cases pruning and application of neem
Red spidermite Sufficient shade will suppress development,
remove weeds early enough before the main
harvest begins.
In emergencies neem extract can be used.
Leaf-eating caterpillars Place light traps, collect caterpillars from the
ground, tea bushes and shade trees
Thrips Plant green manure plants and shade trees, apply
lime and soda washing in emergencies or after
pruning, disturbing the soil around the tea bush
stem during the cold months will destroy the
pupae
Green Leafhopper Frequent plucking (once a week) will remove
eggs from the field. Encourage natural enemies.
Plant shade trees and apply mulch.
- 103 -
In principle, the "emergency measures", such as neem extract or Bacillus thuringiensis, cannot
be used as preventive sprays (see section 7.5). Measures involving copper preparations (e.g.,
Bordeaux mixture) must also be used sparingly (and must be approved by the certification
body beforehand).
After the tea bushes have been pruned, they need to be protected against infection. Natural
waxes are used to protect the cut areas, and alkali solutions to wash off the lower tea branches
(alkali solutions can be prepared from 6 kg soda, 2-3 kg lime and 100 litres of water). The tea
bushes can also be pruned to counter pests and diseases, by cutting away infected branches
("knife cleaning").
If necessary, the shade trees should also be protected against aggressive insect pests, for
example with the use of trap bands. On the one hand, shade trees can suppress certain pests,
yet on the other, in some cases they can also act as host plants to certain diseases and pests.
Note that on organic farms the spray equipment must be used only for organic sprays. If a farm
with organic tea also has fields for conventional crops, such as rice or vegetables, then
separate spray equipment should be used on these fields.
Best practice guidelines encourage the farmer to:

 Make regular field visits to look at the crop and to monitor the level of pests and natural
enemies on the farm.
 Encourage bio-diversity on the farm by planting shelter and food for beneficial insects
such as spiders, praying mentis, lady beetle and other natural enemies such as birds.
 Keep applications of spray materials to a minimum (Some botanicals, such as nicotine are
very toxic to human beings or beneficial insects!).
 Keep the farm clean of harmful weeds.
 Provide a good balance of shade trees.
 Regular plucking of standard buds (avoid long plucking intervals - in order to prevent pest
damage to leaves, for example from Green Leafhopper and Mosquito Bug).
12.5 Plantation Management

Site requirements
The ideal growth conditions for tea are average annual temperatures of 18-20°C, an average
daily amount of sunshine of 4 hours per day, as well as a minimum of 1600 mm of rainfall
distributed evenly throughout the year. Relative humidity should lie between 70 and 90%. In
regions with extensive dry seasons, shading trees play an important role in providing and
maintaining sufficient humidity. Additionally, tea plantations in windy regions should also be
protected by windbreakers e.g. hedges, to reduce the intensity of evapotranspiration).
The soil should be deep, well-drained and aerated. Nutrient-rich and slightly acidic soils are
best (optimum pH-value 4.5-5.5). Sufficient drainage and aeration of the soil can be lastingly
and economically achieved with the combination of shade trees and deep-rooting green
manure plants.
Seeds and seedlings

In organic cultivations, GMO varieties are not allowed. Tea plants are propagated both
generatively (i.e., through seed) and vegetatively (i.e., through cuttings). Even when using
seeds, it is recommended to establish a nursery so that plants can develop under controlled
- 104 -
conditions. It is recommended to establish own nurseries in the tea garden, in order to ensure
a continuous supply of untreated and healthy plants.
In choosing locations for the nursery, the following should be considered:

 A protected site
 Sufficient supply of water
 If possible, a site that has not been cultivated (virgin soil)
 Preparation of the site with legumes (1-2 years, e.g. with Crotalaria ssp., Tephrosia
candida, that are afterwards mulched)
 Natural shade (e.g. Tephrosia candida, Crotalaria ssp., Sesbania ssp.)
If seedlings are purchased from outside, it is best to choose seedlings from a nursery with the
same altitude and site conditions as the own tea fields.
Planting methods
When establishing a new tea plantation, care should be taken to manually uproot
problematical grasses, such as Alang-Alang (Imperata cylindrica). It is recommended to follow
this with plant fast growing cover crops, such as Guatemala grass (Tripsacum laxum), to
suppress the growth of unwanted weeds. When the tea is to be cultivated on terraces, the soil
should be protected against drying out by green manure plants (such as Arachis pintoi).
New tea plantations, especially those planted on slopes, are at the greatest risk of erosion,
which will lead to soil degradation and nutrient losses. Plantations set on slopes should
therefore be planted along the contour lines. If possible, additional hedgerows could be
planted (e.g., with Tephrosia) particularly ijn the first years of establishment of the tea bushes.
Slopes and peaks that are especially at risk from erosion should not be used to cultivate tea.
Rather, these areas should be protected by planting permanent forests along them.
Between 10,000 and 20,000 plants per hectare can be planted, depending on the gaps between
rows and plants. The crop density should always be adapted to the site conditions (slope,
altitude, micro-climate etc.), as well as incorporating those shade trees necessary on
organically cultivated tea plantations.
Weed Management
Weeds can be useful as food and shelter for beneficial insects. They are also useful as a source
of soil nutrients, particularly deep-rooted weeds that draw up minerals from deep in the soil.
Weeds can also compete for soil nutrients and moisture.
Measures to suppress the growth of unwanted flora when beginning a new tea plantation have
already been mentioned in the previous section. These also apply in principle to tea bushes
after a rejuvenation pruning.
Mulching methods can be especially recommended to effectively combat weeds (and erosion-
prevention). Hoeing is not recommended on those sites at risk from erosion.
Best practice systems for weed management include:

 Keep the tea canopies as closed as possible.
 Hand weed on sunny days to increase weed kill.
 Mulch the ground between rows if the material is available.
- 105 -
Shade trees
Shade trees have a great importance to the organic cultivation of tea. The following is a list of
their positive effects:
 Nutrient supply (e.g. nitrogen, when legume shading trees are used; they retrieve nutrients
from lower soil levels; reduction of nutrient losses from washing out)
 Build-up of humus
 Protect the tea bushes from too much sun (yield reductions are possible when the solar
radiation is too intense, and there is a lack of shade)
 Reduction of erosion through wind and rain (and damage from hail)
 Influences the quality of the tea
 Positive micro-climatic effects e.g. during drought periods
 Encourage beneficial insects to settle
 Create a pleasant atmosphere for the pluckers.
When choosing tree varieties to use as shade plants, it is important to use plenty of local,
adapted varieties, enough leguminous trees, and overall, a wide variety of differing species.
Care should be taken to choose fast, and not so fast growing varieties of shade trees at the
beginning of cultivation. The correct combination of shade tree varieties should always be
based on local experience, or, in certain cases, tried out on site. In Thai Nguyen, many
farmers have good experience with nitrogen-fixing species such as Muång l¸ nhän (Indigofera
teysmanii). Other trees often grown in tea fields, such as Acacia species, are less suitable since
the shade they provide is often too dense.
Shade trees need to be continually thinned out to create and maintain an optimum amount of
shade (the pruning material should be used for composting or mulching if possible). Thinning
out will also help prevent infestations of blister blight (Exobasidium vexans), which thrives
under too shady (and thereby moist) conditions. The shading trees should be trimmed to
prevent blister blight developing directly before the start of the rainy season.
The number of trees will vary from farm to farm, a guideline for Thai Nguyen province is 7-
10 trees/sao. As a general rule one could say that the higher the tea garden is located, the less
shade is necessary (and also the other way round).
12.6 Crop cultivation and maintenance

Managing the young ea plants
Best practice guidelines require farmers to create the best conditions for growing tea. This
means that the plants receive nutrients from compost and other organic fertilisers at the
seedling and branch formation stages as well as in the commercial stage.
 Select the best plants from seedlings or cutting grown plants.
 Prepare the soil prior to planting with compost.
 Once the young plants have begun to grow apply organic fertilisers at least twice per year.
 Spray with organic liquid fertiliser at least once per year.
 Remove weeds competing with young plants for nutrients and water.
Tea bushes are planted in trenches, which are filled with compost and pruning materials. This
helps to conserve water, increase nutrients and reduce erosion.
- 106 -
Pruning the tea bushes
Regular pruning of the tea bushes is one of the most important measures in cultivating tea. A
variety of pruning intervals are practised, depending on the site and plucking system. Usually,
the bushes are pruned back to a comfortable plucking height every three years, and then
radically cut back every 15-20 years (to a plant height of 30-40 cm). Collar pruning, reaching
down to the soil, is utilised to rejuvenate the tea plants. Greater amounts of compost (average
10 ton/ha) are generally applied after deep pruning.
No fundamentally different pruning measures are used to those carried out on conventional
tea plantations. Yet it should be noted that the pruning interval will also influence the supply
of organic material. Shorter pruning intervals with less pruned off will no doubt facilitate the
decomposition of pruning material by the soil life.
Train young plants from an early age to establish the best tree shape.
For producing tea plants the general guideline for pruning is:
 For tea farms that have dry soil conditions prune around December to January.
 For tea farms using regular irrigation prune around April.
There are many different pruning methods and shapes for tea bushes.
 Make clean cuts with a sharp tool.
 Remove dead or diseased wood first.
 Shape the tree to get maximum sunlight around each bush.
Prunings from diseased plants should be burned. The ash from the burning can be mixed into
the compost. Wood ash is a source of potassium.
Plucking
Regular plucking through the harvesting season is the best way of limiting insect pest damage
to the growing tips. Freshly harvested leaf must be carried and stored in clean sacks (old
fertiliser bags are prohibited).
The general guideline for plucking is:

 Plucking only standard bud/ irregular plucking, when the canopy has a about 30 % of the
standard buds.
 Spring season - leaving out 2 - 3 real leaves, summer season - leaving out 1 real leaf - none
during winter season.

Where inputs are sourced from off the farm the suppliers should be trained in the roles and
responsibilities as supplies of ‘acceptable’ inputs.
possible to source manure off farm with provisos.
- 107 -
12.8 Processing
Processing is an important part of the process for getting the best quality tea. Clean and
efficient equipment is essential for getting consistent results. Organic tea must always be of
the best quality. Individuals or groups of farmers can process their own organic tea.
It is recommended that the processing equipment used for processing be used only for
processing organic tea. Care must be taken to ensure that foreign substances do not
contaminate the processed tea. It is important that the tea is not shipped open and
unprotected.
Best practice requires that the farmers:

 Always clean equipment (dryer) before use.
 Grade tea carefully to ensure green leaf is of consistent quality. Unsuitable material should
be removed before drying.
 The bags used for carrying organic tea should be labelled ORGANIC TEA ONLY.
Once processed, dry tea must be stored separately to non-organic tea. Each organic bag must
be labelled ORGANIC TEA and include the date of when processing took place on each of
the bags.
Tea must be stored in new or clean sacks, aluminium bags or in air-tight containers. Fertiliser
bags are prohibited.

There are often too few animals to provide the manure to make compost. Other constraints
for the application of compost are the steep slopes and transporting materials around the
farm. Other actions will therefore be required to grow enough fertility. Green manures should
therefore be grown directly in the tea field to the largest extend possible. There are in general
also many other possibilities within the farming systems in Vietnam to grow trees and cover
crops that can provide materials for mulching and/or composting.
Other bush and tree species are interplanted to create a healthy and diverse growing
environment. A number of these plants can be also be harvested to provide additional income
for growers. Species which possess insecticidal and fungicidal properties may also be grown.
Open areas are planted with leguminous crops to control erosion and weeds, and for use as
green manures and compost.
The resources available from within the farming system have been discussed above. For
organic agriculture to succeed green manures (legumes and grasses) along with nitrogen fixing
trees must become an integral part of the farming system.
External inputs include mineral soil conditioners as well as pest and disease controls.
- 108 -
13. Organic Animal Production
Integrating animal husbandry into crop producing farms is one of the principles of
organic farming. Animal husbandry in organic farming is different from both
extensive animal husbandry, which is often environmentally damaging (e.g.
overgrazing of common lands), and from intensive animal husbandry which keeps
animals under ethically unacceptable conditions.
13.1 The Role of Animal Husbandry

Integrating animals into a farm can help to recycle nutrients. By-products such as straw,
biomass from field margins or kitchen wastes, can be used as cheap and easily available
fodder. At the same time, the dung should be returned to the fields in the most efficient way
in order to increase the fertility of the soil. Animal products such as milk, eggs, and meat can
both be used for the family as well as for selling, thus generating income for the farmer.
Many farm animals have a multi-functional role. They can:

 Produce dung, which is of great importance for soil fertility.
 Yield products such as milk or eggs for sale or own consumption continuously.
 Recycle by-products such as straw or kitchen waste.
 Serve as draught animals for tillage or transport.
 Produce meat, hides, feathers, horns etc.
 Serve as an investment or a bank.
 Help in pest control (e.g. dugs) and weed management (e.g. grazing on barren fields).
 Have cultural or religious significance (prestige, ceremonies etc.).
 Produce young stock for breeding or sale.
The significance of each role will vary from animal to animal and from farm to farm. It will
also depend on the individual objectives of the farmer.
13.2 Requirements for Organic Animal Production

Organic animal husbandry means not only feeding organic food and avoiding synthetic food
additives, but also putting a focus on satisfying the various needs of the farm animals. Good
health and welfare of the animals are among the main objectives. Suffering due to mutilations,
permanent tethering or isolation of herd animals must be avoided as much as possible. For
various reasons, landless animal husbandry (i.e. fodder purchased from outside the farm, no
grazing land) is not permitted in organic farming.
There is a range of standards regulating the management, shedding, feeding, veterinary

treatment, breeding, purchase, transport, and slaughter of farm animals in detail. Some of the
most important standard requirements are listed below:
Animal welfare:
 Sufficient free movement and chance to express natural behaviour.
 No cage keeping, no landless animal husbandry.
 Sufficient access to food, water, air and daylight.
 No mutilations; suffering must be reduced to the minimum.
- 109 -
Feeding:
 Min. 50 % of the fodder shall come from the organic farm.
 Max. 15 % of foodstuff can be of conventional origin (ruminants: max. 10 %).
 No synthetic food additives allowed.
Veterinary Medicine:
 Preventive measures above therapy!
 If natural medicines are not effective, conventional medicines are allowed.
 No use of synthetic growth promoters, hormones, tranquillisers etc.
Purchase and Breeding:

 Preferably purchase of organically raised livestock.
 No animals from embryo transfer and no GMO.
13.3 The Requirements of Farm Animals

Organic farmers try to achieve healthy farm animals, which can produce satisfyingly over a
long period of time. To achieve this goal, various needs of farm animals have to be
considered:
 Fodder in adequate quality and quantity; for non-ruminants: diversity in fodder is usually
required.
 Sufficient access to clean drinking water.
 Clean sheds of sufficient size and with adequate light and fresh air.
 Sufficient freedom to move around and perform their natural behaviour.
 Healthy conditions and veterinary follow up, if needed.
 Sufficient contact with other animals, but no stress due to overcrowding.
 For herd animals: an appropriate age and sex distribution within the herd.
How many animals to keep?

In order to identify the appropriate number for a specific kind of animal on a farm, the
following points should be considered:
 Availability of fodder on the farm, especially in periods of scarcity (e.g. dry season).
 Carrying capacity of pastures.
 Size of existing or planned sheds.
 Maximum amount of manure the fields can bear.
 Availability of labour for looking after the animals.
In tropical countries, farm animals are frequently found to be underfed. When defining the
number of farm animals, keep in mind that the economical benefit will be higher when fewer
animals are kept, but fed well. Not only the amount, but also the quality of the available food
must be taken into consideration.
13.4 Sheds
The type of shed should be specific to the type of animals to be sheltered. Poultry, for
instance, should be housed in sheds that do not get too hot. Contact of the animals with their
faeces should be avoided as much as possible.
- 110 -
Planning sheds
With the exception of nomadic lifestyles, most farm animals are temporarily kept in sheds.
The combination of animal husbandry and farm activities requires control of their
movements so as to avoid damage to crops. For the welfare and health of the animals, sheds
must be cool and aerated, and protect from rain. They should be constructed in a way
ensuring:
 Sufficient space to lie down, stand up, move and express natural behaviour (e.g. licking,
scratching etc.).
 Sufficient light (as a rule, one should be able to read a newspaper in the shed).
 Protection from sunlight, rain, and extreme temperatures.
 Sufficient aeration, but no draught.
 Appropriate beddings (see section below).
 Elements to exercise natural behaviour (e.g. for poultry: perching rails, sand baths and
secluded laying nests).
 Sheltered pits or heaps to collect and store manure.
For economic reasons, sheds can be built with simple, locally available materials. Many
countries have a rich tradition of shed constructions, and have developed the most efficient
and appropriate shed systems for the conditions of the region. If techniques of this heritage
are combined with the above principles, a locally adapted and at the same time animal friendly
system may be obtained. Examples of a pig shed and a chicken shed are given in Figure AA.
Chicken shed, with possibility to

move to outdoor area
Pigshed (top), with deep bedding of a mixture

of sawdust, soil and rice husk (right)
Figure AA. Examples of a pig shed (using the deep bedding system) and chicken shed.
- 111 -
Beddings
Beddings are materials used in sheds for keeping the floor soft, dry, and clean, which is
important for animal health. They absorb the excrements of the animals and need to be
replaced from time to time. Beddings can be of straw, leaves, twigs, husks or other locally
available material. They can be replaced daily or kept for several months while adding fresh
material on top.
13.5 Feeding Animals

The availability of fodder is one of the limiting factors in animal husbandry. Unlike landless
systems in conventional farming, organic husbandry should be mainly based on the fodder
produced on the farm itself. As is the case with humans, there is a direct link between the
quantity and composition of the food and the health status of the animals.
Food Requirements of Animals

If farm animals are to be productive (milk, eggs, meat etc.), it is important that they get
suitable food in sufficient quantities. If the fodder production of one's farm is limited (which
usually is the case), it might be economically valid to keep less animals but supply them with
sufficient food. The appropriate quantity and the mix of feed items will of course depend on
the type of animal, but also on its main use (e.g. chicken for meat or egg production, cattle for
milk, meat or draft etc.). In milk production for example, cows producing milk should be
given fresh grass and possibly other feed items of sufficient protein content. On the same
diet, draught animals would rapidly become exhausted.
A balanced diet will keep an animal healthy and productive. Whether or not a farm animal
receives the appropriate amount and kind of fodder usually can be seen by the shine of its
hair or feathers. For ruminants, a majority of the fodder should consist of roughage (grass,
leaves). If concentrates or supplements are used (e.g. agricultural by-products and wastes),
they should not contain growth promoters and other synthetic substances. Instead of buying
expensive concentrates, there are a variety of leguminous plants rich in protein which can be
grown in the farm as cover crop, hedges or trees. If mineral content in the available fodder is
not sufficient to satisfy the animal's requirements, mineral salt bricks or similar feed
supplements can be used as long as they do not contain synthetic additives.
Fodder Cultivation
In many regions of the tropics, favourable periods with abundant fodder alternate with less
favourable periods when there is almost nothing to feed to the animals. However, keeping
animals means providing fodder throughout the year. Fodder can be produced on the farm as
grazing land or as grass or tree crops used for cutting. While grazing requires less labour than
shed feeding, more land is needed and appropriate measures to keep the animals away from
other crops must be undertaken. Grazing may lead to a lower productivity (milk, meat) but
usually is the more favourable option concerning health and welfare of the animals. Shed
keeping, however, has the advantage that the dung can be easily collected, stored, or
composted and applied to the crops. Whether grazing or shed feeding is the more suitable
option will mainly depend on the agro-climatic conditions, the cropping system, and the
availability of land. A combination of shed feeding and grazing in a fenced area may be an
ideal combination of high productivity and animal friendly husbandry. In extensive grasslands
of semi-arid areas, however, grazing may be the only suitable option. See Figure BB.
- 112 -
Figure BB - Grazing shed feeding
Grazing:
 Less labour
 More land required
 Lower productivity
 More move/exercise
 Dung is spread on the pastures
 Animals difficult to control
Shed feeding:
 More labour
 Less land required
 Higher productivity (?)
 Less move /exercise
 Dung can be collected easily
Combining grazing and shed feeding as

an ideal solution?
Integrating fodder cultivation in the farm

In most smallholder farms, fodder cultivation will compete for space with the cultivation of
crops. Whether fodder cultivation (and thus animal husbandry) is economically more
beneficial compared with crop production must be assessed case by case. However, there are
some options for integrating fodder crops in farms without sacrificing much land. Below are
some examples:
 Grass or leguminous cover crops in tree plantations
 Hedges of suitable shrubs
 Shade or support trees
 Grass on bunds against soil erosion
 Grass fallows or green manures in the crop rotation
 Crops with by-products such as paddy straw or bean leaves
Management of pastures
The management of pastures is crucial for a good herd management. It is also important to
practice appropriate management throughout the year. There are many different types of
grasses, and every climatic region has grasses, which are specifically adapted to the conditions.
In some cases it may be worth considering to till the grazing site and sow grass varieties that
are more appropriate to the animal's needs.
Overgrazing is probably the most significant threat to grass land. Once the protective grass
cover is destroyed, the topsoil is prone to erosion. Degraded pastures or land with little plant
cover is difficult to re-cultivate. Therefore, it is important that the use and intensity of grazing
on a particular piece of land is appropriate to its production capacity. Sufficient time must be
given to a pasture to recover after intensive grazing. Fencing off of areas and rotation of the
grazing animals on several pieces of land is a suitable option. This will also reduce the
incidence of infection from parasites encountered while the animals graze.
- 113 -
The intensity and timing of grazing as well as the cutting of the grass will influence the
varieties of plants growing in the pasture. If certain weeds are a problem, the organic farmer
will have to change his management practises, as herbicides cannot be used.
Box ?: Integrated fodder cultivation, an example from Kerala - India

Innovative farmers in Kerala (South India)
started integrating fodder cultivation into their
coffee and pepper plantations for the feeding of
their dairy cattle. Since rice straw has become
scarcer in the area as paddy cultivation is
decreasing, they now feed also grass, legumes
and twigs from trees and hedges to their cows.
Grass is planted on field borders or in between
crops, wherever there is sufficient light. Farmers
found Congo and Napier grass the most suitable
for their purpose and for the conditions. Trees
such as jackfruit and leguminous shrubs such as
Gliricidia serve both as shade or support trees
and provide protein rich fodder in times of
scarcity of grass. Some farmers also use
leguminous green manures in new tree
plantations or intercropped into the annual
crops. Others found it remunerative to specialise
on animal husbandry and started growing grass
and leguminous fodder plants on separate sites.
13.6 Animal Health and Breeding

Factors influencing animal health
Disease causing germs and parasites are present almost everywhere. Like humans, animals
have an immune system, which is usually able to cope with these germs. And as with humans,
the efficiency of the immune system will be disturbed if animals are not properly fed, can not
practise their natural behaviour, or are under social stress.
Health is a balance between disease pressure (the presence of germs and parasites) and the
resistance (immune system and self healing forces) of the animal. The farmer can influence
both sides of this balance: reduce the quantity of germs by maintaining good hygiene, and
strengthen the animal's ability to cope with germs.
Organic animal husbandry puts its focus on improving the living conditions of animals and
on strengthening their immune systems. Of course: if an animal gets sick it must be treated.
But the farmer should also think about why the immune system of the animal was not able to
fight the disease or the parasite attack. And the farmer should think of ways to improve the
animals living conditions and hygiene in order to strengthen it.
Prevention before curing

Similar as in crop health, organic animal husbandry puts the main emphasis on preventive
measures in order to keep animals healthy, rather than on curative methods. This starts from
keeping robust breeds rather than high performing but very susceptible ones. Next, the
conditions in which the animals are kept should be optimal ones: sufficient space, light and
air, dry and clean bedding, frequent exercise (e.g. grazing) and proper hygiene etc. With
regards to grazing, rotational grazing should be practised as much as possible. This means that
- 114 -
the land for grazing is divided in sections and the animals are moved from section to section
on regular intervals. Not all parasites are removed in this way but they are kept at a low level
(which is not a disadvantage since it will expose the animals to a light infection pressure,
enabling them to build up resistance). Most of them are destroyed, when grazing is
interrupted for 1.5 - 2 months, which is about the time it takes for the grass to recover also.
The quality and quantity of fodder is of crucial importance for the health of the animal.
Instead of feeding commercial concentrates which make animals grow faster and produce
more, a natural diet appropriate to the requirements of the animal should be achieved.
Where all these preventive measures are taken, animals will rarely fall sick. Veterinary
treatment thus should play only a secondary role in organic farming. If treatment is necessary,
alternative medicine based on herbal and traditional remedies should be used. Only if these
treatments fail or are not sufficient, synthetic medicines (e.g. antibiotics) may be used. See
Figure CC.
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Figure BB - Prevention before curing (the four steps in organic animal health care
Veterinary Treatment
The main principal for veterinary treatment in organic animal husbandry is to get to know the
causes of (or factors that favour) diseases in order to enhance the natural defence
mechanisms of the animal (and to prevent its manifestations in the future, see above)
Unlike in crop production, organic animal production allows synthetic means to cure sick
animals if alternative treatment is not sufficient. Here, reducing the suffering of the animal is
given priority over the rejection of chemicals. However, the organic standards clearly demand
that priority is given to management practices, which encourage the resistance of the animals
thus preventing the outbreak of a disease.
Therefore, an outbreak of a disease shall be considered as an indicator that the conditions

under which the animal is kept are not ideal. The farmer should try to identify the cause (or
causes) of the disease and prevent future outbreaks by changing management practises.
- 115 -
If conventional veterinary medication is applied, withholding periods must be adhered to
before the animal products can be sold as "organic". This shall ensure that organic animal
products are free from residues of antibiotics etc. Synthetic growth promoters are not allowed
in any case.
Controlling parasites with herbal remedies

Herbal medicines are widely used in many countries. Some traditional farming communities
have a vast knowledge of local plants and their healing properties. Plants can definitely
support the healing process, even if they do not eliminate the germ of the disease directly.
Still, farmers should not forget to identify the cause of the disease and also to re-think their
management practises. For parasite problems, changing the living conditions or the
management of pastures will be more effective in the long run than any treatment.
Example 1: Using Sweet Flag against parasites

One example to use a herbal remedy against parasites is sweet flag (Acorus calamus) (Thñy
x-¬ng bå). This plant grows both in tropical as well as subtropical regions and is found on
the banks of rivers and lakes and in swampy ditches or marshes. The powdered dried
rhizomes (thick root parts) act as an effective insecticide against fowl lice, fleas and houseflies.
Treating chicken infested by lice: Use around 15g of powdered rhizome for an adult bird. For
dusting the bird with the powder, hold it by its feet upside down so that the feathers open
and the dust will work its way to the skin. The treatment is reported as being safe to the birds.
The sweet flag powder is also reported to be effective against houseflies when dusted on fresh
cow dung infested by fly maggots. It further can protect newborn calves of vermin infection
if washed with a water infusion.
Example 2: Using plant extracts against nematode parasites

In Vietnam, initial laboratory studies on the use of plant extractsa against nematodal parasites
of buffaloes, cows and goats indicated that local Vietnamese plants such as Caliandra spp.,
Leucaena glauca and Acacia farnesiana inhibited more than 80% of the parasites. These plant
extracts performed nearly as good as Levamisole (a commonly used antihelmintic 3 antibiotic)
which was used as the control.
 Attention! Herbal remedies against parasites can also have a toxic effect on the farm
animals! Therefore it is important to know the appropriate dose and application method!
Homeopathic Treatment
The concept of homeopathy was developed in the 18th century for treatment of humans. In
recent times, some veterinary doctors use this alternative medicine for treating sick animals.
Homeopathy is based on highly diluted substances, which would cause similar symptoms as
the disease if given in high concentrations. Homeopathic treatment aims at stimulating the
self-healing forces and the immune system of an organism. A specific dilution process
transfers the "information" of the substance to the next dilution level. Usually, the remedies
itself do not contain detectable amounts of the original material anymore.
As with treating humans, a large amount of experience is crucial for properly using
homeopathy for veterinary treatment.
- 116 -
13.7 Breeding in organic animal husbandry
As preventive measures for maintaining good animal health are of high relevance in organic
farming, the selection of breeds suitable to local conditions and to organic feeding is of
crucial importance. This requires that suitable breeds are available . Traditional breeds of farm
animals may be a good starting point for organic animal breeding. Animals can be improved
by selection of individuals especially suitable for organic conditions. They can be crossbred
with suitable new breeds, thus achieving an animal with the positive aspects of traditional
breeds and the satisfying production of the new breeds.
For breeding, organic farming uses natural reproduction techniques. While artificial
insemination is allowed, embryo transfer, genetic manipulation, and hormonal
synchronisation are not permitted according to IFOAM standards.
Breeding Goals
Over the last decades, traditional breeds have been replaced by high performing ones in many
regions. Similar to high yielding plant varieties, these new breeds usually depend on a rich diet
(concentrates) and optimal living conditions. As high performing breeds in general are more
susceptible to diseases than traditional varieties, they need frequent veterinary interventions.
Thus, these new breeds might not be the right choice for small farmers, as the costs of food
concentrates and veterinary treatment are too high compared with what can be earned by
selling the products.
In addition, for organic farmers the main animal product (e.g. milk) is not the only reason to
keep animals (see section 13.1). Breeding activities therefore should try to optimise the overall
performance of the animal, taking into consideration the different goals of an organic farmer.
The «ideal» organic poultry breed

 Feeding on kitchen wastes and farm by-
products
 Satisfying egg production
 Useful as meat
 Good health, good resistance against
diseases
The «ideal» organic cattle breed

 Utilising roughage and farm by-
products
 Satisfying milk production
 High fertility
 Good resistance against diseases
 Long life with continuous production
- 117 -
For example a poultry breed suitable for organic smallholder farms might not be the one with
the highest egg production, but one in which meat production is good, and kitchen wastes
and whatever is found on the farm yard can be used as feed. Suitable cattle breeds would
produce sufficient milk and meat while feeding mainly on roughage and farm by-products
(e.g. straw), be of high fertility and good resistance against diseases, if required, they can also
be used for draught and transport. See also Figure CC.
Maximum performance or life production?

When comparing the production of different breeds of cows, usually, only the production per
day or year is taken into consideration. However, high performing breeds usually have a
shorter life span than traditional ones with lower production. The life milk production of a
cow giving, for example, 8 litres per day, but over 10 years, therefore would be greater than
the one of a high-breed cow yielding 16 litres per day, but dies after 4 years. As the
investments to get a milk producing cow are quite high, i.e. the rearing and feeding of a calf or
the purchase of an adult cow, continuous production over a long life span should be of high
interest to the farmer. This should be reflected in the breeding goals, which so far mainly
focus on the maximum short-term production.
- 118 -
14. Farm Economy
14.1 The Economic Performance of Organic Farms

From the previous parts it has become obvious that organic farming is much more than just
abandoning chemicals and that the reasons for organic farming are manifold, such as
sustainable use of nature, healthier food production or reduced energy consumption. Yet, in
order for organic production to be a feasible option for farmers, not only their motivation is
important, but also economic aspects. Only if the farm production allows to full fill the
subsistence and income needs of the farmers, they are able to make a living from organic
farming.
Several factors influence the economic condition of a farm. Changes in expenses and income
need to be analysed. As the factors vary from farm to farm and from country to country, it is
necessary to analyze the economic potential of the farm in order to reduce risks and avoid
disappointments. In general, the more changes and adoptions are needed on a farm, the
higher is the economical risk of conversion.
14.2 Is Organic Farming Economically Viable?

Costs versus returns
The economic performance of a farm can be measured by the profit, which remains for the
farmer as his income. This profit depends on production conditions and marketing
possibilities, and it is the difference between costs and returns. Production conditions and
marketing possibilities vary from country to country, and even from farm to farm. Fixed costs
(which do not directly depend on the size of the production) are costs for buying or renting
land, buildings or machinery; they can also be the salaries of permanently employed labourers.
Wages for labour hired for specific tasks (e.g. harvesting) depend on the production size and
are therefore variable costs, as costs for inputs are (e.g. seeds, manure, pesticides). A farm will
only be economically valid if the returns exceed the total variable costs and the depreciation
of the fixed costs. The main returns are the money earned by selling the products in the
market. In a few countries, government provides direct subsidies to farmers. But in order to
understand a farm family's benefit from the farm activities, the savings on food expenses and
the income possibly earned from outside the farm (e.g. as hired labour or from other business
activities) must be taken into consideration, too.
Lower or Higher Costs?

Will production costs go up or down when changing to organic farming? The factors
influencing the costs during and after a conversion are diverse and depend on the type of
farm (‘traditional’ or 'intensive'), the kind of production (which are the main crops? is the
animal husbandry included?) and the environmental and socio-economic conditions. A
generalization is therefore questionable. In typical cases of tropical smallholder farms, input
costs initially go up because farmers have to purchase organic manures to build up soil
organic matter, and besides labour costs for distributing the organic manure, for weeding and
for adapting the farming system may increase. At the end of the conversion period, once
good soil fertility has been achieved and the farm system has reached a certain balance,
production costs usually go down to the pre-conversion level or even below, provided the
costs for agro-chemicals were high and the farm manages to rely mostly on its own resources.
- 119 -
Lower or higher returns?
In temperate zones, where conventional agriculture manages to produce very high yields,
conversion to organic farming usually results in lower yields (10 to 50 % lower), depending on
the crops and farming system. Many farmers in tropical smallholder farms, however, reported
that their yields returned to the previous level after the conversion process was complete, and
some even achieved higher yields than with conventional agriculture. This may be possible in
certain conditions, especially where the soil fertility was very low due to lack of soil organic
matter and where, as a result, conventional farming achieved only low yields. It is dangerous,
however, if false expectations are raised among farmers. Hence the situation must be assessed
individually in each region and on each farm. To be on the safe side, farmers interested in
converting to organic agriculture should expect a drop in yields in the initial years and a
certain recovery after some three to five years. It seems that this recovery of yields can be
higher the more humid the climate is and the more the soil fertility depends on its organic
matter content.
Returns depend not only on the yield quantities, but also on the price achieved in the market.
If the quality of the product decreases after conversion to organic farming because of more
damages due to pests or diseases,, it may be difficult to sell the harvest at the same rate as
before. Many farmers, however, hope to get a premium price for their organic products once
the farm is certified. Whether this is realistic will depend on the market situation and on
whether the farmer manages to access premium price markets. To be on the safe side, farmers
should not depend too much on the expected premium price when converting their farms.
Positive economic results can also be achieved e.g. when selling the same amount of yields at
the same rate, but produced with less costs.
14.3 Reducing Expenses

Income of a farmer is the difference between cost of production and returns. Consequently,
the income can not only be improved by achieving higher yields, but also by reducing the cost
of production. Some ways to reduce expenses are given below.
Optimizing Recycling
An effective way to reduce expenses on manure inputs is to recycle a maximum of material
on the farm. For example kitchen waste, together with organic materials from the fields can
be turned into compost. Pruning from trees and hedges can be used as firewood and their
twigs and leaves as mulching material. Most important for an efficient recycling of nutrients is
the management of the farmyard manure (see chapter 4.3). Whatever nutrients the farmer
manages to recycle does not have to be purchased from outside.
Minimizing External Inputs

Organic farming is supposed to be a kind of low external input agriculture. However, some
organic farms are heavily depending on purchased organic manures, commercial organic
pesticides and other inputs. Besides a better recycling of nutrients (see above), there are some
more ways to reduce expenses:
 Use local plants to prepare your own botanical pesticides
 Produce your own crop seeds and seedlings
 Look out for locally available sources of manures, e.g. waste from agricultural processing
plants
 Grow your own food, e.g. vegetables, staple food, fruits, cereals
 Keep animals to produce your own manure, milk, eggs, meat etc.
- 120 -
 Produce fodder from your own farm instead of buying (organic) fodder from outside
 Share equipments and machines with your neighbours and get them assembled locally
instead of buying or importing
 Use locally available materials for constructions (e.g. compost pits, sheds, tools etc.)
 Join with other farmers to form saving groups in order not to rely on loans with high
interests
Reducing the work load

Even if labour compared to input costs may be cheap in many tropical countries, farmers will
in the long run invest their own or hired labour only if there is sufficient benefit from its
results. There are many ways to reduce the amount of work in the farm. Preventive measures
of organic pest and disease management, for example, help to reduce future work. Reduced
soil cultivation through the use of mulch, partial weed tolerance or the clever arrangement of
shed systems in animal husbandry are other frequently practised methods. Certain activities
however should not be neglected even if they pay off only after a certain period of time, as it
is the case with measures to build up soil organic matter contents.
14.4 Ways to increase the returns

As discussed above, a positive balance between costs and returns is the base for an
economically sound way of doing organic farming. The returns are the product of the total
outputs and their price achieved in the market. To increase the returns therefore, the
following approaches can be used:
Increasing the production

Total farm productivity can be improved by using more suitable varieties of crops which give
good yield in local conditions. Crop yield can sometimes be increased though better nutrient
management and more efficient pest and disease management.
Additional crops can be integrated in the cropping system through mixed cropping or crop
rotation, thus using the available space more efficiently (see chapter 4.2). Another option is to
integrate animal husbandry in the farm for getting additional products (see chapter 6.1).
Value addition on the farm

In order to increase the market value of the farm products, farmers can:
 Choose products, which are of high market value (e.g. medicinal plants, spices, etc.)
 Achieve a better quality for the products, e.g. by improved handling,
 Engage in simple on-farm processing like threshing, milling, fermenting, grading, cleaning
etc.
 Produce processed goods, e.g. jams, dried fruits, pickles etc.
 Produce dairy products (cream, butter, cheese, yoghurt, curd etc.)
 Store products, as off-season prices are sometimes considerably higher for certain crops
Accessing better markets

The income depends on the quantity of yield and on the prices of the products paid in the
market. In some countries, farmers get exploited by middle men who pay low but sell at a
high price. If this is the case, direct marketing of products can be an option.
Many farmers expect to get a premium price for their organic products, as they are of better
quality (less pesticide residues, better taste etc.). In many countries, however, the market for
organic products with premium prices is still very small. Wholesalers may offer sales
- 121 -
guarantee in return for a regular supply of certain items. As a single farmer may not be able to
provide a sufficiently big quantity to the wholesaler, forming producers association can be
advantageous.
Export markets are promising due to the sometimes high premium price paid for organic
quality. However, it is very difficult to meet the requirements of these markets, and usually
only groups of farmers linked with professional traders are capable of surpassing the hurdles.
Successful marketing requires specific know-how, which cannot be dealt with in this manual
due to limited space.
Diversity to reduce the economic risk

The income of many farmers depends directly on the sale of the harvest of one or two crops.
If prices for these commodities drop, these farmers inevitably face tremendous problems.
Even with stable prices, large losses can occur when yields suddenly drop, e.g. due to pest or
disease incidence which could not be sufficiently controlled.
Diverse farms with a range of crops will suffer less from price fluctuations or yield reductions
of single crops. Crop diversity therefore is not only helpful for establishing a balanced
ecosystem and avoiding the spread of pests and diseases. It also helps the farmers to avoid
taking a high economic risk.
- 122 -
15. Conversion to Organic Farming
15.1 Introduction
The conversion from a conventionally managed farm to organic farming should not only
improve the farm ecosystem, but also assure the economic survival of the farm. Therefore,
the adjustments, which are required on the farms for a conversion and the related chances
and risks have to be analysed carefully.
Conversion to organic farming needs a new way of thinking, too. The whole farm family
should get ready for the conversion in many aspects, too. The first and probably the most
important conversion has to take place in the mind of the farmer
15.2 The conversion process

Regulations concerning the conversion process
Regulations concerning the conversion period vary. Below, the conditions for the IFOAM
Basic Standards and EU Regulation for producers are listed. IFOAM Basic Standards are not
laws for implementation, but rather guidelines for the establishment of such laws, while the
EU Regulation is an international law. National Regulations may, however, be still diferent,
therefore it is necessary to consult them in advance.
According to IFOAM Basic Standards the totality of crop production and animal husbandry
shall be converted to organic management. Step by step conversion is possible as long as the
different production units are clearly distinct and organic products cannot get mingled with
conventional ones. Products can be certified after the farm has finished a conversion period,
during which all the relevant standard requirements must have been met from the beginning.
For certification of annual crops, the standards ought to be met at least for twelve months
prior to the start of the production cycle, i.e. before planting or sowing the crop. For
perennial plants at least eighteen months of fully organic management are required before the
first harvest.
The start of the conversion period is usually calculated from the date of application to the
certification body, when farmers commit themselves in following the standards. However, a
full conversion period is not required where de facto full standards requirements have been
met for several years and where this can be verified through numerous means and sources.
Still inspection needs to be carried out prior to the first harvest. During the conversion
period, products can be labeled as "produce of organic agriculture in the process of
conversion" or the like, provided standard requirements have been met for at least 12
months.
Requirements for the conversion process vary considerably from standard to standard. The
EU regulation, for example, demands a conversion period of 2 years for annual plants and
three years for perennials. In some private standards, partial farm conversion or step by step
conversion are not allowed.
- 123 -
Social, technical and economical adaptations
The changes in the conversion period concern social, technical and economical aspects. Each
sector poses its own challenges to the farming family.
Socially: Organic farming is more than an innovative technology but involves a holistic way of
thinking. Therefore, farmers should compare their personal values with the principles of
organic farming. The more they match, the easier it will be to follow organic farming, as the
motivation needs to come from inside rather than from mere economic considerations. For
many farmers, it is also important how relatives, neighbours and friends perceive organic
farming, because not everybody has the strength to oppose his/her social environment.
Production techniques: New farming methods need to be introduced and applied. These
concern soil management, nutrient management, weed management, pest and disease control,
animal husbandry, fodder cultivation etc. In order to be successful, the necessary know-how
has to be acquired. The farmer will need to exchange information with experienced organic
farmers, attend trainings, test methods and observe their effect, read publications etc.
Economically: For some adaptations on the farm level, new materials are needed and
therefore it requires some investments. Some adaptations involve also an increase on the
work load or labour requirement. As the quantity of the production may decrease at least in
the first years of convertion, farmers need to find ways to overcome the constraints. New
marketing channels may be explored in order to receive a premium price for the products,
which again needs a very different kind of know-how.
Favourable conditions for a conversion include:

 Motivation for a sustainable farm management
 Readiness to try new things
 Interest in continuous learning
 Harmony among the generations about the orientation on the farm
 Solid knowledge on organic farming methods
 Ability to secure livelihood if the income drops in the conversion period
 Farm system is appropriate to the location site of the farm
15.3 Ready for conversion?

Before taking a decision on whether to convert the farm to organic management, farmers
should get a clear understanding on what would organic management mean to their farm.
Training courses, suitable print materials and professional advice are possible sources of
knowledge. It is important that all persons involved in the farm, usually the farmer's family,
are involved in the decision making process. In the next step, the situation of the farm should
be analysed carefully, considering the requirements of organic farming. Thus, the necessary
adaptations can be identified. Support from field advisors or experienced organic farmers can
be of great help in this analysis. To get familiar with the methods of organic farming and to
see whether they would work in the prevailing conditions, some methods can be tested in
small scale. Based on the results of the discussions, analysis and experience, the farmer and
his/her family are in a better position to take a decision on whether to go organic or not.
Defining the aims of the farm

Do all family members have the same idea about conversion to organic farming? What are
their individual expectations, what are their aims? The farming family needs to sit together
- 124 -
and define what they wish to achieve through a conversion to organic farming. This is a
crucial process, as it has consequences on all the following steps in the conversion process.
Besides the income, other factors like the availability of food for own consumption (cereals,
tubers, fruits, vegetables, milk, eggs, meat etc.), the amount of fire wood produced in the
farm, the work load for the each family member (gender aspects!) etc. need to be taken into
consideration. At the same time, it should be analyzed whether all the aims are realistic.
An important question when defining the aims of a farm is whether the products shall be sold
at a premium price or not. If the farmer wants to use an organic claim or label when selling
the products, certification becomes an important issue (see chapter 2.3).
Farm analysis
In order to improve the conversion process and to overcome the possible obstacles, the
present situation of the farm should be analysed carefully. Some aspects of the present farm
may be favourable for a conversion while others can be obstacles for which solutions must be
identified.
The following aspects should be analysed:

 The farming family, their capacity to try new things, the know-how and motivation
 Size and quality of the land holding, the climatic and environmental conditions
 Soil type, fertility and structure, water availability, and present management
 Present cropping system, crops suitable to the conditions, dependency on single crops
 Nutrient supply with own manures from the farm and fertilizers brought from outside
 Present pest, disease and weed management, and the pressure of infestations
 Number and kind of farm animals, significance of farm yard manure, fodder cultivation
 Mechanization (tools, machines), constructions (sheds, pits, terraces etc.)
 Marketing of products, subsistence
 Availability of labour, overall work load, peak seasons
 Economical situation of the farm, its sources of income, depths, access to loans
Testing organic farming methods

The closer the present farming system is to organic farming principles, the easier the
conversion will be. Before taking a decision on converting to organic farming full-scale,
farmers may make some trials with organic methods in their farm. If new methods are
applied, it is always advisable to try them first on a small scale, as this allows the farmers to
check their suitability to local conditions and it avoids big losses in case of failure.
In plant production the following methods could be tested on single plots:

 Integrating a new crop in rotation or as a mixed crop
 The effect of commercial organic manures
 Use of a leguminous cover crop in perennial cultivations
 Use of natural pesticides to control pests and diseases
In animal husbandry, experience could be gained by:

 Increasing the outdoor and pasture access of the animals
 Growing a fodder crop to replace feed concentrates
 Trying herbal remedies for veterinary treatment
- 125 -
15.4 Conversion Planning
The conversion plan
A good plan is half the success! Once a decision is taken to go for organic farming, the
implementation of the necessary adaptations identified in the farm analysis needs to be
planned. The conversion plan should prevent the transition period from being too tough: it
should prevent major problems, minimize the risks, avoid bad investments and, last but not
least, encourage the concerned persons for their endeavour. Generally, one should be aware
that the higher the investments and the more adaptations needed on a farm, the higher is the
risk and therefore the more important is a good plan.
The first step of a conversion plan is to analyse carefully the necessary adaptations in the farm
based on the current situation, the farm aims and the requirements of an organic system. As
an 'ideal' system cannot be established at once, single steps to achieve the necessary
adaptations are defined, if possible with a schedule. Remember that for obtaining organic
certification, the conversion period officially starts only after all minimum requirements of the
standards are met (see chapter 7.2.1).
- 126 -
Annex 1
COMMON SPECIES NAMES RECOMMENDED APPLICATION
Butterfly pea Clitoria ternatea As green manure/ cover crop to suppress
Blue pea, wing-leafed weeds,add fertility and control erosion
clitoria
Centro Centrosema As green manure/cover crop to suppress
pubescens weeds, add fertility and control erosion
Cluster bean Cyamopsis As green manure/cover crop to suppress
Guar, Siam bean tetragonoloba weeds, add fertility and control erosion in
rotation with crops
Common bean Phaseolus vulgaris Grown as a green manure/cover crop, to
Kidney bean, French suppress weeds, add fertility and control
bean erosion. Can be interplanted with other crops
Cowpea Vigna unguiculata, As green manure to suppress weeds, add
§Ëu ®en Unguiculata spp. fertility and control erosion
Egyptian clover Trifolium As a green manure/cover crop, to suppress
Berseem clover alexandrinum weeds, add fertility and control erosion. For
intensive or long fallows can be cut to 3 to
5cm height and allowed to regrow
Fava bean Vicia faba As green manure to add fertility and control
Broad bean erosion, in rotation with main crop
Grasspea Lathyrus sativus As green manure/cover crop to suppress
Chickling vetch, Khesari weeds, add fertility and control erosion in
rotation with crops
Greenleaf desmodium Desmodium As green manure/cover crop to suppress
Ba chÏ (?) intortum weeds, add fertility and control erosion in
rotation with crops
Hairy vetch, Vicia villosa As green manure/cover crop to suppress
Winter vetch weeds, add fertility and control erosion
Jackbean Canavalia As intercrop with coffee, sugarcane, etc.. As
§Ëu kiÕm ensiformis green manure/cover crop to suppress weeds,
add fertility and control erosion
Lablab bean Lablab purpureus As green manure/cover crop to suppress
§Ëu v¸n weeds, add fertility and control erosion.
Good green manure for the dry season
Lima bean Phaseolus lunatus As green manure to add fertility and control
Sieva bean, Butter bean erosion in rotation with crops
Mung bean Vigna radiata Grown as a green manure/cover crop, to
Green gram, Golden suppress weeds, add fertility and control
gram erosion. In rotation with rice or intercropped
with rice or other crops
Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan Used in perennial alley cropping system,
§Ëu triÒu foliage cut at 0.8m height for use as green
manure or pea, mulch at beginning of
growing season or used as cover crop to
suppress weeds, add fertility and control
erosion
Rice bean Vigna umbellata As green manure/cover crop to suppress
- 127 -
§Ëu nho nhe weeds, add fertility and control erosion,
commonly used in rotation with rice
Soybean Glycine max As green manure to add fertility and control
Soya erosion, in rotation with main crop. Can be
sown with main crop to mature after main
crop for bean harvest
Stylo Stylosanthes As green manure/cover crop to suppress
§Ëu Stylo guianensis weeds, add fertility and control erosion
Sunnhemp Crotalaria juncea Grown as a green manure in rotation with
Sóc s¾c other crops to suppress weeds, add fertility
and control erosion
Velvet bean Mucuna pruriens As green manure/cover crop to suppress
§Ëu mÌo weeds, add fertility and control erosion.
Often used to protect the soil through the
wet monsoon season
White sweetclover Melilotus alba As green manure/cover crop to suppress
Hubam, White melilot weeds, add fertility and control erosion.
Useful if seeded along with a grain crop to
allow time to establish while crop matures,
also good for improved fallow
White tephrosia Tephrosia candida Used as cover crop in plantations to suppress
Cèt khÝ weeds, add fertility and control erosion.
Intercropped and used as contour hedging
with tobacco, rubber and cinnamon for
mulching
Winged bean Psophocarpus Grown as a green manure to suppress weeds,
§Ëu rång tetragonolobus add fertility and control erosion
- 128 -
Annex 2
Nutrient content of farm residues and animal manure
Average elemental NPK composition of some crop residues,
green and animal manure as compost materials
% OVEN DRY BASIS

Material C/N N P K
Rice straw 105 0.58 0.10 1.38
Wheat straw 105 0.49 1.11 1.06
Corn stover 55 0.59 0.31 1.31
Soybean stover 32 1.3 - -
Cotton stalk & leaf - 0.88 0.15 1.45
Peanut straw 19 0.59 - -
Peanut hull - 1.75 0.20 1.24
Cowpea stem - 1.07 1.14 2.54
Sugarcane trash 116 0.35 0.04 0.50
Cabbage 12 3.6 - -
Tobacco 13 3.0 - -
Green Manure
Sesbania aculeata - 2.18 - -
Sesbania speciosa 18 2.51 - -
Vigna sinensis (Cowpea) - 3.09 - -
Melitotus indica - 3.36 0.22 1.27
Pisum sativum (pea) - 1.97 - -
Acacia ferruginea leaf - 2.96 0.13 0.88
Acacia arabica leaf - 2.61 0.17 1.20
Desmodium trifolium - 2.93 0.14 1.30
Calopogonium mucunoides - 3.02 - -
Water hyacinth 18 2.04 0.37 3.40
Azolla - 3.68 0.20 0.15
Algae - 2.47 0.12 0.37
Animal Manure
Cattle 19 1.50 1.00 0.94
Sheep 29 2.02 1.75 1.94
Horse 24 1.59 1.65 0.65
Pig 13 2.81 1.61 1.52
Chicken - 4.00 1.98 2.32
Duck - 2.15 1.13 1.15
Human 8 7.24 1.72 2.41
- 129 -

Guide Organic Agriculture Tropics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Guide Organic Agriculture Tropics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Guide Organic Agriculture Tropics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ORGANIC FARMING

with particular reference to

Resource Guide for Farmer-Trainers

(Not for official publication)

2. The Living Soil 9

3. Soil and Water Management 21

4. Farm Nutrient Balance 29

5. Plant Nutrition - Keeping the Balance 37

7. Pest and Disease Management 59

8. Crop Rotation: Putting it All Together Error! Bookmark not defined.

10. Litchi Production 85

11. Citrus Production 93

12. Tea Production Error! Bookmark not defined.

13. Organic Animal Production Error! Bookmark not defined.

14. Farm Economy 119

15. Conversion to Organic Farming 123

1.1. A Brief History of Organic Farming

1.2. Organic Farming in Vietnam

1.3. Why Organic Agriculture?

The "Green Revolution" – was it Green?

Success and shortcomings of the Green Revolution

1.4. Organic Agriculture - A Holistic Approach

Nutrient cycles in forests

Recycling nutrients in organic farms

Soil fertility in forests

Soil protection in organic farms

Crop diversity in organic farms

Bio-control in organic farms

On the farm: Social aspects:

 Maintaining and increasing genetic from farming activities

natural surroundings, including the farming to organic production methods

 Utilising closed nutrient cycles and

1.5. Principles of Organic Agriculture

Enriching the agricultural ecology

Working with natural cycles and mechanisms

Control and Prevention of Contamination

1.6. Benefits of Organic Agriculture

1.7. Is Traditional Farming Organic?

1.8. "Safe" Agricultural Production

2.1 Living Soil - A Necessity

This breakdown of organic matter is the pivot point

Some larger soil organisms Some soil micro-organisms

Soil Organisms: adversaries or friends?

2.4 Earthworms = Biological Activity

Earthworms need food

Don't disturb earthworms at work!

2.5 Mycorrhiza – A Beneficial Fungus

2.6 A Good Environment for Soil Organisms

A good "working environment" requires optimal:

Good soil structure

Activities that improve soil structure:

Activities that harm the soil

The formation of soil organic matter

Figure 5 - The importance of organic matter

Visible parts of organic matter

Many beneficial soil organisms Soil organic matter provides a

Organic matter retains and releases nutrients

Humus in clay soils

Humus in sandy soils